Biochemistry, sometimes abbreviated as "BioChem", is the study of chemical processes

in living organisms. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes.

1 History
 2 Monomers and polymers

• 2.1 Carbohydrates
• 2.2 Lipids
• 2.3 Proteins
• 2.4 Nucleic acids

 3 Carbohydrates

• 3.1 Monosaccharides
• 3.2 Disaccharides
• 3.3 Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
• 3.4 Use of carbohydrates as an energy source
o 3.4.1 Glycolysis (anaerobic)
o 3.4.2 Aerobic
o 3.4.3 Gluconeogenesis

 4 Proteins
 5 Lipids
 6 Nucleic acids

Chemistry ,sometimes abbreviated as "Chem", is the science of matter and the changes
it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes
a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being
concerned with the composition, behavior, structure, and properties of matter, as well as
the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It is a physical science which studies
various substances, atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregates of matter whether in
isolation or combination, and which incorporates the concepts of energy and entropy in
relation to the spontaneity of chemical processes.

In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system (such as animal, plant, fungus,
or micro-organism). In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to
stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a
stable whole. An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, as
in humans, many trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues and organs. The term
multicellular (many-celled) describes any organism made up of more than one cell.

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures and functions of cellular components such
as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules although
increasingly processes rather than individual molecules are the main focus.
Today the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules
give rise to the processes that occur within living cells which in turn relates greatly to the
study and understanding of whole organisms.

protein

carbohydrate
 Nucleic acids can be single stranded, or double
stranded.

Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large
molecules (called polymers), which are composed of similar repeating subunits (called
monomers). Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types.For
example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of 20 or more
amino acids. Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological
molecules, like proteins, and in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively
described. Other areas of biochemistry include the genetic code (DNA, RNA), protein
synthesis, cell membrane transport, and signal transduction.

A biomolecule is a chemical compound that naturally

History
Originally, it was generally believed that life was not subject to the laws of science the
way non-life was. It was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of
life (from other, previously existing biomolecules).
1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic
compounds can be created artificially

Urea or carbamide is an organic compound with the chemical formula (NH2)2CO. The
molecule has two amine (-NH2) groups joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group.

Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by

animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals. It is
solid, colourless, and odorless (although the ammonia which it gives off in the presence
of water, including water vapor in the air, has a strong odor). It is highly soluble in water
and non-toxic. Dissolved in water it is neither acidic nor alkaline. The body uses it in
many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a
convenient source of nitrogen. Urea is also an important raw material for the chemical
industry.

urea

Organic chemistry, sometimes abbreviated as "OChem", is a subdiscipline within

chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition,
reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds,
hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. These compounds may contain any number of other
elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as phosphorus,
silicon and sulfur.

Organic compounds are structurally diverse. The range of application of organic

compounds is enormous. They form the basis of, or are important constituents of many
products (plastics, drugs, petrochemicals, food, explosives, paints, etc.) and, with very
few exceptions, they form the basis of all earthly life processes.
 organic compounds

Urea or carbamide is an organic compound with the chemical formula (NH2)2CO. The
molecule has two amine (-NH2) groups joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group.

Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by

animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals. It is
solid, colourless, and odorless (although the ammonia which it gives off in the presence
of water, including water vapor in the air, has a strong odor). It is highly soluble in water
and non-toxic. Dissolved in water it is neither acidic nor alkaline. The body uses it in
many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a
convenient source of nitrogen. Urea is also an important raw material for the chemical
industry.

An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid

chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed
below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds such as carbides, carbonates, simple
oxides of carbon and cyanides,

The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase
(today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen. Eduard Buchner contributed the first
demonstration of a complex biochemical process outside of a cell in 1896: alcoholic
fermentation in cell extracts of yeast.

Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1882, it is generally
accepted that the formal coinage of biochemistry occurred in 1903 by Carl Neuberg, a
German chemist.

Previously, this area would have been referred to as physiological chemistry.

Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the
development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, dual
polarisation interferometry, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron
microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations.

These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and
metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle).

Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic
pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free
energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy compounds ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).

he citric acid cycle — also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), the
Krebs cycle, or the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle,— is a series of enzyme-catalysed
chemical reactions, which is of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as
part of cellular respiration. In eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of
the mitochondrion. The components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were
established by seminal work from Albert Szent-Györgyi and Hans Krebs.

In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is part of a metabolic pathway involved in the
chemical conversion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water to
generate a form of usable energy.

Monomers and polymers

The four main classes of molecules in biochemistry are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids. Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology,
monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together to create large
macromolecules, which are known as polymers. When monomers are linked together to
synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis.

A biomolecule is any organic molecule that is produced by a living organism, including

large polymeric molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids as well as
small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural
products. A more general name for this class of molecules is a biogenic substance.

As organic molecules, biomolecules consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen,

and oxygen, and, to a smaller extent, phosphorus and sulfur. Other elements sometimes
are incorporated but are much less common.
A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. This
protein was the first to have its structure solved by X-ray crystallography by Max Perutz
and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew in 1958, for which they received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry.

monomers

polymers

In chemistry and the biological sciences, a dehydration reaction is usually defined as a

chemical reaction that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule. Dehydration
reactions are a subset of elimination reactions.
Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms. Cellulose, starch, chitin,
proteins, peptides, DNA and RNA are all examples of biopolymers, in which the
monomeric units, respectively, are sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides.

Cellulose is both the most common biopolymer and the most common organic compound
on Earth. About 33 percent of all plant matter is cellulose. E.G. The cellulose content of
cotton is ~ 90 percent and that of wood is ~ 50 percent.

Some biopolymers are biodegradable. That is, they are broken down into CO2 and water
by microorganisms. In addition, some of these biodegradable biopolymers are
compostable. That is, they can be put into an industrial composting process and will
break down by 90% within 6 months. Biopolymers that do this can be marked with a
'compostable' symbol, under European Standard EN 13432 (2000). Packaging marked
with this symbol can be put into industrial composting processes and will break down
within 6 months (or less). An example of a compostable polymer is PLA film under 20
μm thick: films which are thicker than that do not qualify as compostable, even though
they are biodegradable. A home composting logo may soon be established which will
enable consumers to dispose of packaging directly onto their own compost heap.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are made from monomers called monosaccharides. Some of these

monosaccharides include glucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), and deoxyribose
(C5H10O4). When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, water is
produced, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost from the two
monosaccharides' hydroxyl group.

Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar) are the most basic units of
biologically important carbohydrates. They are the simplest form of sugar and are usually
colorless, water-soluble, crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste.
Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), galactose,
xylose and ribose. Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides such as
sucrose and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).

A carbohydrate is an organic compound which has the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n; that
is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of
2:1 (as in water). Carbohydrates can be viewed as hydrates of carbon, hence their name.
Structurally however, it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones.
The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The
carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical groupings: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharides
and disaccharides, which are smaller (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are
commonly referred to as sugars.[1] The word saccharide comes from the Greek word
σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar". While the scientific nomenclature of
carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very
often end in the suffix -ose. For example, blood sugar is the monosaccharide glucose,
table sugar is the disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose (see
illustration).

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living things. Polysaccharides serve for the
storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g., cellulose
in plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important
component of coenzymes (e.g., ATP, FAD, and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic
molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides
and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the
immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.

In food science and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any
food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread
and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams and desserts).

Nutrition

Grain products: rich sources of complex and simple carbohydrates

Foods high in simple carbohydrates include fruits, sweets and soft drinks. Foods high in
complex carbohydrates include breads, pastas, beans, potatoes, bran, rice, and cereals.
The most common complex carbohydrate in these foods is starch. Carbohydrates are the
most common source of energy in living organisms. Proteins and fat are necessary
building components for body tissue and cells, and are also a source of energy for most
organisms.

Carbohydrates are not essential nutrients in humans: the body can obtain all its energy
from protein and fats. The brain and neurons generally cannot burn fat for energy, but can
use glucose or ketones; the body can also synthesize some glucose from a few of the
amino acids in protein and also from the glycerol backbone in triglycerides. Carbohydrate
contains 15.8 kilojoules (3.75 kilocalories) and proteins 16.8 kilojoules (4 kilocalories)
per gram, while fats contain 37.8 kilojoules (9 kilocalories) per gram. In the case of
protein, this is somewhat misleading as only some amino acids are usable for fuel.
Likewise, in humans, only some carbohydrates are usable for fuel, as in many
monosaccharides and some disaccharides.

For dietary purposes, carbohydrates can be classified as simple (monosaccharides and

disaccharides) or complex (oligosaccharides and polysaccharides). The term complex
carbohydrate was first used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and
Human Needs publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977), where it denoted
"fruit, vegetables and whole-grains".Dietary guidelines generally recommend that
complex carbohydrates, and such nutrient-rich simple carbohydrate sources such as fruit
(glucose or fructose) and dairy products (lactose) make up the bulk of carbohydrate
consumption. This excludes such sources of simple sugars as candy and sugary drinks.

D-glucose or dextrose or grape sugar is the dextro-isomer of glucose (C6H12O6). The

molecule is the mirror-image of L-glucose. D-glucose is a simple sugar (monosaccharide)
and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as a source of energy and a
metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts
cellular respiration. Starch and cellulose are polymers derived from the dehydration of
glucose. The name "glucose" comes from the Greek word glukus (γλυκύς), meaning
"sweet." The suffix "-ose" denotes a sugar.

Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple monosaccharide found in many foods. It is one of

the three important dietary monosaccharides along with glucose and galactose. The
organic fructose molecule was first discovered by Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847.
Fructose is a white solid that dissolves in water – it is the most water-soluble of all the
sugars. Honey, tree fruits, berries, melons, and some root vegetables contain significant
amounts of molecular fructose, usually in combination with glucose, stored in the form of
sucrose. About 240,000 tonnes of crystalline fructose are produced annually

Deoxyribose, more precisely 2-deoxyribose, is a monosaccharide with idealized formula

H-(C=O)-(CH2)-(CHOH)3-H. Its name indicates that it is a deoxy sugar, meaning that it is
derived from the sugar ribose by loss of an oxygen atom.
Sugar is a term for a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose,
and fructose characterized by a sweet flavor. In food, sugar almost exclusively refers to
sucrose, which primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet. Other sugars are used in
industrial food preparation, but are usually known by more specific names—glucose,
fructose or fruit sugar, high fructose corn syrup, etc.

Lipids

Lipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules.
In triglycerides, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three
fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be saturated (no
double bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the
carbon chain).

Chemical Structure of Triglycerides

 [Fatty Acids] The terms saturated, mono-
unsaturated ...

Phospholipids are a class of lipids and are a major component of all cell membranes as
they can form lipid bilayers. Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride, a phosphate
group, and a simple organic molecule such as choline; one exception to this rule is
sphingomyelin, which is derived from sphingosine instead of glycerol. The first
phospholipid identified as such in biological tissues was lecithin, or phosphatidylcholine,
in the egg yolk,

Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in various pharmaceutical products, either
as co-solubilisers (e.g. in parenteral infusions) or else as drug carrier components (e.g. in
a liposome or transfersome).

Parenteral is a route of administration that involves piercing the skin or mucous

membrane. Parenteral nutrition refers to providing nutrition via the veins.

Liposomes are artificially prepared vesicles made of lipid bilayer. Liposomes can be
filled with drugs, and used to deliver drugs for cancer and other diseases Liposomes can
be prepared by disrupting biological membranes, for example by sonication.

sonicator
Sonication is the act of applying sound (usually ultrasound) energy to agitate particles in
a sample, for various purposes. In the laboratory, it is usually applied using an ultrasonic
bath or an ultrasonic probe, colloquially known as a sonicator. In a paper machine, an
ultrasonic foil can distribute cellulose fibres more uniformly and strengthen the paper.

Sonication can be used to speed dissolution, by breaking intermolecular interactions. It is

especially useful when it is not possible to stir the sample, as with NMR tubes. It may
also be used to provide the energy for certain chemical reactions to proceed. Sonication
can be used to remove dissolved gases from liquids (degassing) by sonicating the liquid
while it is under a vacuum. This is an alternative to the freeze-pump-thaw and sparging
methods.

NMR tubes are thin glass tubes that are used to

hold samples used for ..

Degassing Machine.. It is a molding preparatory