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Solar Cell: Solar cells form the heart of solar powered bots, so before Learning about
solar cells let us first revise about the photovoltaic or photoelectric effect. Photovoltaic,
as the word implies (photo = light, voltaic =electricity), convert sunlight directly into
electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons, or “packets” of energy. These photons
contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of light.
When photons strike a Photovoltaic cell (PV cells) or a Solar cell they may be
reflected or absorbed, or they may pass right through. Photovoltaic cells are made of
semiconductors such as silicon, which is currently the most commonly used.
Basically, when photons strike the cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed within the
semiconductor material. When a photon is absorbed, the energy of the photon is
transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell. This energy knocks electrons loose,
allowing them to flow freely. These freely flowing electrons constitute a current, and by
placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw off the
current for external use.
What to look out for before buying any solar cells?
<![if !supportLists]>1. <![endif]>Size : The solar cell size will depend few factors
such as the power requirements of your circuit , the performance level of your solar
cell, limitations put on solar cell area that can be used in a competition and most
importantly choose a solar cell that meets your bots design limitations. Heavier cells
put more of load on your bots, which usually means more load on your motors, which
means more power consumption.
<![if !supportLists]>2. <! [endif]>Solar cell Voltage (Voc): This is maximum open
circuit voltage measured at zero output current. Solar cells are available in a number of
output voltages the most common being 0.5 V and most of the BEAM bots require
minimum of 2.5 to 3 volts for their operation. So, you need to connect a number of
them in series in order to provide a minimum useful voltage. The voltage of the cell
does not depend on its size, and remains fairly constant with changing light intensity.
<![if !supportLists]>3. <![endif]>Solar cell Current (Isc): This is the short circuit
current measured at zero output voltage. According to your circuits load current
requirements choose a solar cell with current rating of approx 2 3 times your load
current. If you are unable to find solar cells meeting your load current requirements
then you always have an option of putting your individual solar cell modules in parallel
for meeting your requirements. Unlike voltage, the current in the solar cell is almost
directly proportional to light intensity and size. So, depending under what kind of light
source you are working and amount of cell region being exposed to light, the available
current will vary.
requirements choose a solar cell with current rating of approx 2 3 times your load
current. If you are unable to find solar cells meeting your load current requirements
then you always have an option of putting your individual solar cell modules in parallel
for meeting your requirements. Unlike voltage, the current in the solar cell is almost
directly proportional to light intensity and size. So, depending under what kind of light
source you are working and amount of cell region being exposed to light, the available
current will vary.
You can check out this link for finding out the solar cell performance:
http://library.solarbotics.net/pieces/parts_elect_semic_solar_ut.html
Solar Panel:
An individual solar cell is not able to provide enough power that is needed for practical
applications, so these solar cells are linked together to form an array of solar cells
(thus called solar panels) to convert solar energy into a usable amount of electricity for
the application. The interconnected solar cells need to be protected from moisture, any
mechanical damage & cell heating. They are mostly available in glass plate sandwich
module structures. The purpose of the structure is to provide a rigid package to avoid
mechanical damage during manufacture, transport, installation & use, protect the inter
cell connections from the environment and provide good backing behind the module to
minimize cell heating.The factors determining the performance of a solar panel are –
efficiency of solar cells, peak power output of solar, varying light conditions, cell
temperature and load (say motor, led etc.).
So now the next step is how to use solar panel for building a robot. The whole idea
behind building any robot is giving it a brain which is the main controlling unit. For our
case that brain is the solar engine which is as discussed below:
Solar Engine: Generally when you build any kind of solar powered bot, the central
unit behind it is a solar engine. The working of solar engine can be understood by this
analogy of water engine. Suppose we have a source of water which we require to do
some useful work. Our water source is not enough in quantity (Say water droplets) to
do some useful work but is coming at a constant rate. So we will have to devise a
method to utilize this little but yet constant flow of water. The first thing we will do is
build a collection device such as a tank which will keep storing the water droplets. The
water in the tank will be under constant check, whether it has reached some set
threshold mark. The purpose of the threshold is to activate the emptying of the tank.
Once the trigger signal is seen the water in the tank is used to do the useful work,
until the water in tank gets emptied out. After this is done the tank starts to fill up and
the same process repeats.
So now you should be able to relate this analogy with our solar engine, where water
droplets being our solar source, tank being a capacitor and the trigger signal being
either a voltage triggered or time triggered circuit. So now depending on the tank size,
source strength, trigger point and work to be done, the solar engine design will vary
from user to user.
Now, we can define the solar engine as a circuit which receives solar energy and
stores that energy until some useable amount is stored, which is then released in a
burst to do some useful work like driving motors or other loads. Advantages of solar
engine are:
1. The solar cell size can be minimized (as by manipulating the tank size & trigger
point we can do the same useful work with even larger solar cell taking less time or
smaller solar cell taking more time).
2. The solar bot can work in low intensity levels (as higher intensity will fill up the tank
quickly and smaller intensity will take more time to fill up, so the work can be done
from either of the tanks).
3. More economical (as solar cell size reduced which furthers cuts the cost and
weight).
2. The solar bot can work in low intensity levels (as higher intensity will fill up the tank
quickly and smaller intensity will take more time to fill up, so the work can be done
from either of the tanks).
3. More economical (as solar cell size reduced which furthers cuts the cost and
weight).
4. The circuitry is easily available and not too expensive.
Now after having discussed about solar engines lets look at the parts required to build
it. The capacitor which is the charge storage device can be of 2200microfarad to 1
farad, depending upon your design. A larger storage capacitor will take more time to
charge but will be on for more time to get discharged, whereas smaller storage
capacitor will take less time to charge but will be on for less time. It ’s like larger
capacitor (say 1 farad) will work in less frequent longer bursts and smaller capacitor
(say 3300microfarad) will work in more frequentshorter bursts.
The next is the trigger circuit. Generally it is similar to a relaxation oscillator, just read
this link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaxation_oscillator.The most widely used trigger
circuit is voltage controlled trigger. In voltage controlled solar engines the solar cell
charges the capacitor until a predetermined voltage is reached, where the trigger
circuit dumps the stored electrical power from the main capacitor through the main
load. They are easy to build, and provide a fairly high level of efficiency. Now, I will just
give you a brief idea about different voltage controlled trigger circuits. The most popular
ones which are successfully being implemented on beam bots are:
Zenerbased: This design uses a Zener diode as means of determining the trigger
voltage. The reverse bias operating voltage of the Zener is used as means of triggering
point in the circuit. You can also use LED ’s or diodes in series to accomplish the
same trigger voltage.
Working:
The voltage across the capacitor rises slowly as it is charging from the output of a
solar cell. This voltage also appears across the Zener in series with the PNP base
emitter junction. The resistor is connected in series with the motor to the capacitor
and both are in parallel with the base of the PNP. The base and the emitter of the PNP
are positive (emitter positive directly through the positive terminal of the capacitor and
base through the resistor and the motor). Since both base and emitter are positive the
PNP transistor doesn’t work (current doesn’t flow from collector to emitter). Similarly
the NPN doesn’t conduct as the emitter (N) is negative (through the negative of the
capacitor) and also the base is negative. The PNP doesn’t work until the trigger voltage
of the zener diode is reached. At this trigger voltage the current flows through the
zener. Since current flows through the trigger element, not to the base of the PNP, the
base of the PNP becomes negative. Now, a trickle of current passes through the
resistor and the motor such that Vres + Vmot= Vcap – Vzener. The PNP would not
start conducting until the voltage (VcapVzener) is equal to or greater than the Vbe of
PNP which requires the current to rise up to 0.6/R through the resistor before any
current even starts to flow in the base of PNP. At that point the Vbe of PNP is high
enough for the PNP to start conducting. When PNP turns on, a current starts flowing
from the emitter to the collector. For the NPN to work current must flow from collector
to emitter. For this the base must be positive. Such a situation arises only at the
trigger voltage when the PNP conducts and thereby makes the base of the NPN
positive and NPN turns on. At this point the current from capacitor flows through the
NPN to the motor and causes it to rotate. For NPN, Vce=VcapVm. When NPN turns
on, current flows through the motor (Vm builds up) and Vce starts to drop which
reduces the voltage and the current in the resistor R which causes more of the zener
current to flow into the PNP base which increases the NPN current and lowers the Vce
even more. This process continues till NPN collector voltage drops below the Zener
voltage. At this point the PNP should stop conducting & motor should stop rotating,
but since the NPN device is already turned on i.e. in saturation, the Vce of NPN is at
approximately at zero potential, so the base of PNP is at ground potential via R, so the
current through the resistor reverses i.e instead of draining current away from the base
of PNP it starts to supply extra base current, taking the zener diode essentially out of
current to flow into the PNP base which increases the NPN current and lowers the Vce
even more. This process continues till NPN collector voltage drops below the Zener
voltage. At this point the PNP should stop conducting & motor should stop rotating,
but since the NPN device is already turned on i.e. in saturation, the Vce of NPN is at
approximately at zero potential, so the base of PNP is at ground potential via R, so the
current through the resistor reverses i.e instead of draining current away from the base
of PNP it starts to supply extra base current, taking the zener diode essentially out of
the circuit. This results in even more NPN current but it also starts to drop the voltage
on the capacitor since it has to now supply most of the current flowing through the
motor. The motor draws current until the voltage in the circuit is able to provide
minimum Vbe to keep the transistors on or able to overcome the motor resistance.
Now, the voltage in the capacitor again rises until it reaches the trigger voltage of the
trigger element and the above cycle repeats.
Comments on Solar Engine: The advantage of this circuit is the components are
easily available & easy to build. The disadvantage of this circuit is zener based SE is
highly tolerant to motor types, transistor parameters and solar panels used. One more
disadvantage being that zener draws more and more power as it reaches the “trigger”
point and if the solar cell can ’t provide enough power to overcome this extra current
drawn by Zener, it’ll stabilize at a point where the Zener leaks as much current as the
solar cells provide.
Circuit modifications: Here, you can use zener rated between 2 to 4 volts & also you
can play with R (feedback resistor) & C (storage capacitor) values. Increasing C would
make the circuit take more time to charge to the trigger voltage, but at the same time
the on period of motor run would also increase i.e. (longer bursts at less frequent
rates). Varying the feedback resistor will help in making the bot tolerant to motor
variants & inefficiency. Also increasing R along with increased C would help in
reducing the off time of the motor i.e. (longer bursts at little more frequent rates than
previous case). Try using R of 2.2 to 50 kilo ohms and C of 4700 microfarad to 47,000
microfarad (depending on load connected). Feel free to experiment.
Working:Charges build up in the capacitor starting from 0 volts. The base and the
emitter of the PNP are positive (emitter positive directly through the positive terminal of
the capacitor and base through the resistor and the motor). Since both base and
emitter are positive the PNP transistor doesn’t work (current doesn’t flow from collector
to emitter). Similarly the NPN doesn’t conduct as the emitter (N) is negative (through
the negative of the capacitor) and also the base is negative. The FLED is an integrated
circuit that needs a minimum voltage to operate and flash the LED. While the FLED is
off the current through the FLED is very low. When the FLED is on, a pulse of current
passes through the FLED. The PNP doesn ’t work until the voltage across the
capacitor equals the trigger voltage of the FLED. The solar cell charges the main
capacitor until the voltage is high enough for the FLED to start flashing. When FLED
starts flashing, current flows through the FLED and the base of the PNP becomes
negative. Hence the PNP conducts and current flows from the emitter to collector. Now
current passes through the PNP into the base of the NPN transistor and it turns on. At
this point the current from capacitor flows through the NPN to the motor and causes it
to rotate. The base of PNP is fed current by the FLED and the resistor(R). Now, the
voltage across the capacitor starts to fall below the trigger voltage. Thus, when the
voltage falls below the FLED trigger point, FLED stops conducting and current
continues to flow into base of the PNP by way of R (since NPN is already on, the
collector which is connected to the motor and the resistor goes low & this places a
voltage across the resistor which provides more base current for the PNP which makes
this point the current from capacitor flows through the NPN to the motor and causes it
to rotate. The base of PNP is fed current by the FLED and the resistor(R). Now, the
voltage across the capacitor starts to fall below the trigger voltage. Thus, when the
voltage falls below the FLED trigger point, FLED stops conducting and current
continues to flow into base of the PNP by way of R (since NPN is already on, the
collector which is connected to the motor and the resistor goes low & this places a
voltage across the resistor which provides more base current for the PNP which makes
it turn on even more).The motor rotation continues until the main capacitor is
discharged to less than 0.7V which is the minimum required Vbe to keep PNP & NPN
on. Now the voltage in the capacitor again rises until it reaches the trigger voltage of
the trigger element and the above cycle repeats.
Comments on solar engine: The advantage of this circuit is it is much more efficient
than zener based SE as it draws current only when it flashes (there is no continuous
current drawn as in zener) and it is less tolerant to motor type used. The disadvantage
is the component is not that easily available and it is not as efficient as voltage
monitoring based SE until you work on this circuit i.e. working on selection of right
component values (motors, transistor parameters, Solar panels, feedback resistor etc.)
for the SE.
Circuit modifications: Try varying R & C values (as in previous case) as well as
varying the triggering point by addition of a led or a diode in series with FLED. Here,
varying the trigger point would vary the burst time of the motor. Say for example the
trigger point (FLED on) is 2.5 volt, the capacitor will take some time to reach that point
and then motor runs for a time until base emitter voltage of the transistor goes below
0.7 volt. Now if you add a diode in series then the trigger point would go up to 3.2, so
capacitor would take more time to charge to that point, but it would make the motor
run for more time i.e. voltage has to come down from 3.2 to 0.7 whereas in previous
case it came down from 2.5 to 0.7. It ’s the same like longer bursts at lesser frequent
rates v/s shorter bursts at higher frequent rates.
Note: Don’t increase the trigger point so high that it becomes harder for solar panel to
charge to that point. Feel to experiment.
Note: The values of all the components used in the above solar engines are going vary
with motor, transistor gain & solar panels you choose.
Now, that a brief outline has been provided regarding the usage of solar energy & to
build the electronic circuitry behind a solar powered robot. So, you can go ahead with
designing and building your first solar powered bot.
Posted on Saturday, December 26th, 2009 at 4:31 am In Misc | Comments RSS
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