Classification of fungi
Done by
Mohamed solyman
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Although light is not required for the growth of fungi, some light is essential for
sporulation in many species. Light also plays a part in spore dispersal, the spore bearing
organs being positively phototrophic and discharging their spores towards the light.
2. Somatic Structures
• The vegetative structure of fungi not differentiated into shoot and root is referred to as
thallus. It consists of microscopic tubular filaments called hyphae (sing: hypha), Mass
of hyphae constituting the thallus is called mycelium (plural: mycelia).
• The hyphae are branched (rarely unbranched), and the branches ramify on or inside the
substratum to form a three dimensional network. Cytoplasmic streaming in fungal
hyphae is unidirectional towards the tip, where growth takes place.
• The hyphae may be septate or unseptate (Fig. 1). The unseptate hyphae have nuclei
scattered in the cytoplasm. This is known as coenocytic condition. Depending on the
species, the protoplasm may be continuous throughout or it may be interrupted at
irregular intervals by partitions or crosswalls, which divide the hypha into cells.
• The crosswalls are called septa (sing: septum; septum meaning hedge, partition). In
septate forms, the protoplasts on each side of a septum are connected by living strands,
which pass through a central pore in the septum. Even in the aseptate hyphae septa are
formed to cut off old, empty portions of hyphae in the older region and to delimit the
sex organs in the concentration of cytoplasm and are called adventitious septa.
• Fungi have eukaryotic cell structure (Fig. 2). They have double-membrane bound cell
organelles like nucleus and mitochondria, tubular endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the
golgi bodies and the ribosomes. However, there are some differences from typical
eukaryotic cells, like the ribosomes, lying free in the cytoplasm and not attached to
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Though hypha is the characteristic unit of structure in fungi, there are fungi whose thallus
may consist of a single cell. Some fungi show dimorphism and exist in both mycelial
and unicellular forms in different environments.
• Fungi possess organized, demonstrable nuclei each with a nuclear membrane, a
nucleolus, and chromatin strands, which become organized into chromosomes during
division.
• The chemical composition of the cell wall is not the same in all fungi. In most fungi,
particularly in the higher forms the cell wall is composed chiefly of chitin. In some
forms cellulose is probably the chief constituent. Callose, a complex carbohydrate,
lignin like substances and other organic materials have also been detected in many
fungi.
• The mass of hyphae constituting the thallus of a fungus is called the mycelium. The
mycelium of some of the higher fungi forms thick strands. These strands loose their
individuality and form complex tissues,
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Many fungi, like other sexually reproducing organisms show an alternation between
haploid and diploid nuclear phases in their life cycles. The haploid phase begins with the
completion of meiosis and the diploid phase starts with the fusion of the haploid nuclei
during sexual reproduction. In many higher Asco and Basidiomycotina a third phase – the
dikaryophase, intervenes the haploid and diploid phases. The nuclei associate in pairs to
form dikaryons which divide simultaneously and the daughter pairs of nuclei form new
cells. This multiplication of the gametic nuclei after karyogamy, results in the formation of
numerous diploid nuclei.
A life cycle involving dikaryons is found only in fungi and nowhere else. Fungi display
different types of life cycles centred around the sexual reproduction. Seven basic types of
life cycles in fungi are generally recognised.
These are:
1. Asexual cycle: the entire group of “fungi imperfecti” shows this type of life cycle.
There is no alternation of haploid and diploid nuclear phases. The diploid (2n)
phase is lacking.
2. Haploid cycle: The life cycle is completely haploid (n), the diploid phase is
restricted only to the zygote nucleus. This is the most common type of life
cycle found in majority of lower fungi and Ascomycotina.
3. Hapliod cycle with restricted dikaryon: This type of life cycle is found in
higher Ascomycotina forming (n + n) ascogenous hyphae, which are
completely dependent on the haploid mycelium. This is predominantly a
haploid life cycle but it differs in the separation of plasmogamy from
karyogamy in space and time. The gametic nuclei pair to form dikaryons
which multiply by conjugate mitotic divisions in the ascogenous hyphae. The
dikaryons finally undergo karyogamy and meiosis in the ascal primordia.
4. Haploid – dikaryotic cycle: Most of the Basidiomycotina, excluding the smuts,
exhibit this type of life cycle in which the dikaryophase (n + n) is more
extensive and also independent of the haploid phase. The cycle comprises of
two roughly equivalent phases and terminates in a single diploid nuclear
generation represented by the diploid zygote nucleus.
5. Dikaryotic cycle: The complete life cycle is passed in dikaryotic phase, and both
the haploid and diploid generations are represented by single nuclear
generation. The immediate products of meiosis like the ascospores or the
basidiospores fuse to initiate the dikaryophase, which persists until karyogamy
occurs. Examples are the rusts and smuts.
6. Haploid – diploid cycle: This type of life cycle, which is characteristic of algae,
occurs only in two groups of fungi like the Blastocladiales and Endomycetales
(Ascocybe grovesii) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this type, haploid and
diploid phases are equally extensive and important.
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4. Reproduction:
Reproduction is the formation of new individuals having all the characteristics typical of
the species. Two general types of reproduction are recognized,
Asexual and Sexual
Asexual reproduction, sometimes called somatic or vegetative, does not involve the union
of nuclei, sex cells or sex organs. The union of two nuclei on the other hand characterizes
sexual reproduction.
In the formation of reproductive organs, either sexual or asexual, the entire thallus may be
converted into one or more reproductive structures, so that somatic and reproductive
phases do not occur together in the same individual. Fungi, which follow this pattern, are
called holocarpic (Greek. holos = whole + karpos = fruit). In the majority of fungi,
however, the reproductive organs arise from but a portion of the thallus, while the
remainder continues its normal somatic activities. The fungi in this category are called
eucarpic (Greek. eu = good + karpos = fruit). The holocarpic forms are, therefore less
differentiated than the eucarpic and are regarded, for the most part, as more primitive.
• Asexual reproduction:
It is the non–sexual production of specialized reproductive cells such as spores. A broader
definition, however, also includes any method of propagation of new individuals, such as
simple division of a unicellular organism into two daughter cells or of a multicellular
thallus into a number of fragments each of which grows into a new individual.
Fungi exhibit the following methods of asexual reproduction.
1. Fragmentation: A detached fragment of the hypha, in suitable conditions, gives
rise to a new individual. This happens frequently in nature.
2. Budding: Budding of vegetative cells is common in yeasts (fig. 4). A soft zone
appears on the cell wall, which bulges out, constricts and finally pinches off to
form a daughter cell.
3. Fission: This is characteristic of bacteria and occurs only in ‘fission yeasts’
Schizosaccharomyces. In fission, the cell divides in transverse plane into two
cells (by constriction and later formation of a cell wall in between).
4. Spores: Spores are the most common method of asexual reproduction in fungi.
The term spores is used for any small propagative, reproductive or survival unit
which separates from a hypha or a sporogenous cell and gives rise to a new
individual. In contrast to the vegetative mycelium, the spore is characterized by :
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The tinsel type flagella have a ‘whip’ having a broader and rigid basal portion and a
thinner, small, flexible distal region. The flagella originate from kernal like granule
called blepharoplast, lying in the cytoplasm close to the plasmamembrane. The
blepharoplast is connected to the nucleus by a strand called rhizoplast. A cross-
section of the shaft of the flagellum shows in electron microphotographs, a 9 + 2
structure (fig.6) which is a characteristic feature of a flagella of all eukaryotic
organisms. The flagellum is composed of eleven fibres, 2 central fibres covered by a
central sheath and a separate outer fibre couplets in the peripheral region. A
membrane surrounds the eleven fibres. Between the outer and central fibres is
composed of 2 sub fibres. Each of 9 outer fibres is composed of 2 sub fibres. One of
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These four types of zoospores form the basis of division of sub division
Mastigomycotina into four classes.
ii. Conidia : They are formed by transformation of pre- existing cells of the thallus and
are detached by decay of the hypha, or disarticulation of the cells.
a. Arthrospores: (sing: oidia) are formed by close septation of the distal end of the
hypha, in a basipetalous succession (proceeding from the apex to the base of the
hypha). Both exogenous and endogenous arthrospores are known (fig. 8). The
exogenous arthrospores separate by splitting of the transverse septa. In endogenous
formation of arthrospores transverse septa are laid down as in the exogenous
arthrospores and neighbouring or alternate cells develop a thin wall. The
intermediate cell lose their contents entirely and the thin lateral walls break to free
the arthrospores. Small pieces of hyphal remnants remain attached at both ends of
the arthrospores.
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The sexual cycle of different fungi may vary due to variations in timings of the
above events. In many Ascomycotina and most Basidiomycotina the plasmogamy
and karyogamy are separated in space and time. The compatible nuclei do not
undergo karyogamy immediately after plasmogamy but remain paired and called a
dikaryon.
Sex organs of fungi are called gametangia, these form the sex cells – the male and
the female gametes. The male gametangia is called the antheridium and female, the
oogonium. The motile male gamete is called antherozoid and the female gametes,
contained inside the oogonium as a differentiated nucleated mass, the egg or
oosphere. Morphologically similar gametangia and gametes are called
isogametangia and isogametes respectively.
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Plasmogamy: There are five basic modes of union of sexual elements. These modes of
sexual fusions are often referred to as methods of sexual reproduction.
1. Planogametic copulation: This involves the fusion of two naked, free gametes, one
or both of which may be motile. The motile gametes are called planogametes.
Depending on size and motility of the fusing gametes, there are three types of
planogametic copulation. (Fig. 10)
i. Isogamy: When the two fusing gametes are of the same shape and size, they are
called isogametes and their fusion isogamy.
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The meiosis in Asco and Basidiomycotina occurs in charateristic structures the asci and the
basidia. The products of meiosis are the meiospores like ascospores and basidiospores
which on germination give rise to the haploid mycelium.
Heterothallism and Homothallism:
Heterothallism is a condition in which the fungi, require another isolate for zygospore
formation. The two isolates or mating types are designated as (+) and (-) strains, as their
gametangia are morphologically similar and indistinguishable into male and female
individuals.
The opposite condition in which an individual originating from a single asexual spore, is
capable of forming zygospore independently is called Homothallism.
In heterothallism the two mating partners are derived from two genetically unlike spores,
designated as (+) and (-) spores.
Homothallic species are more common than heterothallic in all groups of fungi, except
in Basidiomycotina.
Parasexual Cycle:
An alternative method to sexual reproduction was discovered in fungi (Aspergillus
nidulans) by Pontecorvo and Roper as early as 1952. This they named as the parasexual
cycle. In this process the genetic recombination is achieved through “mitotic
crossingover” and “haploidization”. It is also called as somatic recombination.
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Classification:
Earlier fungi were placed under division Thallophyta of the sub kingdom Cryptogamia of
the kingdom Plantae. Fitzpatrick (1930) divided the thallophyta into sub-divisions
Myxothallophyta (including Myxomycetes) and Euthallophyta (which included lichens,
bacteria, algae and fungi).
Once bacteria, lichens and myxomycetes were included among fungi. Though bacteria
were promptly removed from fungi, the Myxomycetes continued their inclusion among
fungi. These are studied by mycologists by tradition and preserved along with collections
of fungi. Nonetheless, they have always been kept separated from the true bonafide fungi,
the Eumycetes. Tippo (1942) removed the division thallophyta because of its heterogenity.
In a very early attempt to classify fungi, the true fungi were divided by Saccardo (1866)
into four classes- Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes, on
the basis of presence or absence of septa and characteristics, sexually produced spores.
The Phycomycetes are also sometimes loosely called as ‘lower fungi’ and the fungi
belonging to Asco-, Basidio-, and Deuteromycetes as the ‘higher fungi’. 17
The four class classification of fungi dominated mycology for a long time. However, it
was felt that the sub class Oomycetes was an assemblage of unrelated fo
o Hypochytridiomycetes
o Oomycetes and
o Plasmodiophoromycetes.
The other sub class Zygomycetes o f the class Phycomycetes was also given class
rank. A group of Phycomycete of arthropods was also elevated to class rank.
This resulted in nine classes of fungi :
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1-Chytridiomycetes
2- Hyphochytridiomycetes
3- Oomycetes
4-Zygomycetes
5-Trichomycete
6-Ascomycetes
7-. Basidiomycetes
8- Ascomycetes
9- Deuteromycete
Alexopoulos (1962) used this nine class classification his book .the immense popularity of
which made this classification accepted . He named this devision as mycota and separated
Myxomycetes and true fungi under two sub divisions
The next important change come in 1966 when Ainsworth proposed aclassification of
fungi which have been used in the Dictionary of fungi and also followed in “The Fungi, An
Advanced Treatise Fungi are treated in this classification as a separate kingdom but those
unable to reconcile with this complete separation of fungi from plants, can continue
considering them as a sub kingdom of Plantae. Further Hawksworth et al. in 1995 used this
as the basis for classifying fungi .
The kingdom of fungi is divided into two divisions: The Myxomycota, for plasmodial
forms and Eumycota for non-plasmodial forms, which are usually mycelial The true fungi
are divided into five sub divisions viz . Mastogomycotina, Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina,
Basidiomycotina and Deuteromycotina. The outline of the classification of Ainsworth
widely accepted currently is given below.
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II
Division:Euomycota (5 sub- division)
.
A
MASTIGOMYCOTINA- (4 classes)
i. Chytridiomycetes
ii. Hyphochytridiomycetes
iii. Plasmodiophoromycetes
iv. Oomycetes
B
ZYGOMYCOTINA - (2 classes)
i. Zygomycetes
ii. Trichomycetes
C.
ASCOMYCOTINA - (6 classes) i. Hemiascomycetes
ii. Laculoascomycetes
iii. Plectomycetes
iv. Laboulbeniomycetes
v. Pyrenomycetes
vi. Discomycetes
D.
BASIDIOMYCOTINA - (3 classes)
i. Teliomycetes
ii. Hymenomycetes
iii. Gasteromycetes
E.
DEUTEROMYCOTINA - (3 classes) i. Blastomycetes
ii. Hyphomycetes
iii. Coelomycetes
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