Enlightenment Philosophers Research

Definitions

Nature of Man: The elementary question to be asked by all

philosophers is, "what is the nature and ultimate significance of the
universe." As things developed in philosophy, three camps emerged:
there were those who hold reality subsists only in thought -- these
are idealists; those who hold reality to subsist in only matter -- these
are materialists; and those who hold that reality subsists both in
thought and in matter -- these are dualists.
(http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Philosophy/Locke.ht
m#Human)

The Social Contract: “concept that human beings have made an

agreement with their government, whereby the government and the
people have distinct roles and responsibilities” (Saari) or “the view
that persons' moral and/or political obligations are dependent upon
a contract or agreement between them to form society” (Friend)
 I. Voltaire
Birth and Early Life
 Born François-Marie Arouet in
November 1694
 Born in a wealthy middle-class
family; father [François Arouet]
was minor treasury official;
mother was fried of abbe de
Chateauneuf
 Voltaire was taught by his
godfather, abbe de Chateaunef,
on literature and deism
[rational belief in God]
Education
 1704-1711: Voltaire studied
under the Jesuits at the Collège
Louis-le-Grand;wrote poetry
and was introduced to theatre
 Voltaire’s father disapproved
his writing and sent him to
provinces to study law for two
years from 1711-1713; Voltaire
instead devoted time to writing
essays and poetry instead of
studying and did poorly
Beginning of Writing
 His father got him a job next as
a secretary to a French
ambassador in Holland
 Voltaire fell in love with Olympe
Dunoyer; both parents
disapproved and the
relationship ended
 Voltaire spent a year out of the
country
 Returned to France in 1715
around the time of Louis’s
death
 Wrote actively, offended a
prince and was exiled in 1716
 Returned from exile 1717;
thrown in the Bastille for the
next 11 months on false
charges
 Wrote Oedipe while in prison
and began Henriade; both were
successful plays after he was
free from prison; began writing
as ‘Voltaire’
 1725: run in with a nobleman,
angered him, and was thrown
into the Bastille again; was
visited by admirers
England’s Influence
 Given options of prison or exile;
went into exile to England;
impressed by freedom of
speech, religious tolerance, and
the constitutional monarchy
 Discovered works of Isaac
Newton and John Locke who
greatly influenced his later
writings; wrote Essay Upon Epic
Poetry and Essay Upon the Civil
Wars in France in English
 1729: Voltaire returns to France
and writes works praising
England; was unintentionally
published
 Forced to leave Paris and
moved to Château de Cirey
[stayed 1736-1740]
 Married Emilie; ‘Madame du
Châtelet’; two researched
together on philosophy, history,
etc.; had three children
 1736: begins correspondence
with prince of Prussia, Frederick
 1740-1749: Voltaire moved
around and wrote; gained fame,
and charmed the Pope and
king; was admitted into the
Académie only to offend with
the papers he wrot; he was
forced to escape to Cirey again
Demise
 1751: after Emilie’s death
Voltaire accepts invitation to
move to Prussia from Frederick
 The two constantly fought and
did not get along as well as the
believed they would during
writing; left Potsdam in 1753
 Bought land outside of Geneva
and built his own theatre; left
once because theatre was
banned in Geneva
 by 1758 he had extensive land
near Geneva and spent the last
years of his life there and wrote
many great works
 Voltaire’s View on the Nature of Man
Men are born with desire to
dominate; it makes equality
difficult among people; “All
men are born with a just; “Conventional law all that,
sufficiently violent liking for
domination, wealth and
pleasure, and with much taste
for idleness; consequently, all
men want their money and the
wives or daughters of others,
to be their master, to subject
them to all their caprices, and
to do nothing, or at least to do
only very agreeable things. You
see clearly that with these fine
inclinations it is as impossible
for men to be equal as it is
impossible for two predicants
or two professors of theology
not to be jealous of each
other.”; “Does not the idea of
justice subsist always? It is
upon that idea that all laws are
founded.”
Voltaire believed that men had
a natural sense of morals, a
sense of ‘natural law’; “What is
natural law? The instinct which
makes us feel justice.”
Reason is built throughout a
lifetime; “It needs twenty
years to lead man from the
plant state in which he is
within his mother 's womb, and
the pure animal state which is
the lot of his early childhood,
to the state when the maturity
of the reason begins to appear.
It has needed thirty centuries
to learn a little about his
structure. It would need
eternity to learn something
about his soul. It takes an
instant to kill him.”
The natural law, a sense of
arbitrary customs, fashions
that pass: the essential
remains always. Show me a
country where it was
honourable to rob me of the
fruit of my toil, to break one's
promise, to lie in order to hurt,
to calumniate, to assassinate,
to poison, to be ungrateful
towards a benefactor, to beat
one's father and one's mother
when they offer you food.”
In Candide, the human nature
of wanting to live and to live
despite suffering is seen; “A
hundred times I was upon the
point of killing myself; but still I
loved life. This ridiculous foible
is perhaps one of our most
fatal characteristics; for is
there anything more absurd
than to wish to carry
continually a burden which one
can always throw down? to
detest existence and yet to
cling to one's existence? in
brief, to caress the serpent
which devours us, till he has
eaten our very heart?”
Man’s view of utopia, and
impossible world without sin is
portrayed in Candide;
“Candide asked to see the High
Court of justice, the
Parliament; but was answered
that they had none in that
country, being utter strangers
to lawsuits. He then inquired if
they had any prisons; they
replied none.”
Believe in morality that was
the same, given to men by
birth, hence believed in the
existence of God; “Morality is
everywhere the same for all
men, therefore it comes from
God; sects differ, therefore
they are the work of men.”
 Voltaire’s View on the Social Contract
 Voltaire disagrees with every
part of Rousseau’s The Social
Contract. He argues in his
writing, The Philosophical
Dictionary about his view on
the issue of equality among
men. He sees the stems of
inequality coming from
dependence, when men depend
on one another. “All men would
then be necessarily equal, if
they were without needs. It is
the poverty connected with our
species which subordinates one
man to another. It is not
inequality which is the real
misfortune, it is dependence.”
 Viewed democracy as a risk,
like monarchies were;
“Democracy seems suitable
only to a very little country, and
further it must be happily
situated. Small though it be, it
will make many mistakes,
because it will be composed of
men.”; “One questions every
day whether a republican
government is preferable to a
king's government? The dispute
ends always by agreeing that to
govern men is very difficult.”
 Believed that government
should pass judgment more
carefully, and supported idea of
‘innocent until proven guilty’;
“It is better to risk sparing a
guilty person than to condemn
an innocent one.”
 Thought the government should
be held responsible for its
actions, especially during times
of peace; believe government
had obligation to people; “A
minister of state is excusable
for the harm he does when the
helm of government has forced
his hand in a storm; but in the
calm he is guilty of all the good
he does not do.”
 Government has no right to rule
over religion; “Virtue supposes
liberty, as the carrying of a
burden supposes active force.
Under coercion there is no
virtue, and without virtue there
is no religion. Make a slave of
me, and I shall be no better for
it. Even the sovereign has no
right to use coercion to lead
men to religion, which by its
nature supposes choice and
liberty. My thought is no more
subject to authority than is
sickness or health.”
 Believed that republics would
not last for long because there
will always be power hungry
individuals that take hold of the
‘republic’, and create a
monarchy; “I imagine that one
ought to find very few republics
on the earth. Men are rarely
worthy of governing
themselves. This happiness
should belong only to little
peoples who hide themselves in
islands, or among the
mountains, like rabbits who
shun carnivorous beasts; but in
the long run they are
discovered and devoured”
 II. John Locke

Birth and Education  1682: met Damaris Cudworth;

 Born on August 29th, 1632 in philosopher; had a
Somerset England relationship, ended with his
 Both parents died early in his exile
life; father was "country  1682: exiled to Holland; threat
lawyer" to English government
 1646: went to Westminster  1689, his Letter on Toleration
school and the to Christ Church published; written in Latin
in Oxford  1684: Position at Oxford taken
 Tutored at college  1690: Essay Concerning
 Mentored by Robert Boyle from Human Understanding and Two
Oxford scientific group Treatises of Government
 Locke learned about atomism; published
was member of the English
Royal Society Return from Exile
 Became friends with Newton in  1685: Charles II died
1688  James II overthrown
 Locke worked with Oxford  1688 Locke returns to England.
scientists; admired Descartes;  1690: Two Treatises of Civil
 Studies medicine with Government published; theory
Sydenham; notable English of natural law and rights
physicians  Locke criticized Thomas
 1666: meets Lord Ashley, Earl Hobbes
of Shaftesbury, from his  1690: An Essay Concerning
studies in medicine; helped Human Understanding publish
him in business, politics and  New government offered him
domestic things job of ambassador; Locke
 Shaftesbury made Lord declined
Chancellor in 1672:  1689: became commissioner of
presentations made to benefit appeals
Locke  1696-1700: commissioner of
 Locke became secretary for trade and plantations
Lord Chancellor  1691: published works
 1675: Shaftesbury loses his regarding economic difficulties
title; spent four years in France  1693: published Some
consulting French scientists Thoughts Concerning
and philosophers Education
 1695: published The
Exile Reasonableness of Christianity
 Ideas in freedom of religion
and rights of citizens Later Years
 Studied theology in later years
 published Discourse on
Miracles, a fragment of the
Fourth Letter for Toleration,
and An Examination of Father
Malebranche's Opinion of
Seeing all things in God
John Locke’s Views
 Locke was a dualist [still
believed in a God] and an
empiricist in his thoughts
regarding human nature;
believed that all knowledge in
life came from experience: “"No
man's knowledge here can go
beyond his experience."
(Locke; An Essay Concerning
Human Understanding)
 “Experience then convinces us,
that we have an intuitive
knowledge of our own
existence, and an internal
infallible perception that we
are. In every act of sensation,
reasoning, or thinking, we are
conscious to ourselves of our
own being; and, in this matter,
come not short of the highest
degree of certainty."; “Our
knowledge in all these
enquiries reaches very little
farther than our experience.”
 Believed that the mind was
blank at birth and all knowledge
comes from experience; “Let us
suppose the mind to be, as we
say, white paper, void of all
characters.”; “"He that
attentively considers the state
of a child, at his first coming
into the world, will have little
reason to think him stored with
plenty of ideas, that are to be
the matter of his future
 lived in the country at Oates in
Essex at the home of Sir
Francis and Damaris Cudworth
[married Sir Franses]
 died at Oates in Essex on
October 28, 1704
on Nature of Man
knowledge. It is by degrees he
comes to be furnished with
them." (Locke; An Essay
Concerning Human
Understanding)
 Humans lean towards negative
behavior and crimes; “All men
are liable to error; and most
men are, in many points, by
passion or interest, under
temptation to it.” (Locke; An
Essay Concerning Human
Understanding)
 Men have tendencies to be
prejudiced against new ideas;
“New opinions are always
suspected, and usually
opposed, without any other
reason but because they are
not already common.” (Locke;
An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding)
 “A sound mind in a sound body,
is a short, but full description of
a happy state in this World: he
that has these two, has little
more to wish for; and he that
wants either of them, will be
little the better for anything
else.”—a ‘happy’ state will be
obtained when a man has a
healthy body and a knowledge-
satisfied mind; this is what
everyone man seeks in life;
(Locke, Some Thoughts
Concerning Education)
 People know what positive
qualities are, but negative
qualities in a person can vary in  Viewed religion as something
many different ways; “An
excellent man, like precious
metal, is in every way
invariable; a villain, like the
beams of a balance, is always
varying, upwards and
downwards.
 Although it’s easy to point out
errors in other men, it is
difficult to point them towards
the correct conduct; “It is one
thing to show a man that he is
John Locke’s View on the Social Contract
 “The state of Nature has a law
of Nature to govern it, which
obliges every one, and reason,
which is that law, teaches all
mankind who will but consult it,
that being all equal and
independent, no one ought to
harm another in his life, health,
liberty or possessions. The
natural liberty of man is to be
free from any superior power
on earth, and not to be under
the will or legislative authority
of man, but to have only the
law of Nature for his rule.”—
natural law gives men certain
rights from government; all
men are equal and no man
should be under total authority
of another man
 Legislators must be from the
people and must be approved
of by people; if they become
corrupt it is the right of the
people to create a new
legislature “…whenever the
legislators endeavor to take
away and destroy the property
in an error, and another to put
him in possession of the truth.”
that could potentially damage
men and cause violence; “So
that, in effect, religion, which
should most distinguish us from
beasts, and ought most
peculiarly to elevate us, as
rational creatures, above
brutes, is that wherein men
often appear most irrational
and mere senseless than beasts
themselves”
of the people, or to reduce
them to slavery under arbitrary
power, they put themselves
into a state of war with the
people…”; “Whensoever
therefore the legislative shall
transgress this fundamental
rule of society; and either by
ambition, fear, folly or
corruption, endeavor to grasp
themselves, or put into the
hands of any other, an absolute
power over the lives, liberties,
and estates of the people; by
this breach of trust they forfeit
the power the people had put
into their hands for quite
contrary ends, and it devolves
to the people, who have a right
to resume their original liberty,
and, by the establishment of a
new legislative, (such as they
shall think fit) provide for their
own safety and security, which
is the end for which they are in
society.” (Locke; Two Treatises
of Government)
 Authority figures must follow
 the law; if they do not, they
have no right to authority in law
offices; “Wherever law ends,
tyranny begins, if the law be
transgressed to another’s harm;
and whosoever in authority
exceeds the power given him
by the law, and makes use of
the force he has under his
command, to compass that
upon the subject, which the law
allows not, ceases in that to be
a magistrate; and, acting
without authority, may be
opposed as any other man, who
by force invades the right of
another.”
 Legislature cannot pass law-
giving rights to others; “The
Legislative cannot transfer the
Power of Making Laws to any
other hands. For it being but a
delegated Power from the
People, they who have it,
cannot pass it over to others.
III. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Birth and Family Life
 Born June 28, 1712, in Geneva;
mother died early death
 read French novels with his
father and became fond of
music with his aunt
 Father fled when he was ten
 Education ended at age 13; was
sent to work for a notary public
 Rousseau spent three years
serving as a watchmaker after
 Was locked out of the city by its
closed gates
 1728: arrives in Annecy, France
at the house of Louise Eleonore,
Baronne de Warens; lived there
thirteen years
 Businesswoman; she supported
The People alone can appoint
the Form of the
Commonwealth, which is by
Constituting the Legislative,
and appointing in whose hands
that shall be.”
 “Man being born, as has been
proved, with a title to perfect
freedom, and uncontrolled
enjoyment of all the rights and
privileges of the law of nature,
equally with any other man, or
number of men in the world,
hath by nature a power, not
only to preserve his property,
that is, his life, liberty, and
estate, against the injuries and
attempts of other men; but to
judge of and punish the
breaches of that law in
others...”—government must
respect the natural rights of
people; people have equal
rights to go to court with those
that have broken the law
him and found him jobs
 Rousseau pursued music and
worked as tutor
First Works
 Wrote operas 1742 and 1752:
Les Muses galantes and Le
Devin du village
 Began writing articles on music
for the Lettre sur la musique
française and the Dictionnaire
de musique
 1743-1744: served as secretary
to the French ambassador to
Venice, Italy
 found corruption in the job
 Spent years living poor lifestyle
 1745: began an affair with
Thérèse Le Vasseur; became
 mistress, housekeeper; married
in 1768
 1749: Rousseau had befriended
French philosopher Diderot
 Diderot's Lettre sur les
aveugles landed him in prison;
Vincennes, France
 Rousseau saw contest for the
best essay on the question,
"Has progress of the arts and
sciences contributed more to
the corruption or to the
purification of morals?"
 Rousseau won; Discours sur les
sciences et les arts; attacked
civilization
 essential theme in his later
work: the arts and sciences did
not increase man’s happiness;
imprisoned men further
 1753: another essay contest;
wrote Discourse on the Origin
of Inequality among Men;
Second Discourse was longer
 judges were irritated by length
and unorthodox philosophical
claims; was published
somewhere else
 1756: Rousseau left Paris to
house in the country, Mme.
D’Epinay
 Involved in affair with a woman
named Sophie d’Houdetot
Rousseau’s View on
 In society, men tend to ignore
their own nature and base their
lives on the opinions of others;
“In reality, the source of all
these differences is, that the
savage lives within himself,
while social man lives
constantly outside himself, and
only knows how to live in the
 1757: quarrelled with Mme.
D’Epinay and her other guests;
moved near the country home
of the Duke of Luxemburg at
Montmorency
Major Works
 1761: published a novel, Julie or
the New Heloise
 1762: published The Social
Contract and L'émile ou de
l'éducation
 Books condemned for views of
religion; left France for
Switzerland
 1764: began writing
autobiography, Confessions
Exiles and Death
 spent time in Berlin and Paris,
then moved to England after
trouble in Switzerland
 Quarreled with David Hume,
who invited him to England;
returned southeast of France
1767
 Rousseau returned to Paris in
1770
 Wrote Rousseau: Judge of Jean-
Jacques and the Reveries of the
Solitary Walker
 Died on July 3, 1778
the Nature of Man
opinion of others, so that he
seems to receive the
consciousness of his own
existence merely from the
judgment of others concerning
him.” (Rousseau; On the Origin
of Inequality)
 Children are born innocently;
society corrupts them through
 many factors, one of which is
meat-eating to become more
‘savage’; “The indifference of
children towards meat is one
proof that the taste for meat is
unnatural; their preference is
for vegetable foods, such as
milk, pastry, fruit, etc. Beware
of changing this natural taste
and making children flesh-
eaters, if not for their health's
sake, for the sake of their
character; for how can one
explain away the fact that great
meat-eaters are usually fiercer
and more cruel than other men;
this has been recognized at all
times and in all places.”
(Rousseau; Emile: Or, On
Education)
 Believed that men could find
truth in nature; men who lived
among other men would not
gain knowledge; “Nature never
deceives us; it is we who
deceive ourselves.”
 Vanity as a sin is natural among
men, and even those who try
cannot be rid of it; “A man who
is not a fool can rid himself of
every folly except vanity.”
 It is in human nature to destroy
beautiful things in nature;
“Everything is good when it
leaves the hands of the
Creator; everything
degenerates in the hands of
man.”
 ‘Civil society’ was created by
the idea of owning land and
fighting for it; human natures of
evil and sin began when people
began to fight for ‘property’;
“From how many crimes, wars
and murders, from how many
horrors and misfortunes might
not any one have saved
mankind, by pulling up the
stakes, or filling up the ditch,
and crying to his fellows,
"Beware of listening to this
impostor; you are undone if you
once forget that the fruits of
the earth belong to us all, and
the earth itself to nobody."”
 The first nature of man was
simply survival; “Man's first
feeling was that of his own
existence, and his first care that
of self-preservation.”
 Men, after developing ideas,
became more violent and
‘savage’ in nature. Rousseau
disagrees with other
philosophers that men are
naturally inclined towards
violence, rather, they are made
that way from being in a
community with people and
differing ideas. “This is
precisely the state reached by
most of the savage nations
known to us: and it is for want
of having made a proper
distinction in our ideas, and see
how very far they already are
from the state of nature, that so
many writers have hastily
concluded that man is naturally
cruel, and requires civil
institutions to make him more
mild; whereas nothing is more
gentle than man in his primitive
state, as he is placed by nature
at an equal distance from the
stupidity of brutes, and the
fatal ingenuity of civilized
man.”
 Rousseau’s View on
 Being the author of the Social
Contract, Rousseau’s view on
government and people is that
a true democracy can never
exist; “In the strict sense of the
term, a true democracy has
never existed, and never will
exist. It is against natural order
that the great number should
govern and that the few should
be governed.” (Rousseau, The
Social Contract)
 He proposes a type of
community in which the
members willingly give up
individual rights in order to
better serve the will of the
community, the ‘general will’;
“For the will to be general, it
does not always have to be
unanimous…”, “the general will
derives its generality less from
the number of voices than from
the common interest which
unites them.”, “The general will
is always upright and always
tends to public advantage”;
“the general will studies only
the common interest while the
will of all studies private
interest, and is indeed no more
than the sum of individual
desires.”
 Rousseau believed that if
people gave up independence
and ‘natural rights’, they would
be able to submit to the idea of
a ‘general will’ and hence
gaining a type of ‘freedom’
while still being ruled over by
laws; “it can no longer be
asked… how we can both be
free and subject to laws, since
the Social Contract
they are but registers of our
wills”; “it becomes manifestly
false to assert that individuals
make any real renunciation by
the social contract… they have
exchanged natural
independence for freedom”
 He believed that every man
should have ‘freedom’, but in
the form of the ‘general will’;
“To renounce liberty is to
renounce being a man, to
surrender the rights of
humanity and even its duties.
For he who renounces
everything no indemnity is
possible. Such a renunciation is
incompatible with man's
nature; to remove all liberty
from his will is to remove all
morality from his acts.”
 He believed in creating
‘sovereignty’ instead of a
government. The sovereignty
will carry out the ‘general will’;
“sovereignty is nothing but the
exercise of the General Will”;
“an intermediate body set up
between the subjects and the
Sovereign to secure the mutual
correspondence charged, with
the execution of the laws and
maintenance of liberty, both
civil and political”
 Did not believe in a
representative assembly, rather
having a small group of people
carry out ‘general will’; “…not
exactly whether they approve
or reject the proposal, but
whether it is in conformity with
the general will, which is their
will.”; “there is a difference
 between agreeing in a subject to the laws, must create
democratic society to abide by them; it is the associates who
the verdict of the majority, and have the right to determine the
attributing to that verdict the conditions of society ...the
whole sovereignty of the state” objects of laws are always
 The law is created for ‘general general...the law always
good’ rather than for considers the subjects of the
individuals; “Laws properly state as a collectivity and
speaking are no more than actions in the abstract, but
society’s conditions of never a man as an individual,
association. The people, being nor any particular action.”
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