Icet Quantitative Aptitude Index: Arithmetic

ICET
Quantitative Aptitude
INDEX
ARITHMETIC
1. Real Number System --------------------------------------- 03-12

2. *Ratio & Proportion --------------------------------------- 13-19
3. **Percentages --------------------------------------- 20-24
4. *Averages & Mixtures --------------------------------------- 25-33
5. **Profit & Loss --------------------------------------- 34-38
6. **Simple & Compound Interests --------------------------------------- 39-43
7. *Time & Work --------------------------------------- 44-49
8. *Time & Distance --------------------------------------- 50-56
9. *Age Problems --------------------------------------- 57-61
GEOMETRY
10. Plane Geometry --------------------------------------- 62-80

11. **Mensuration --------------------------------------- 81-91
COUNTING METHODS & PROBABILITY
12. Set Thoery --------------------------------------- 91-97

13. *Permutations & Combinations --------------------------------------- 98-103
14. *Probability --------------------------------------- 104-110
15. Progressions --------------------------------------- 111-117
16. Statistics --------------------------------------- 118-124
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ALGEBRA
17. Progressions -------------------------- 126-132

18. Matrices -------------------------- 133-142
19. Statements -------------------------- 143-148
20. Sets -------------------------- 149-154
21. Real Numbers, Rational Numbers & Law of Indices -------------------------- 155-160
22. Surds -------------------------- 161-168
23. Linear Equations, Inequations & Modulus -------------------------- 169-174
24. Polynomials, Remainder & Square Roots -------------------------- 175-177
25. Quadratic Equations & Expressions -------------------------- 178-180
26. Relations & Functions -------------------------- 181-183
27. Derivatives & Limits -------------------------- 184-187
28. Logarithms -------------------------- 188-190
29. Binomial Theorem -------------------------- 191-193
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NUMBER SYSTEMS
In Hindu Arabic System, we use ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 called digits to represent any number. This is
the decimal system where we use the numbers 0 to 9. 0 is called insignificant digit.
A group of figures, denoting a number is called a numeral. For a given numeral, we start from extreme
right as Unit’s place, Ten’s place, Hundred’s place and so on.
Illustration 1 We represent the number 309872546 as shown below:

Ten Crore 108
Crores 107
Lacs 105
Ten Thousand 104
Thousand 103
Hundred 102
Ten’s 101
Units 100
(million) 106Ten Lacs
3 0 9 8 7 2 5 4 6
We read it as
“Thirty crores, ninety- eight lacs, seventy-two thousands five hundred and forty-six.”
In this numeral:
The place value of 6 is 6 ×1 = 6
The place value of 2 is2 ×1000 = 2000 and so on.
The face value of a digit in a numbers is the value itself wherever it may be.
Thus, the face value of 7 in the above numeral is 7. The face value of 6 in the above numeral is 6 and in the above
numeral is 6 and so on.
NUMBER SYSTEM
Natural numbers
Counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,... are know as natural numbers.
The set of all natural numbers, can be represented by
N= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,….}
Whole numbers
If we include 0 among the natural numbers, then the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … are called whole numbers.
The set of whole number can be represented by
W= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…}
Clearly, every natural number is a whole number but 0 is a whole number which is not a natural number.
INTEGERS
All counting numbers and their negatives including zero are know as integers.
The set of integers can be represented by
Z or I = {…-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
Positive Integers
The set I+ ={1, 2, 3, 4,…} is the set of all positive integers. Clearly, positive integers and natural numbers are
synonyms.
Negative Integers
The set I- = {-1, -2, -3…} is the set of all negative integers. 0 is neither positive nor negative.
Non-negative Integers
The set {0, 1, 2, 3,…} is the set all non-negative integers.
Rational Numbers
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The numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0, are known as rational numbers, e.g. 4/7, 3/2,
-5/8, 0/1, -2/3, etc.
The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q. i.e. Q ={x:x =p/q; p,q belong to I, q≠0}.
Since every natural number ‘a’ can be written as a/1, every natural number is a rational number. Since 0
can be written as 0/1 and every non-zero integer ‘a’ can be written as a/1, every integer is a rational number.
Every rational number has a peculiar characteristic that when expressed in decimal form is expressible
rather in terminating decimals or in non-terminating repeating decimals.
For example, 1/5 =0.2, 1/3 = 0.333…22/7 = 3.1428704287, 8/44 = 0.181818…., etc.
The recurring decimals have been given a short notation as
0.333…. = 0.3
4.1555… = 4.05
0.323232…= 0.32.
Irrational Numbers
Those numbers which when expressed in decimal from are neither terminating nor repeating decimals are known as
irrational number, e.g. √2, √3, √5, π, etc.
Note that the exact value of  is not 22/7. 22/7 is rational while π irrational number. 22/7 is approximate value of π.
Similarly, 3.14 is not an exact value of it.
Real Numbers
The rational and irrational numbers combined together are called real numbers, e.g.13/21, 2/5, -3/7, 3, 4 + 2, etc.
are real numbers.
The set of all real numbers is denote by R.
Note that the sum, difference or product of a rational and irrational number is irrational, e.g. 3+ √2, 4-√3,
2/3-√5, 4√3, -7√5 are all irrational.
Even Numbers
All those numbers which are exactly divisible by 2 are called even numbers, e.g.2, 6, 8, 10, etc., are even numbers.
Odd Numbers
All those numbers which are not exactly divisible by 2 are called odd numbers, e.g. 1, 3, 5, 7 etc., are odd numbers.
Prime Numbers
A natural number other than 1 is a prime number if it is divisible by 1 and itself only.
For example, each of the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7 etc., are prime numbers.
Composite Numbers
Natural numbers greater than 1which are not prime, are known as composite numbers.
For example, each of the numbers 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, etc., are composite numbers.
Note:
1. The number 1 is neither a prime number nor composite number.
2. 2 is the only even number which is prime
3. Prime numbers up to 100 are:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,23, 29, 31, 37, 41,43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, i.e. 25 prime
numbers between 1 and 100.
4. two numbers which have only 1 as the common factor are called co-primes or relatively prime to each
other, e.g. 3 and 5 are co-primes.
Note that the numbers which are relatively prime need not necessarily be prime numbers, e.g. 16 and 17 are
relatively prime although 16 is not a prime number.
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ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION (SHORT-CUT METHODS)
The method is best illustrated with the help of following example:

Illustration 2 54321 – (9876+8976+7689) = ?
Step 1 Add 1st column: 54321

9876
8967
7689
27789
6+7+9 = 22
To obtain 1 at unit’s place add 9 to make 31. In the answer, write 9 at unit’s place and carry over 3.
Step 2 Add 2nd column:
3+7+6+8=24
To obtain 2 at tens place add 8 to make 32. In the answer, write 8 at ten’s place and carry over 3.
Step 3 Add 3rd column:
3 + 8 + 9 + 6 = 26
To obtain 3 at hundred’s place, add 7 to make 33. In the answer, write 7 at hundred’s place and carry over
3.
Step 4 Add 4th column:
3 + 9 + 8 + 7 = 27
To obtain 4 at thousand’s place add 7 to make 34. In the answer, write 7 at thousand’s place and over 3.
Step 5 5th column:
To obtain 5 at ten-thousand’s place add 2 to it to make 5. In the answer, write 2 at the ten-thousand’s place.
 54321 – (9876 + 8967 + 7689) = 27789.
Common Factor
A common factor of two or more numbers is a number which divides each of them exactly.
For example, 4 is a common factor of 8 and 12.
Highest common factor

Highest common factor of two or more numbers is the greatest number that divides each one of them exactly. For
example, 6 is the highest common factor of 12, 18 and 24. Highest Common Factor is also called Greatest Common
Divisor or Greatest Common Measure.
Symbolically, these can be written as H.C.F. or G.C.D. or G.C.M., respectively.
Methods of Finding H.C.F.

I. Method of Prime Factors
Step 1 Express each one of the given numbers as the product of prime factors.
[A number is said to be a prime number if it is exactly divisible by 1 and itself but not by any other number, e.g. 2,
3, 5, 7, etc. are prime numbers]
Step 2 Choose Common Factors.
Step 3 Find the product of lowest powers of the common factors. This is the required H.C.F. of given numbers.
Illustration 1 Find the H.C.F. of 70 and 90.

Solution 70 = 2  5  7
90 = 2  5  9
Common factors are 2 and 5.
 H.C.F. = 2  5 = 10.
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Illustration 2 Find the H.C.F. of 3332, 3724 and 4508
Solution 3332 = 2  2  7  7  17
3724 = 2  2  7  7  19
4508 = 2  2  7  7  23
 H.C.F. = 2  2  7  7 = 196.

Solution 360 = 23  32  5
132 = 22  31  11
 H.C.F. = 22  31  = 12.
Illustration 4 If x = 23  35  59 and y = 25  37  511, find H.C.F. of x and y.

Solution The factors common to both x and y are 23, 35 and 59.
 H.C.F. = 23  35  59.
II. Method of Division

A. For two numbers:
Step 1 Greater number is divided by the smaller one.
Step 2 Divisor of (1) is divided by its remainder.
Step 3 Divisor of (2) is divided by its remainder. This is continued until no remainder is left.
H.C.F. is the divisor of last step.
3444 )3556 (1
3444
112 ) 3444 ( 30
3360
84 ) 112 ( 1
84
28 ) 84 ( 3
84

B. For more than two numbers:

Step 1 Any two numbers are chosen and their H.C.F. is obtained.
Step 2 H.C.F. of H.C.F. (of(1)) and any other number is obtained.
Step 3 H.C.F. of H.C.F. (of (2)) and any other number (not chosen earlier) is obtained.
This process is continued until all numbers have been chosen. H.C.F. of last step is the required H.C.F.
Illustration 6 Find the greatest possible length which can be used to measure exactly the lengths
7 m, 3 m 85 cm, 12 m 95 cm.
Solution Required length
= (H.C.F. of 700, 385, 1295) cm = 35 cm.
Common Multiple
A common multiple of two or more numbers is a number which is exactly divisible by each one of them.
For Example, 32 is a common multiple of 8 and 16.
8  4 = 32
16  2 = 32.
Least Common Multiple
The least common multiple of two or more given numbers is the least or lowest number which is exactly divisible by
each of them.
For example, consider the two numbers 12 and 18.
Multiples of 12 are 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, …
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Multiple of 18 are 18, 36, 54, 72, …
Common multiples are 36, 72, …
Least common multiple, i.e. L.C.M. of 12 and 18 is 36.
Methods of Finding L.C.M.
A. Method of Prime Factors

Step 1 Resolve each given number into prime factors.
Step 2 Take out all factors with highest powers that occur in given numbers.
Step 3 Find the product of these factors. This product will be the L.C.M.
Illustration 7 Find the L.C.M. of 32, 48, 60 and 320.

Solution 32 = 25  1
48 = 24  3
60 = 22  3  5
320 = 26  6
 L.C.M. = 26  3  5 = 960.
B. Method of Division
Step 1 The given numbers are written in a line separated by common.
Step 2 Divide by any one of the prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, … which will divide at least any two of the given
nu8mbers exactly. The quotients and the undivided numbers are written in a line below the first.
Step 3 Step 2 is repeated until a line of numbers (prime to each other) appears.
1 Find the product of all divisors and numbers in the last line which is the required L.C.M.
Illustration 8 Find the L.C.M. of 12, 15, 20 and 54.

Solution2 12, 15, 20, 54
2 6, 15, 10, 27
3 3, 15, 5, 27
5 1, 5, 5, 9
1, 1, 1, 9
L.C.M. = 2  2  3  5  1  1  1  9 = 540.
Note: Before finding the L.C.M. or H.C.F., we must ensure that all quantities are expressed in the same unit.
Some Useful Short-Cut Methods
1. H.C.F. and L.C.M. of Decimals

Step 1 Make the same number of decimal places in all the given numbers by suffixing zero(s) if necessary.
Step 2 Find the H.C.F./L.C.M. of these numbers without decimal.
Step 3 Put the decimal point (in the H.C.F./L.C.M. of step 2) leaving as many digits on its right as there are in each
of the numbers.
2. L.C.M. and H.C.F. of Fractions

L.C.M = L.C.M. of the numbers in numerators
H.C.F. of the numbers in denominators
H.C.F. = H.C.F. of the numbers in numerators

L.C.M. of the numbers in denominators
3. Product of two numbers

= L.C.M. of the numbers  H.C.F. of the numbers
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4. To find the greatest number that will exactly divide x, y and z.
Required number = H.C.F. of x, y and z.
5. To find the greatest number that will divide x, y and z leaving remainders a, b and c, respectively.
Required number = H.C.F. of (x – a), (y – b) and (z – c).
6. To find the least number which is exactly divisible by x, y and z.

Required number = L.C.M. of x, y and z.
7. To find the least number which when divided by x, y and z leaves the remainders a, b and c, respectively. It is
always observed that (x – a) = (y – b) = (z – c) = k (say)
 Required number = (L.C.M. of x, y and z) – k.
8. To find the least number which when divided by x, y and z leaves the same remainder r in each case.
Required number = (L.C.M. of x, y and z) + r.
9. To find the greatest number that will divide x, y and z leaving the same remainder in each case.
(a) When the value of remainder r is given:
Required number = H.C.F. of (x – r), (y – r) and (z – r).
(b) When the value of remainder is not given:
Required number = H.C.F. of (x – y), (y – z) and (z – x)
10. To find the n-digit greatest number which, when divided by x, y and z.
(a) leaves no remainder (i.e. exactly divisible)
Step 1 L.C.M. of x, y and z = L

L ) n – digit greatest number (
Step 2 remainder = R
Step 3 Required number
= n-digit greatest number – R
(b) leaves remainder K in each case Required number
= (n-digit greatest number – R) + K.
11. To find the n-digit smallest number which when divided by x, y and z
(a) leaves no remainder (i.e. exactly divisible)
Step 1 L.C.M. of x, y and z = L

L )n-digit smallest number(
Step 2 remainder = R
Step 3 Required number
= n-digit smallest number + (L – R).
(b) leaves remainder K in each case.
Required number
= n-digit smallest number + (L – R) + k.
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RATIOS, PROPORTIONS AND VARIATION
A ratio is a comparison of two quantities by division. It is a relation that one quantity bears to another with respect to
magnitude. In other words, ratio means what part one quantity is of another. The quantities may be of same kind or
different kinds. For example, when we consider the ratio of the weight 45 kg of a bag of rice to the weight 29kg of a
bag of sugar we are considering the quantities of same kind but when we talk of allotting 2 cricket bats to 5
sportsmen, we are considering quantities of different kinds. Normally, we consider the ratio between quantities of
the same kind.
If a and b are two numbers, the ratio of a to b is a/b or a +b and is denoted by a : b. The two quantities that
are being compared are called terms. The first is called antecedent and the second term is called consequent.
For example, the ratio 3 : 5 represents 3/5 with antecedent 3 and consequent 5.
Note:
1. A ratio is a number, so to find the ratio of two quantities, they must be expressed in the same units.
2. A ratio does not change if both of is terms are multiplied or divided by the same number. Thus,
2/3= 4/6 = 6/9 etc.
TYPES OF RATIOS
1. Duplicate Ratio The ratio of the squares of two numbers is called the duplicate ratio of the two
numbers.
For example, 32/42 or 9/16 is called the duplicate ratio of ¾.
2. Triplicate Ratio The ratio of the cubes of two numbers is called the triplicate ratio of the two
numbers.
For example, 33/43 or 27/64 is triplicate ratio of ¾.
3. Sub-duplicate Ratio The ratio of the square roots of two numbers is called the sub-duplicate ratio
of two numbers.
For example, 3/4 is the sub- duplicate ratio of 9/16.
4. Sub-duplicate Ratio The ratio of the cube roots of two numbers is called the sub-triplicate ratio
of two numbers.
For example, 2/3 is the sub-triplicate ratio of 8/27.
5. Inverse Ratio or Reciprocal Ratio If the antecedent and consequent of a ratio interchange their
places, the new ratio is called the inverse ratio of the first.
Thus, if a : b be the given ratio, then 1/a : 1/b or b : a is its inverse ratio.
For example, 3/5 is the inverse ratio of 5/3.
6. Compound Ratio The ratio of the product of the antecedents to that of the consequents of two or
more given ratios is called the compound ratio. Thus, if a :b and c:d are two given rations, then ac : bd is the
compound ratio of the given ratios,
For example, if ¾, 4/5 and 5/7 be the given ratios, then their compound ratios is 345/ 457, that is, 3/7.
PROPORTION
The equality of two ratios is called proportion.
If a/b = c/d, then a, b, c and d are said to be in proportion and we write a : b: : c: d. This is read as “a is to b as c
is to d”.
For example, since ¾ = 6/8, we write 3; 4: : 6: 8 and say 3, 4, 6 and 8 are in proportion.
Each term of the ratio a/b and c/d is called a proportional. a, b, c, and d are respectively the first, second, third
and fourth proportionals
Here, a, d are known as extremes and b, c are known as means.
SOME BASIC FORMULAE
1. If four quantities are in proportion, then product of Means = product of Extremes

For example, in the proportion a : b: : c: d, we have bc = ad.
From this relation we see that if any three of the four quantities are given, the fourth can be determined.
2. Fourth proportional If a: b: :c :x, x is called the fourth proportional of a, b, c.
We have, a/b = c/x or, x = b×c/a
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Thus, fourth proportional of a, b, c is b × c / a.
Illustrational 1 Find a fourth proportional to the numbers 2, 5, 4.

Solution Let x be the fourth proportional, then
2 : 5 : : 4 : x or 2/5 = 4/x.
 x = 5 × 4 /2 = 10.
3. Third proportional If a: b: : c: x, x is called the third proportional of a, b.
We have, a/b= b/x or x= b2/a.
Thus, third proportional of a. b is b2/a
Illustration 2 Find a third proportional to the numbers 2.5, 1.5

Solution Let x be the third proportional, then
2.5 : 1.5 : :1.5 : x or 2.5/1.5= 1.5/x.
 x = 1.5 × 1.5/2.5 = 0.9
4. Mean Proportional If a: x: : x: b, x is called the mean or second proportional of a,
b.
We have, a/x =x/b or x2 = ab or x = ab
Mean proportional of a and b is ab.
We also say that a, x, b are in continued proportion
Illustration 3 Find the mean proportional between 48 and 12.
Solution Let x be the mean proportional. Then, 48 : x : : x : 12 or, 48/x = x/12 or, x2= 576 or, x=24.
5. If a/b = c/d, then
(i) (a + b)/b = (c +d)/d (Componendo)
(ii) (a – b)/b = (c-d)/d (Dividendo)
(iii) (a + b)/a-b = c +d/c-d = (Componendo and Dividendo)
(iv) a/b = a + c/b+d = (a –c)/b-d
Illustration 4 The sum of two umber is c and their quotient is p/q. Find the numbers.
Solution Let the numbers be x, y.
Given: x + y = c …(1)
and, x/y = p/q …(2)
 x/ x+y = p/p+q  x/c = p/p+q [Using (1)]
 x = pc/p +q.
SOME USEFUL SHORT-CUT METHODS
1. (a) If two numbers are in the ratio of a: b and the sum of these numbers is x, then these numbers
will be ax/ a + b and bx/ a+b, respectively. or
If in a mixture of x liters of, two liquids A and B in the ratio of a: b, then the quantities of liquids A and B in the
mixture will be ax / a + b litres and bx/ a + b litres, respectively.
(b) If three numbers are in the ratio a : b: c and the sum of these numbers is x, then these numbers will be
ax / a + b + c , bx / a + b + c and cx / a + b + c, respectively.
Explanation
Len the three numbers in the ratio a: b: c be A, B and C. Then,
A = ka, B = kb, C =kc and, A + B + C = ka + kb + kc = x
 k(a+b+c) = x  k = x / a + b+ c.
 A = ka = ax / a + b+ c.
B = kb = bx / a + b+ c.
C = kc = cx / a + b+ c.
Illustration 5 Two numbers are in the ratio of 4 : 5 and the sum of these numbers is 27. Find the two numbers.
Solution Here, a = 4, b = 5, and x = 27.
 The first number = ax / a + b = 4  27 / 4+5 = 12.
and, the second number = bx / a + b = 5  27 / 4+5 = 15.
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Illustration 6 Three numbers are in the ratio of 3: 4 : 8: and the sum of these numbers is 975. Find the three
numbers.
Solution Here, a = 3, b = 4, c = 8 and x = 975

 The first number = ax / a + b+ c = (3 975)/ 3 + 4 + 8 = 195.
The second number = bx / a + b+ c = (4 975)/ 3 + 4 + 8 = 260.
and, the third number = cx / a + b+ c = (8 975)/ 3 + 4 + 8 = 520.
2. If two numbers are in the ratio of a : b and difference between these is x, then these numbers will
be
a) ax/ a-b and bx/ a-b, respectively (where a > b).
b) ax/ a-b and bx/ a-b, respectively (where a < b).
Explanation
Let the two numbers be ak and bk.
Let a > b.
Given : ak – bk = x
 (a – b)k = x or k = x / (a-b).
Therefore, the two numbers are ax / a-b and bx/ a-b.
Illustration 7 Two numbers are in the ratio of 4 : 5. If the difference between these numbers is 24, then find the
numbers.
Solution Here, a = 4, b = 5 and x = 24.
The first number = ax/ b-a = 4 24/5- 4 = 96 and, the second number = bx/ b-a = 5 24 / 5-4 = 120.
3. (a). If a : b = n1 : d1 and b : c = n2 : d2, then
a : b : c = (n1n2) : (d1 n2) : (d1  d2).
(b). If a : b = n1 : d1, b : c = n2 : d2, and c : d = n3 : d3 then
a : b : c : d= (n1 n2 n3) : (d1 n2 n3 ) : (d1 d2 n3 ) : (d1 d2 d3 ).
Illustration 8 If A : B = 3 : 4 and B : C = 8 : 9, find A : B : C.

Solution Here, n1 = 3, n2 =8, d1 =4 and d2 = 9.
a : b : c = (n1n2) : (d1n2) : (d1d2)
= (38) : (48) : (49)
= 24 : 32 : 36 or, 6: 8 : 9.
Illustration 9 If A : B = 2 : 3, B:C = 4 : 5 and C : D = 6 : 7, find A :D.

Solution Here, n1 = 2, n2 = 4, n3 = 6, d1 = 3, d2 = 5 and d3 = 7.
A : B : C : D = (n1n2n3) : (d1n2n3) : (d1  d2  n3) : (d1  d2  d3)
= (2  4  6) : (3  4  6) : (3  5  6) : (3 5 7)
= 48 : 72 : 90: 105: or, 16: 24 : 30 ; 35. Thus, A : D = 16 : 35.
4. (a) The ratio between two numbers is a : b. If x is added to each of these numbers, the ratio
becomes c : d. The two numbers are given as:
ax(c – d) / ad – bc and bx(c- d) / ad –bc.
Explanation
Let two number be ak and bk.
Given : ak +x / bk+x = c/d akd +dx= cbk + cx
 k(ad –bc) = x(c –d)
k =x(c-d)/ ad – bc.
Therefore, the two numbers are ax(c-d) / ad-bc and bx(c-d) / ad- bc
(b) The ratio between two numbers is a : b. if x is subtracted from each of these numbers, the ratio becomes c : d.
The two numbers are given as:
ax(d-c) / ad-bc and bx(d-c) / ad- bc
Explanation
Let the two numbers be ak and bk.
Given : ak-x/bk-x = c/d  akd-xd = bck-xc
 k(ad-bc) = x(d-c)
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 k = x(d-c)/ad-bc.
Therefore, the two numbers are ax(d-c)/ad-bc and bx(d-c)/ad-bc
Illustration 10 Given two numbers which are in the ratio of 3 : 4, If 8 is added to each of them, their ratio is
changed to 5 : 6. Find two numbers.
Solution We have,
a : b = 3 : 4, c : d = 5 : 6 and x = 8.
The first number = ax(c – d)/ ad –bc = 3  8(5-6) / (3 6- 4 5) = 12.
and, the second number = bx(c – d)/ ad –bc
= 4  8(5-6) / (3 6- 4 5) = 16.
Illustration 11 The ratio of two numbers is 5 : 9. If each number is decreased by 5, the ratio becomes 5: 11.
Find the numbers.
Solution We have,
a : b = 5: 9, c: d = 5: 11 and x =5.
 The first number = ax (d – c)/ ad –bc
= 5  5(11-5)/ (511- 9 5) = 15.
and, the second number= bx(d-c)/ad-bc
95(11-5)/(511-95)= 27.
5. (a) If the ratio of two numbers is a: b, then the numbers that should be added to each of the numbers in
order to make this ratio c : d is given by ad-bc/ c-d.
Explanation
Let the required number be x.
Given: a+x/ b+x = c/d  ad+ xd = bc + xc
 x(d-c) =bc –ad or, x =ad-bc/c-d.
(b)If the ratio of two numbers is a : b, then the number that should be subtracted from each of the numbers in order
to make this ratio c : d is given by bc-ad/c-d.
Explanation
Let the required number be x.
Given: a-x/ b-x = c/d  ad- xd = bc - xc
 x(c-d) =bc –ad or, x = bc-ad/c-d.
Illustration 12 Find the number that must be subtracted from the terms of the ratio 5 : 6 to make it equal to 2 : 3.
Solution We have a : b= 5 : 6 and c: d =2 : 3.
 The required number = bc-ad/ c-d
= 6  2-53/ 2-3 =3.
Illustration 13 Find the number that must be added to the terms of the ratio 11 : 29 to make it equal to 11 : 20.
Solution We have, a : b= 11 : 29 and c: d =11: 20.
 The required number = ad-bc/ c-d
= 11  20-2911/ 11-20 = 11.
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PERCENTAGES
Introduction
The term per cent means per hundreds or for every hundred. It is the abbreviation of the Latin phrase per centum.
Scoring 60 per cent marks means out of every 100 marks the candidate scored 60 marks.
The term per cent is sometimes abbreviated as p.c. The symbol % is often used for the term per cent.
Thus, 40 per cent will be written as 40%.
A fraction whose denominator is 100 is called a percentage and the numerator of the fraction is called rate per cent,
e.g. 5/100 and 5 per cent means the same thing, i.e. 5 parts out of every hundred parts.
1. To Convert a fraction into a per cent:

to convert any fraction l/m to rate per cent, multiply it by 100 and put % sign, i.e. l/m  100%
2. To Convert a Percent into a Fraction:
To convert a per cent into a fraction , drop the per cent sign and divide the number by 100.
3. To find a percentage of a given number: x % of given number (N) = x/100  N.
Some useful shortcut methods

1. (a) if A is x% more than that of B, then B is less than that of A by
 x 
100  x  100 %
(b) If a is x% less than that of B, then B is more than that of A by
 x 
100  x  100 %
2. If a is x% of C and B is y% of C, then A = x/y  100% of B.
3. (a) If two numbers are respectively x% and y% more than a third number, then the first number is
 100  x   100  y 
  100 % of the second and the second is   100 % of the first.
 100  y   100  x 
(b) If two numbers are respectively x% and y% less than a third number, then the first number is
 100  x 
  100 % of the first.
 100  y 
4. (a) If the price of a commodity increases by P%, then the reduction in consumption so as not to increase the
 P 
expenditure is   100 % .
 100  P 
(b) If the price of a commodity decreases by p%, then the increase in consumption so as not to decrease the
 P 
expenditure is   100 % .
 100  P 
5. If a number is changed (increased/decreased) successively by x% and y%, then net% change is given by (x+y+
(xy/100))% which represents increase or decrease in value according as the sign is +ve or –ve.
If x or y indicates decrease in percentage, then put –ve sign before x or y, otherwise +ve sign.
6. If two parameters A and B are multiplied to get a product and if A is changed (increased/decreased) by x% and
another parameter B is changed (increased/decreased) by y%, then the net% change in the product (A  B) is given
(x+y+(xy/100))% which represents increase or decrease in value according as the sign in +ve or –ve.
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If x or y indicates decrease in percentage, then put –ve sign before x or y, otherwise +ve sign.
7. If the present population of a town (or value of an item) be P and the population (or value of item) changes at r%
per annum, then
n
 r 
(a) Population (or value of item) after n years = P1  
 100 
P
n
(b) Population (or value of item) n years ago =  r 
1  
 100 
where r is +ve or –ve according as the population (or value of item) increase or decreases.
8. If a number A is increased successively by x% followed by y% and then by z%, then the final value of A will be
 x  y  z 
A1  1  1  
 100  100  100 
In case a given value decreases by any percentage, we will use a negative sign before that.
9. In an examination, the minimum pass percentage is x%. If a student secures y marks and fails by z marks, then the
100( y  z )
maximum marks in the examination is .
x
10. In an examination x% and y% students respectively fail in two different subjects while z% students fail in both
the subjects, then the percentage of students who pass in both the subjects will be (100-(x+y-z))%.
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Averages & Mixtures
Whenever we are asked the marks scored by us in any examination, we usually tell the marks in percentage, taking
the percentage of total marks of all subjects. This percentage is called average percentage. Also, in a class, If there
are 100 students, instead of knowing the age of individual student, we usually talk about average age.
The average or mean or arithmetic of a number of quantities of the same kind is equal to their sum divided by the
number of those quantities. For example, the average of 3, 11, 15, 18,19, and 23 is
3 + 9 +11+ 15+ 18+ 19+ 23+ /7 = 98/7 = 14.
SOME BASIC FORMULAE
1. Average = sum of quantities/ Number of quantities

2. Sum of quantities = Average  Number of quantities
3. Number of quantities = Sum of quantities/ Average
Illustration 1 A man purchased 5 toys at the rate of Rs 200each, 6 toys at the rate of Rs 250each and 9 toys at the
rate of Rs 300 each. Calculate the average cost of one toy.
Solution Price of 5 toys = 200  5 = Rs 1000

Price of 6 toys = 250  6 = Rs 1500
Price of 9 toys = 300  9 = Rs 2700
Average price of 1 toy = 1000 + 1500 + 2700/ 20
= 5200/20 = Rs 260.
Illustration 2 The average marks obtained by 200 students in a certain examination are 45. Find the total marks.
Solution Total marks

= Average marks  Number of students
= 200  45 = 900.
Illustration 3 Total temperatures for the month of September is 8400C, If the average temperature of that month is
280C, find of how many days is the month of September.
Solution Number of days in the month of September

= Total temperature/ Average temperature = 840/28
= 30days.
SOME USEFUL SHORT–CUT METHODS
1. Average of two or more groups taken together

a) If the number of quantities in two groups be n1 and n2 and their average is x and y, respectively,
the combined average (average of all of then put together) is
n1x +n2y / n1 + n2
Explanation
No. of quantities in fist group = n1
Their average = x
 Sum = n1  x
No. of quantities in second group = n2
Their average = y
 Sum = n2  y
No. of quantities in the combined group = n1+n2

Total sum (sum of quantities of first group and second group) = n1x+n2y
Combined Average = n1x+n2y./ n1 +n2.
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b). If the average of n1 quantities is x and the average of n2 quantities out of them is y, the average of
remaining group (rest of the quantities) is
n2x – n2y/ n1- n2.
Explanation
No. of quantities = n1
Their average = x
 Sum = n1x
No of quantities taken out – n2
Their average = y
 Sum = n2y
Sum of remaining quantities = n1x – n2y
No. of remaining quantities = n1 – n2
 Average of remaining group = n1x – n2y/ n1 – n2
Illustration 4 The average weight of 24 students of section A of a class is 58 kg whereas the average weight of 26
students of section B of the same class is 60. 5 kg. Find the average weight of all the 50 students of the class.
Solution Here, n1 = 24, n2 = 26, x = 58 and y = 60.5.
 Average weight of all the 50 students
= n1x+n2y/ n1 +n2
= 24 ×58 + 26×60.5 / 24+26
= 1392 +1573/ 50 = 2965/ 50 =59.3kg.
Illustration 5 Average salary of all the 50 employees including 5 officers of a company is Rs 850. If the average
salary of the officers is Rs 2500, find of the class.
Solution Here, n1 = 50, n2 =5, x = 850and y = 2500.
 Average salary of the remaining staff
= n1x-n2y/ n1-n2 = 50850 -52500 / 50-5
= 42500-12500/ 45 = 30000/ 45
= Rs 667(approx)
2. If x is the average of x1, x2, …, xn, then

a) The average of x1 + a, x2 + a, …., xn + a is x +a.
b) The average of x1 - a, x2 - a, …., xn - a is x -a.
c) The average of ax1, ax2,….,axn is ax, provided a ≠ 0.
d) The average of x1 / a, x2 / a, …., xn / a isx /a, provided a ≠ 0.
Illustration 6 The average value of six numbers 7, 12, 17, 24, 26 and 28 is 19. If 8 is added to each number, what
will be the new average?
Solution The new average = x +a.
= 19+8 = 27.
Illustration 7 The average value of x numbers is 5x. If x – 2 is subtracted from each given number, what will be the
new average?
Solution The new average =x -a.
= 5x- (x-2) = 4x +2.
Illustration 8 The average of 8 numbers is 21.If each of the numbers multiplied by 8, find the average of a new set
of numbers.
Solution The average of a new set of numbers
= ax = 8 21 = 168.
3. The average of n quantities is equal to x. If one of the given quantities whose value is p, is replaced by a new
quantity having value q, the average becomes y, then q = p+n(y-x)
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Illustration 9 The average weight of 25 persons is increased by 2 kg when one of them whose weight is 60kg, is
replaced by a new person. What is the weight of the new person?
Solution The weight of the new person

= p + n(y-x)
= 60 + 25(2)= 110kg
4. a). The average of n quantities is equal to x. When a quantity is removed, the average becomes y. The
value of the removed quantity is n(x- y)+y.
b) The average of n quantities is equal to x. When a quantity is added, the average
becomes y. The value of the new quantity is n(y-x)+y
Illustration10 The average are of 24 students and class teacher is16 years, If the class teacher’s age is excluded, the
average age reduces by 1 year. What is the age of the class teacher?
Solution The age of class teacher
= n(x- y) + y
= 25(16 – 15) + 15 = 40 years.
Illustration 11 The average age of 30 children in a class is 9 years. If the teacher’s age be included, the average age
becomes 10years. Find the teacher’s age.
Solution The teacher’s age
= n(y- x) + y
= 30(10 – 9) +100 = 40 years.
5. a).The average of first n natural numbers is (n +1) /2

b). The average of square of natural numbers till n is (n +1)(2n+1)/6.
c). The average of cubes of natural numbers till n is n(n +1)2/4
d). The average of odd numbers from 1 to n is (last odd number +1) / 2
e). The average of even numbers from 1 to n is (last even number + 2) / 2.
Illustration 12 Find the average of first 81natural number.

Solution The required average
= n + 1/ 2 = 81 + 1 /2 = 41.
Illustration 13 What is the average of squares of the natural numbers from 1 to 41?
= (n+1)(2n+1)/ 6 = (41+1)(241+1)/ 6
= 42  83/ 6 = 3486/ 6 = 581
Illustration 14 Find the average of cubes of natural numbers from 1 to 27.

= n(n +1)2 / 4 = 27(27+1)2 / 4
27  28  28 / 4 = 21168 / 4 = 5292.
Illustration 15 What is the average of odd numbers from 1 to 40?

= last odd number + 1/ 2 = 39 +1/ 4 =20.
Illustration 16 What is the average of even numbers from 1 to 81?

= last even number + 2/ 2 = 80+2 = 41.
6. a).If n is odd: The average of n consecutive numbers, consecutive even numbers or
consecutive odd numbers is always the middle number.
b). If n is even: The average of n consecutive numbers, consecutive even numbers or consecutive odd
numbers is always the average of the middle two numbers.
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c). The average of first n consecutive numbers is (n+1).
d). The average of first n consecutive odd numbers is n.
e). The average of squares of first n consecutive even number is2 (n+1)(2n+1) / 3.
f). The average of squares of consecutive even number till n is (n+)(n+2) / 3.
g). The average of squares of squares of consecutive odd numbers till n is n(n+2)/ 3.
h). If the average of n consecutive numbers is m, then the difference between the smallest and the largest
number is 2(n-1).
Illustration 17 Find the average of 7 consecutive numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

Solution The required average= middle number=6.
Illustration 18 Find the average of consecutive odd numbers 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35.
= average of middle two numbers
= average of 27 and 29
= 27+29 / 2 = 28.
Illustration 19 Find the average of first 31 consecutive even numbers.

Solution The required average = (n+1) = 31+ 1= 32.
Illustration 20 Find the average of first 50 consecutive odd numbers.

Solution The required average = n = 50.
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PROFIT AND LOSS
Business transactions have now-a-days become common feature of life. When a person deals in the purchase and
sale of any item, he either gains or loses some amount generally. The aim of any business is to earn profit. The
commonly used terms in dealing with questions involving sale and purchase are:
Cost Price The cost price of an article is the price at which an article has been purchased. It is the abbreviated as
C.P.
Selling Price The selling price of an article is the price at which an article has been sold. It is abbreviated as S.P.
Profit or Gain If the selling price of an article is more that the cost price, there is a gain or profit.
Thus, Profit or Gain = S.P- C.P.
Loss If the cost price of an article is greater than the selling price, the suffers a loss.
Thus, Loss = C.P- S.P.
Note that profit and loss are always calculated with respect to the cost price of the item.
Illustration 1. (i)If C.P. = Rs. 235, S.P. = Rs. 240, then profit = ?
(ii) If C.P. = Rs. 116, S.P. = Rs. 107, then loss = ?
Solution (i) Profit = S.P.- C.P. =Rs. 240- 235 =Rs.5.
(ii) Loss = C.P.- S.P. = Rs. 116- 107 =Rs.9.
SOME BASIC FORMULAE
1. Gain on Rs. 100 is Gain per cent

Gain% = (Gain  100)/C.P
Loss on Rs. 100 is Loss per cent
Loss% = (Loss  100)/C.P
Illustration 2 The cost price of a shirt is Rs. 200 and selling price is Rs. 250. Calculate the % profit.
Solution We have, C.P. = Rs. 200, S.P = Rs. 250.

Profit = S.P.- C.P. = 250- 200 =Rs.50.
 Profit% = profit 100/ C.P = 50 100/ 250 = 25%
Illustration 3 Anu bought a necklace for Rs. 750 and sold it for Rs. 675. Find her percentage loss.
Solution Here, C.P. = 750, S.P. = Rs. 675.
Loss= C.P- S.P. = 750-675 = Rs. 75.
 Loss% = Loss  100/ C.P = 75 100/ 750 = 10%
2. When the selling price and gain% are given:

C.P = 100S.P / (100+Gain%)
3. When the cost and gain per cent are given;

S.P = (100+Gain%)C.P/ 100
4. When the cost and loss per cent are given:

S.P = (100-Loss%)C.P / 100
5. When the selling price and loss per cent are given:
C.P =(100)S.P / (100-Loss%)
Illustration 4 Mr. Sharma buys a cooler for Rs. 4500. For how much should he so that there is a gain of 8%?
Solution We have, C.P. = Rs. 4500, gain% = 8%
S.P = (100+Gain%/100)C.P.
= (100+ 8/ 100)  4500
108/100  4500 = Rs. 4860
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Illustration 5 By selling a fridge Rs. 7200, Pankaj loses 10%. Find the cost price of the fridge.
Solution We have, S.P. = Rs. 7200, loss% = 10%.
 C.P =(100/100-Loss%)S.P.
= (100/100-10)  7200
100/90  7200= Rs. 8000.
Illustration 6 By selling a pen for Rs. 99, Mohan gains 12 ½ %. Find the cost price of the pen.
Solution Here, S.P. = Rs. 99, gain% = 12 ½% or 25/2%.
C.P =(100/100+Gain%)S.P.
= (100/100+25/2) 99
= (1002/ 225) 99 =Rs. 88
1. If a man buys x items for Rs. y and sells z items for Rs. w, then
the gain or loss per cent made by him is
(xw/zy -1)  100%.
Explanation
S.P. of z items = Rs. w
S.P. of x items = Rs. w/z x
Net profit =w/z x-y.
% profit = w/z x-y/y 100%
i.e.(xw/zy -1) 100,
which represent loss, if the result is negative.
Note: In the case of gain per cent the result obtained bears positive sign whereas in the case of loss per cent the
result obtained bears negative sign.
How to remember:
1. Cross-multiply the numbers connected by the arrows (xw and

zy)
2. Mark the directon of the arrows for crossmultiplicaton. The
arrow going down forms the numerator while the arrow going up forms the denominator (xw/ zy).
Illustration 7 If 11 oranges are bought for Rs. 10 and sold at 10 for Rs. 11 what is the gain loss%?
Solution
% profit= (xw/zy -1)  100%
= (1111/1010-1) 100%
= 21/100 100% = 21%
Illustration 8 A fruit seller buys apples at the rate of Rs 12 per dozen and sells them at the rate of 15 for Rs.12.
Find his percentage gain or loss.
Solution
% gain or loss = (xw/ zy -1)  100%
= (12 12/15 12 -1) 100%
= -36/144  100% = -25%
Since the sign is –ve, there is a loss of 25%.
2. If the cost price of m articles is equal to the selling price of

n articles, then
% gain or loss = ( m-n/n) 100
[If m > n, it is gain and if m<n, it is loss]
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Explanation
Let the C.P. of one article be Re.1
 C.P. of m articles = Rs. m1=Rs. m
S.P. of n articles = Rs. m
 S.P. of 1 articles = Rs. m/n
Profit on 1 article = Rs.(m/n-1)
i.e. Rs. (m-n/n)
 %profit = m-n/n  100/1 i.e.(m-n/n) 100.
Illustration A shopkeeper professes to sell his goods on cost price but uses 800 gm, instead of 1kg. What is his
gain %?
Solution Here, cost price of 1000 is equal to selling price of 800 gm.
 % gain = (m-n/n) 100
= (1000-800/800)  100
= 200/800100 =25%
Illustration 10 If the selling price of 12 articles is equal to the cost price of 18 articles, what is the profit %?
Solution Here, m = 10, n =12
 Profit %= (m-n/n) 100
(18-12/12) 100
= 6/12 100= 50%
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SIMPLE AND COMPOUND INTEREST
If P stands for Principal, R the rate per cent per annum, T the number of years, I the simple interest and A the
amount, then
1. Simple Interest = Principal  Rate  Time
100
or, I = P  R  T
100
Principal = 100  Simple Interest
Rate  Time
or, P = 100  I
RT
3. Rate = 100  Simple Interest
Principal  Time
or, R = 100  I
PT
4. Time = 100  Simple Interest
Rate  Principal
or, T = 100  I
RP
5. Amount = Principal + Simple Interest
= Principal + Principal  Rate  Time
100
Some Useful Short-Cut Methods

1. If a certain sum in T years at R% per annum amounts to Rs. A, then the sum will be
P = 100  A
100+RT
= Principal (1+(Rate Time)/100)
or, A = P (1 + (R  T)/100)
2. The annual payment that will discharge a debt of Rs. A due in T years at R% per annum is
Annual payment = Rs. (100A/(100T + RT(T – 1)/2))
3. If a certain sum is invested in n types of investments in such a manner that equal amount is obtained on each
investment where interest rates are R1, R2, R3, …, Rn respectively and time periods are T1, T2, T3, …, Tn respectively,
then the ratio in which the amounts are invested is
1/100+R1T1 : 1/100+R2T2
1/100+R3T3 : … 1/100+RnTn
4. If a certain sum of money becomes n times itself in T years at simple interest, then the rate of interest per annum
is R = 100(n – 1)/T %
5. If a certain sum of money becomes n times itself at R% per annum simple interest in T years, then
T = (n-1)/R)  100 years.
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6. If a certain sum of money becomes n times itself in T years at a simple interest, then the time T in which it will
become m times itself is given by
T = (m – 1/n – 1)  T years.
7. Effect of change of P, R and T on simple interest is given by the following formula:

= Product of fixed parameter/100  [difference of product of variable parameters]
for example, if rate ® changes from R1 to R2
and P, T are fixed then Change in SI = PT/100  (R1 – R2)
Similarly, if principal (P) changes from P1 to P2 and R, T are fixed, then change in SI = RT/100  (P1 – P2)
Also, if rate ® changes from R1 to R2 and time (T) changes from T1 to T2 but principal (P) is fixed, then
change in SI = P/100  (R1T1 – R2T2).
8. If a debt of Rs. Z is paid in ‘n’ number of instalments and if the value of each instalment is Rs. a, then the
borrowed (debt) amount is given by
Z = na + (Ra/100  b)  n(n – 1)/2
Where, R = rate of interest per annum
b = no. of instalments/year
b = 1, when each instalment is paid yearly
b = 2, when each instalment is paid half-yearly
b = 4, when each instalment is paid quarterly
b = 12, when each instalment is paid monthly.
9. If a certain sum of money P lent out at SI amounts to A1 in T1 years and to A2 in T2 years, then
P = A1T2 – A2T1
T2 – T1
and, R = A1 – A2/A1T2 - A2T1  100%
10. If a certain sum of money P lent out for a certain time T amounts to A1 at R1% per annum and to A2 at R2% per
annum, then
P = A2R1 – A1R2/R1 – R2
and, T = A1 – A2  100 years.
A2R1-A1R2
11. If an amount P1 lent at simple interest rate of R1% per annum and another amount P2 at simple interest rate of
R2% per annum, then the rate of interest for the whole sum is R = (P1R1+P2R2/P1+P2).
12. If a certain sum of money is lent out in n parts in such a manner that equal sum of money is obtained as simple
interest on each part where interest rates are R1, R2, …, Rn respectively and time periods are T1, T2, …, Tn
respectively, then the ratio in which the sum will be divided in n parts is given by
1/R1T1 : 1/R2T2 : …1/RnTn
13. When there is a change in principal (P), Rate (R) and Time (T), then the value of simple interest I also changes
and is given by
I1/I2 = P1  R1  T1/P2  R2  T2
 A1 – P1/A2 – P2 = P1  R1  T1/P2  R2  T2
as I1 = A1 – P1 and I2 = A2 – P2.
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14. Out of a certain sum P, 1/a part is invested at R1%, 1/b part at R2% and the remainder (1-1/a-1/b) say 1/c part at
R3%. If the annual income from all these investments is Rs. A, then the original sum is given by
P = ((A  100)/R1/A+R2/B+R3/C)
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TIME WORK
In our daily life, we come across situations where we need to complete a particular job in a reasonable time. We
have to complete the project earlier or later depending upon the needs. Accordingly, the men on duty have to be
increased or decreased, i.e. the time allowed and the men engaged for a project are inversely proportional to each
other, i.e. the more the number of men involved, the lesser is the time required to finish a job. We also come across
situations where time and work or men and work are in direct proportion to each other.
For solving problems on time and work, we follow the following general rules:
1. If ‘A’ can do a piece of working ‘A’ will finish 1/nth work
in one day.
2. If 1/n of a work is done by ‘A’ in one day, then ‘A’ will take
n days to complete the full work.
3. If ‘ A’ does 1/nth of a work in one hour then to complete the
full work, ‘A’ will take n/m hours.
4. If ‘ A’ does three times faster work than ‘B’ then ratio of
work done by A and B is 3:1 and ratio of time taken by A and B is1: 3.
5. A, B and C can do a piece of work in T1, T2 and T3, days,
respectively. If they have worked for D1, D2 and D3 days respectively, then
Amount of work dine by A= D1/T1
Amount of work dine by B= D2/T2
And, Mount of work done by C=D3/T3
Also, the amount of work done by A, B and C together
= D1/T1+D2/T2+D3/T3
Which will be equal to 1, if the work is complete?
1. If A can do a piece do a piece of work in X days and B can

do the same work in Y days, then both of them working together will do the same work in XY/ X+Y days.
Explanation
A’s 1 day’s work = 1/X

B’s 1 day’s work = 1/Y
Then,(A+B)’s 1 day’s work = 1/X+1/Y= X+Y/XY
 A and B together can complete the work on
= XY/ X+Y days.
Illustration 1 A can finish a piece of work by working alone in 6 days and B, while works alone, can finish the
same work in 12days. If both of them work together, then in how many days, the work will be finished?
Solution Here, X= 6 and y = 12.

Working together, A and B will complete the work
in = XY/ X+Y days = 612/6+12 days, i.e. 4days.
2. If A, B and C, while working alone, can complete a work in

X, Y and Z days respectively, then they will together complete the work in XYZ/XY+YZ+ZX days.
Explanation
A’s 1 day’s work = 1/X
B’s 1 day’s work = 1/Y
C’s 1 day’s work = 1/Z
 (A+B+C)’s 1 days work
=1/X+1/Y+1/Z = (XY+YZ+ZX)/XYZ.
So, A, B and C together can complete the work in = (XYZ/ XY+YZ+ZX) days.
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Illustration 2 A,B and C can complete a piece of work in 10, 15 and 18 days, respectively. In how many days
would all of them complete the same work working together?
Solution Here, X=10, Y=15 and Z= 18.
Therefore, the work will be completed in
= XYZ/ XY+YZ+ZX days.
= 101518/10 15 +15 18+18 10 days,
i.e. 2700/600 or, 4 ½ days.
3. Two persons A and B, working together , can complete a

piece of work in X days. If A, working alone, can complete the work in XY/Y-X days.
Explanation
A and B together can complete the work in X days.
(A+B)’s 1 day’s work = 1/X
Similarly, A’s 1day’s work= 1/Y
There fore, B’s 1 day’s work =1/X-1/Y= Y-X/XY
B alone can complete the work in (XY/Y-X)days
B alone will complete the work in
Illustration 3 A and B working together take 15 days to complete a piece of work. If A alone can do this work in 20
days, how long would B take to complete the same work?
Solution Here, X = 15, and Y=20.
= XY/Y-X days =1520/20-15, i.e. 60 days
4. If A and B, working together, can finish a piece of work in

X days, B and C in Y days, then
a) A, B and C working together, will finish the job in (2XYZ/XY+YZ- ZX) days.
b) A alone will finish the job in (2XYZ/XY+YZ- ZX) days.
c) B alone will finish the job in (2XYZ/ZX+XY- YZ) days.
Explanation
(A+B)’s 1 day’s work = 1/X
(B+C)’s 1 day’s work = 1/Y
(C+A)’s 1 day’s work = 1/Z
So, [(A+B) + (B+C)+ (C+A)]’s 1 day’s work = 1/X+1/Y+1/Z
or, 2(A+B+C)’s 1day’s work = (1/X+1/Y+1/Z)
or, (A+B+C)’s 1day’s work = ½ (1/X+1/Y+1/Z)
i.e (XY+YZ-XZ/2XYZ)
 A, B and C working together, will complete the work in (2XYZ/XY+ZX-XY) days.
Also, A’s 1 days work – (A+B+C)’s 1day’s work –(B+C)’s 1 days work
= ½ (1/X+1/Y+1/Z)- 1/Y
= ½ (1/X-1/Y+1/Z)
= XY+YZ-XZ/2XYZ
So. A alone can do the work in (2XYZ/XY+YZ+XZ) days
Similarly, B alone can do the work in (2XYZ/YZ+XY+XY) days and C alone can do the work
in(2XYZ/ZX+XY+YZ) days.
Illustration 4 A and B can do a piece of work in 12 days, B and C 15 days, C and A in 20 days. How long would
each take separately to do the same work?
Solution Here, X = 12, Y=15 and Z=20.
A alone can do the work in = 2XYZ/XY+YZ-ZX
= 2121520/1215+1520-2012 days. or, 7200/240, i.e. 30 days.
B alone can do the work in = 2XYZ/ZY+ZX-XY days
= 2121520/1520+2012-1215 days or, 7200/360, i.e. 20 days.
C alone can do the work in = 2XYZ/ZX+XY-YZ
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= 2121520/2012+1215-1520 or, 7200/120, i.e. 60 days.
5. (a) If A can finish a work in X days and B is k times efficient
than A, then the time taken by both A and B working together to complete the work is x/1+k.
(b) If A and B working together can finish a work in X days and B is k times efficient than A, then the time
taken by
(i) A, working alone, to complete the work is (k+1)X.
(ii) B, working alone, to complete the work is (k+1/k)X.
Illustration 5 Harbans Lal can do a piece of work in 24 days. If Bansi Lal works twice as fast as Harbans Lal, how
long would they take to finsh the work working together?
Solution Here, X =24 and k=2.
Time taken by Harbans Lal and Bansi Lal, woking together, to complete the work
= (X/1+k)days.
= (24/1+2) days, i.e. 8 days
Illustration 6 A and B together can do a piece of work in 3 days. If A does thrice as much work as B in a given
time, find how long A lone would take to do the work?
Solution Here, X = 3 and k = 3.
Time taken by A, working alone, to complete the work
= (k+1/k) X = (3+1/3)3 = 4days
6. If A working alone takes a days more than A and B working alone takes b days more than
A and B together, then the number of days taken by A and B, working together, to finish a job is given by
ab.
Illustration 7 A alone would take 8 hours more to complete the job than if both A and B worked together. If B
worked alone, he took 4 ½ hours more to complete the job than A and B worked together. What time would they
take if both A and B worked together?
Solution Here, a = 8 and b = 9/2.
Time taken by A and B, working together, to complete the job
=  ab days
=  8×9/2 or, 6days.
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Time and Distance
The terms ‘Time’ and ‘Distance’ are related to the speed of a moving object.
Speed: We define the speed of an object as the distance covered by it in a unit time interval. It is obtained by
dividing the distance covered by the object, by the time it takes to cover that distance.
Thus, Speed = Distance traveled/ Time taken
Notes:
1. If the time taken is constant, the distance traveled is proportional to the speed, that is,
more the speed; more the distance traveled in the same time.
2. If the speed is constant, the distance traveled is proportional to the time taken, that is,
more the distance traveled; more the time taken at the same speed.
3. If the distance traveled is constant, the speed is inversely proportional to the time taken,
that is, more the speed; less the time taken for the same distance traveled.
SOME BASIC FORMULAE
1. Speed = Distance/Time
2. Distance – Speed × Time
3. Time = Distance/speed
Units of Measurement
Generally if the distance is measured in kilometre, we measure time in hours and speed in kilometre per hour and is
written as km/hr and if the distance is measured in metre then time is taken in second and speed in metre per second
and is written as m/sec.
Conversion of Units
One kilometre/hour = 1000metre/60×60 seconds = 5/18 m/sec.
One metre/second = 18/5km/hr.
Thus, x km/hr =(x ×5/18) m/sec.
and, x m/sec. =(x ×18/5) km/hr.
Illustration 1 Calculate the speed of a train which covers a distance of 150 km in 3 hours.
Solution Speed =Distance covered/Time taken= 150/3
= 50km/hr
Illustration 2 How long does a train 100 metres long running at the rate of 40 km/hr take to cross a telegraphic
pole?
Solution In crossing the pole. the train must travel its own length.
Distance traveled is 100 metres.
Speed = 40 km/hr. = 40×1000/ 60×60 = 100/9m/sec.
 Time taken to cross the pole = 100/(100/9)
= 9seconds.
Illustration 3 A train running at a speed of 90 km/hr passes a pole on the platform in 20 seconds. Find the length of
the train in metres.
Solution Speed of the train = 90km/hr
=90×5/18 = 15 m/sec.
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 Length of the train = Speed of the train × time taken in crossing the pole
=25× 20=500m.
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1. (a) If A covers a distance d1 km at s1 km/hr and then d2 km at s2 km/hr, then the average
speed during the whole journey is given by
*(1) Average speed = s1s2(d1 + d2)/s1d2 + s2d1 km/hr.
(b) if A goes from X to Y at s1 km/hr. and comes back from Y to X at s2 km/hr., then the average speed
during the whole journey is given by
Average speed 2s1s2/s1+s2
Explanation
a) Time taken to travel d1 km at s1km/hr is t1 = d1/s1 hr.
Time taken to travel d2 km at s2 km/hr is t2 = d2/s2 hr.
Total time taken = t1 + t2 = (d1/s1+d2/s2)hr
= (s1d2 + s2d2/s1d1/s1s2)hr
Total distance covered = (d1 +d2)km. Therefore,
Average speed =Total distance covered / Total time taken
= s1s2(d1+d2)/(s1d2+s2d1)km/hr …(i)
b) Let the distance from X to Y be d km.
Take d1 = d2 =d in (i), we get
Average speed = 2ds1s2/d(s1+s2) = 2s1s2/s1s2.
*(2) Illustration 4 A ship sails to a certain city at the speed of 15 knots/hr and sails back to the same point at the
rate of 30 knots/hr. What is the average speed for the whole journey?
Solution Here, s1 = 15 and s2 = 30.
 Average speed = 2s1s2/s1+s2 = 2×15×30/ 15+30
=20knots/hr.
2. A person goes certain distance(A to B) at a speed of s1 km/hr. and returns back (B

to A) at a speed of s2 km/hr. If the takes T hours in all, the distance between A and B is
T(s1s2/s1+s2)
Explanation
Let the distance between A and B be d km
Time taken during onward journey = t1= d/s1 hrs
Time taken during return journey = t2= d/s2 hrs
 Total time taken during the entire journey is T = t1+t2 = d/s1+d/s2= d(s1+s2)/s1s2
d = T(s1s2/s1+s2)
Thus, the distance between A and B is = T(s1s2/s1+s2)
= Total time taken × Product of two speeds/Sum of two speeds
*(3) Illustration 5 A boy goes to school with the speed of 3 km an hour and returns with a speed of 2 km/hr. if he
takes 5 hours in all, find the distance in km between the village and the school.
Solution Here, s1 =3, s2 = 2 and T = 5.
The distance between the village and the school= T (s1s2/s1+s2) =5(3×2/3+2) = 6km.
3. If two persons A and B start at the same time from two points P and Q towards each
other and after crossing they take T1 and T2 hours in reaching Q and P reactively, then
*(4) A’s speed/B’s speed =T2/ T1.
Explanation
Let the total distance between P and Q be d km.
Let the speed of A be s1 km/hr and that of B be s2 km/hr.
Since they are moving in opposite directions, their relative speed is (s1 +s2)km/hr.
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AGE PROBLEMS
Problems based on ages are generally asked in most of the company examinations, To solve these problems, the
knowledge of linear equations is essential. In such problems, there may be three situations:
i. Age some years ago
ii. Present age
iii. Age some years hence
Two of these situations are given and it is required to find the third. The relation between the age of two persons
may also be given. Simple linear equations are framed and their solutions are obtained. Sometimes, shortcut
methods given below are also helpful in solving such problems.
1. If the age of A, t years ago, was n times the age of B and at present A’s age is n2
times that of B, then
A’s present age = (n1-1/n1-n2) n2 t years
and, B’s present age =(n1-1/n1-n2)t years
Explanation
Let the present age of B be x years.
Then, the present age of A =n2 x years Given, t years ago,
n1(x-t)=n2x-t or, (n1-n2)x = (n1-1) t or, x=(n1-1/n1-n2) t years.
Therefore, B’s present age = (n1-1/n1-n2) t years.
And, A’s present age =(n1-1/n1-n2)n2 t years
Illustration 1 The age of father is 4 times the age of his son. If 5 years age father’s age was 7 times the age of his
son at that time, what is father’s present age?
Solution The father’s present age = (n1-1/n1-n2)n2t [Here, n1 =7, n2=4 and t=5]
=(7-1/7-4) 4×5 = 6×4×5/3 = 40years.
2. The present age of A is n1 times the present age of B. If t years hence, the age of A
would be n2 time that of B, then
A’s present age = (n1-1/n1-n2)n2 t years and B’s present age = (n1-1/n1-n2)t years
Explanation
Let the present age of B be x years. Then, the present age of A= n1x Given, t years hence, (n1x +t)=n2 (x+t)
or (n1-n2)x = (n2-1)t or, x=(n2-1/n1-n2)t
Therefore, B’s present age =(n2-1/n1-n2)n1t years
and, A’s present age =(n2-1/n1-n2)n1t years
Illustration 2 The age of Mr. Gupta is four times the age of his son. After ten years, the age of Mr. Gupta will be
only twice the age of his son. Find the present age of Mr. Gupta’s son.
Solution The present age of Mr. Gupta’s son = (n2-1/n1-n2)t
=(2-1/4-2)10
[Here, n1 = 4, n2 = 2 and t=10]= 5years.
3. The age of A, t1 years ago, was n1 times the age of B. If t2 years hence A’s age would
be n2 times that of B, then,
A’s present age =n1(t1+t2)(n2-1)/n1-n2 +t1 years
and, B’s present age =t2(n2-1)t1(n1-1)/n1-n2 years.
Explanation
Let A’s present age=x years and B’s present age=y years.
Given:x-t1 = n1(y-t1) and x+t2 =n2(y+t2)
i.e. x-n1y=(1-n1)t1 ....(1)
and x-n2y=(-1+n1)t2...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get x=n1(t1+t2)(n2-1)/n1-n2 +t1
and, y= t2(n2-1)+t2(n2-1)/n1-n2.
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Illustration 3 10 years ago Anu’s mother was 4 times older than her daughter. After 10 years, the mother will be
twice older than the daughter. Find the present age of Anu.
Solution Present age of Anu = t1(n2-1)+t1(n1-1)/n1-n2
[Here, n1 =4, n2= 2, t1= 10 and t2 =10]
=10(2-1) +10(4-1)/4-2 = 10-30/2 =20years.
4. The sum of present ages of A and B is S year. If, t years ago of A was n times the
age of B, then
Present age of A =Sn-t(n-1)/n-1 years, and Present age of B= S+t(n-1)/n+1 years.
Explanation
Let the present ages of A and B be x and y years respectively.
Given: x+y = S …(1)
and, x-t =n(y-t)
or x-ny = (1-n)t
Solving (1) and (2), we get x=Sn-t(n-1)/n+1.
y= S+t(n-1)/n+1.
Illustration 4 The sum of the ages of A and B is 42 years 3 years back, the age of A was 5 times the age of B. Find
the difference between the present ages of A and B.
Solution Here, S=42, n=5 and t =3
Present age of A
= Sn-t(n-1)/n+1= 42×5-3(5-1)/5+1
= 198/6=33 years
and, present age of B
5+t(n+1)/n+1 = 42+3(5-1/5+1
=54/6=9years.
Difference between the present ages of A and B =33-9=24 years.
Note: If, instead of sum(S), difference (D) of their ages is given, replace S by D and in the age denominator
(n+1) by (n-1) in the above formula.
5. The sum of present ages of A and B is S years. If, t years hence, the age of A would
be n times the age of B, then
Present age of A=Sn+t(n-1)/n+1 years
and, present age of B = S-t(n-1)/n+1 years.
Explanation
Let the present ages of A and be x and y years, respectively
Given: x+y=S ….(1)
and, x+t=n(y+t)
or, x-ny=t(n-1) ….(2)
Solving(1) and (2), we get
x= Sn+t(n-1)/n+1
and, y= S-t(n-1)/n+1
Illustration 5 The sum of the ages of a son and father is 56 years. After four years, the age of the father will be three
times that of the son. Find their respective ages.
Solution The age of father
= Sn+t(n-1)/n+1= 56×3+4(3-1)/3+1
[Here, S=56, t=4 and n=3]
= 176/4= 44years.
The age of son = Sn-t(n-1)/n+1
= 56-4(3-1)/3+1
= 48/4 = 12 years.
6. If the ratio of the present ages of A and B is a: b and t years hence, it will be c: d,
then
A’s present age = at(c-d)/ad-bc
and, B’s present age= bt(c-d)/ ad-bc
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Illustration 6 The ratio of the age of father and son at present is 6 : 1. After 5 years, the ratio will become 7:2. Find
the present age of the son.
Solution The present age of the son = bt(c-d)/ ad –bc
[Here, a =6, b=1, c=7, d=2 and t=5]
=1×5(7-2)/6×2-1×7 = 5years.
Note:
If, with the ratio of present ages, the ratio of ages t years age is given, then replace t by(-t) in the above formula.
Illustration 7 6 years ago Mahesh was twice as old as Suresh. If the ratio of their present ages is 9 : 5 respectively,
what is the difference between their present ages?
Solution Present age Mahesh
=--at(c-d)/ad-bc
=-9×6(2-1)/1×9-5×2
[Here, a=9, b=5, c=2, d=1 and t =6]
=54 years
Present age of Suresh
-bt(c-d)/ad-bc
= -5×6(2-1)/1×9-5×2 =30 years.
Difference of their ages =54-30=24 years.
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PLANE GEOMETRY
Lines And Angles

Any two straight lines which meet at a point make an angle. The angle made by the two straight lines could be any
of the following.
Some basic properties of angles.
Any straight line makes an angle of 1800. In the figure 1 and 2 are called adjacent angles. The sum of these angles is
equal to 1800. They are called supplementary angles to each other.
The sum of the angles made at a point is equal to 3600. So, (1+2+3+4+5) = 3600.
Whe
n two lines intersect as in the adjacent figure they form a pair of vertically opposite angle (1, 4) and (2, 3). A pair of
vertically opposite angles are equal.
So, 1 = 4 and 2 = 3.
Parallel lines AB and CD are lines that are separated by a constant distance. They do not have any point of
intersection. Any line that cuts a pair of parallel lines is called a transversal.
The angles formed by the transversal with the parallel lines have the following properties.
(a) The correcponding angles are equal i.e. 1 = 5, 2 = 6, 3 = 7, and 4 = 8.

(b) The alternate angles are equal 4 = 5, 3 = 6.
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(c) The interior angles add up to 1800, i.e. 4 + 6 = 1800 and 3 + 5 = 1800
Conversely, whenever the corresponding angles are equal or the alternate angles are equal or the interior angles are
supplementary, when a straight line cuts two other lines, then we can conclude that the two lines are parallel.
If the sum of two angles is 900, then they are complementary to each other. If they add up to 1800, then they are said
to be supplementary to each other.
If more than two straight lines intersect at one and the same point they are called concurrent lines. If there are three
lines, if no two of them are parallel and they are not concurrent, then they form a closed figure. Such closed figures
formed by three lines are called triangles.
Definition and Basic Properties

A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight lines.
 In a triangle, the side which is opposite to (or facing) the largest angle is the longest side and the side which
is facing the smallest angle is the shortest side.
 The sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is always greater than the length of the third side.
 The sum of the internal angles in a triangle is equal to 1800.
Nomenclature Associated
The corners of the triangle are called its vertices. Generally, the side opposite a vertex is represented by the same
nomenclature but in a different case. For example, the side opposite “A” would be named “a”. The side opposite
“B” and “C” would be named as “b” and “c” respectively.
The angles associated with these vertices are called the interior angles. Each interior has an associated exterior angle
which can be obtained by extending any one side of the angle. The interior and the exterior angels are
supplementary.
Altitude or Height
The perpendicular dropped to the side of a triangle from the vertex opposite that side.
The perimeter of any triangle is the sum of the lengths of its sides.
Perimeter = a + b + c
Semi – perimeter (s) = (a + b + c)/2
Area = (base  height)/2 (OR) s ( s  a )( s  b)( s  c )
Types of Triangles
Scalene, when its sides (and angles) are unequal
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Area = s ( s  a )( s  b)( s  c )
Equilateral, when all its sides (and angles) are equal.
AB=AC=BC  a=b=c. A=B=C=600.
Perimeter = 3a
3 2
Area = a
4
3
Height = a
4
Isosceles, when two of its sides (and two angles opposite the two equal sides) are equal. AB = AC and B = C.
Perimeter = 2a + b
1
Area =  b  4a 2  b 2
2
1
Height =  4a  b
2 2
Right Angled, when one of its angles is a right angle. B = 900 and A+C = 900
1
Area = ac
2
Pythagoras Theorem
The side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse. Then, from Pythagoras theorem,
a2+c2 = b2
A triplet is a set of numbers which will satisfy the Pythagoras theorem. The frequently used triplets are (3, 4, 5) (5,
12, 13) (7, 24, 25) (8, 15, 17) (9, 40, 41) (11, 60, 61) (12, 35, 37) (16, 63, 65) (20, 21, 29). The multiples of triplets
are also triplets. Example : 6, 8, 10.
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Right Angled Isosceles, when one of its angles is a right angle, and the sides containing the right angle are equal.
AB = BC and A = C = 450
Perimeter = 2a + b
1 2 1
Area = a = b2
2 4
Simple Trigonometric Ratios
Consider a right triangle : With reference to angle A, the following trigonometric ratios are defined:
Sine of the angle : sin (A) or sinA = (Opposite side/Hypotenuse)

Cosine of the angle : cos(A) or cosA = (Adjacent side/Hypotenuse)
Tangent of the angle : tan(A) or tanA = (Opposite side/Adjacent side)
A quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides. A quadrilateral has four sides and four internal angles. The sum of the
internal angles, i.e. A + B + C + D = 3600, since the quadrilateral can be split into two triangles.
Quadrilaterals can be classified based on relationships within its sides.
Parallelogram
A quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel is called a parallelogram.
Basic Properties
 The opposite sides are parallel and of equal length. AB=DC and AD = BC.
 The sum of any two adjacent interior angles is equal to two right angles or 1800.
A+B=+B+C=C+D=D+A=1800.
 The OPPOSITE Angles are equal in magnitude. A=C and B=D.
 The diagonals of a parallelogram are not equal in magnitude, but they bisect each other, and from two pairs
of congruent triangles.
 Perimeter = (Twice the sum of non parallel sides) = 2(AB + BC)
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 Area = (base  height) = (b  h) where the height h is the perpendicular distance between the base and the
side parallel to it.
If D is one of the diagonals, and if a, b are two adjacent sides of parallelogram, then

Area  2  
s( s  a )( s  b)( s  D) , where s 
abc
2
 BD2+AC2 = 2(BC2 + CD2)
 The line joining the midpoints of two adjacent sides of a parallelogram is parallel and half the length of the
corresponding diagonal of the parallelogram. This line cuts the other diagonal in the ratio of 1:3.
 The line joining the midpoint of a side of a parallelogram with one of the opposite vertices cuts one of the
diagonals in the ratio of 1:2.
Rhombus
A rhombus is a special case of a parallelogram where all the sides are of equal length.
Basic Properties
 The opposite sides are parallel and all sides are of equal length. AB = BC = CD = DA.
 The sum of any two adjacent interior angles is equal to two right angles or 1800.
A+B=B+C=C+D=D+A=1800.
 The opposite angles are equal. A=C and B=D.
 The diagonals bisect each other at right angles and form four right angled triangles.
Thus BE=DE=BD/2 and AE=CE=AC/2 and AEB=BEC=CED=DEA=900.
 Perimeter = (4side) = 4AB = 4BC = 4CD = 4AD
 The area of a rhombus = half the product of its diagonals = ½ m AC BD.
 Areas of the four right triangles, AEB, BEC, CED, DEA are equal and each equals 1/4th the area of
the Rhombus.
2 2
 AC   BD 
 ( side) 2     
 2   2 
Rectangle
A rectangle is a special case of a parallelogram where the adjacent sides are perpendicular to each other.
Basic Properties
1. The opposite sides are parallel and of equal length. AB=CD and AD=BC. The longer side is called the length (L)
and the shorter side the Breadth (B).
2. The adjacent sides are perpendicular. A=B=C=D=900
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3. The diagonals of a rectangle are of equal length and bisect each other. AC=BD; AE=BE=CE=DE.
4. Perimeter = 2(L + B) Area = (Length  Breadth) = L  B
5. If L is the length and D the diagonal, from Pythagoras theorem, Breadth B  D 2  L2
Conversely, if B is the breadth and D the diagonal, from Pythagoras theorem, Length L  D2  B2
Parallel Path (Shaded Portion)
ABCD is a rectangle. SU and TV are two paths drawn parallel to the W is the width of each parallel path.
Area of two parallel paths (shaded portion) = W(l+b-W)
Square
A square is a special case of a parallelogram where all the sides are of equal length and perpendicular to each other.
Thus it is a rhombus and a rectangle also.
Basic Properties

All the sides of the square are equal. Opposite sides are parallel and adjacent sides are perpendicular.
AB=BC=CD=DA. A=B=C=D=900.

The diagonals of a square are of equal length and bisect each other at right angles, AC=BD and
AE=BE=CE=DE.

Perimeter = 4a Area = a2

Diagonal of the square, from Pythagoras theorem =  2a Thus area of square = (Diagonal)2/2

Of all quadrilateral with a given area, the square is the one which has the least perimeter.

Of all quadrilaterals with a given perimeter, the square is the one which has the greatest area.
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Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral where only one pair of opposite sides are parallel. All parallelograms are thus
trapeziums (converse is not true).
The Area of a trapezium = half the sum of the lengths of the parallel sides multiplied by the perpendicular distance
between them.
1
Area = ( AD  BC )h
2
Circles
A circle is a set of points which are equidistant from a given point. The given point is known as the center of that
circle. The angle in a circle is 3600.
Basic Constructs
The distance from the centre of the circle to any point on it is known as the radius (R). A circle is completely
defined by its radius and its position can be fixed if its centre’s position is given. Twice the radius is known as the
diameter (D).
Thus D = 2R.
Circumference
All the points which lie on the circle constitute the circumference. The ratio of the circumference to the diameter is a
constant for any circle and is given by D=2R.
Secant
Any line which passes through the circle is called a secant. A secant cuts the circumference of the circle at two
points.
Chord
Any line segment whose ends lie on the circumference of the circ le is called a chord of that circle. A chord which
passes through the centre of the circle is the diameter.
Tangent
A line which touches the circle at one point is called a tangent to that circle. The point common to the tangent and
the circumference of the circle is called the point of contact. The radius of the circle and the tangent to the circle are
perpendicular at the point of contact.
Area
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The Area contained the circle is determined by R2, where R is the radius of the circle.
Arc
A part of the circumference of a circle is called an arc. Each arc has an angle associated with it which it subtends at
the centre of the circle. This central angle is related to the length of the arc through the metric of radian.
By definition, the radian is that angle which is subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of length equal to the
radius of that circle. Consequently, since the full circle is 2r (circumference of circle), a full circle would
correspond to 2 radians.
There is a direct relationship between degrees and radians i.e. 3600 is 2 radians. Similarly, 1800 would be radians
and so on.
Sector
A sector is part cut from the circle bounded by an arc and the radii drawn from the centre of the circle to the arc’s
ends. The radii form the centrally subtended angle between them. The area of a sector is directly proportional to this
angle and it is equal to that of a full circle if this angle is 3600.
Arcs and Sectors

For a circle of radius R, if the central angle subtended by an arc is 0, then
 0     0 
Length of Arc L  2R 0
 Perimeter of sector =  2 R  2R 
0 
 360    360 
 0 
Area of the sector = R 2 0

 360 
 Length of the Arc   2 
From the above two relations, it is obvious that     
 Area of Sector   R 
In case the central angle is given in radians (say  radians), then
Length of arc = R Perimeter of the sector = (2R) + (R)
Area of the sector = ½ (R2)
Circular Pathway
OAC is a circle of radius = r, there is pathway, outside the circle of width = W

Area of circular pathway =   W(2r + W)
When, the pathway is inside the circle, Area of circular pathway =   W(2r – W)
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Properties of Circles
The properties of circles can be categorized in the following classes:
A: Arcs, Chords and Central angles
B: Angles in a circle
C: Chords in a circle
D: Tangents to a circle
E: Pair of circles
F: Cyclic quadrilaterals
A. ARCS, Chords And Central Angles

 In equal circles (or in the same circle), if two arcs are equal, the chords associated with the arcs are equal.
 In equal circles (or in the same circle), if two arcs subtend equal angles at the centres or at the circumferences of
the circles, then they are equal.
 In equal circles (or in the same circle), if two chords are equal, then the arcs which they cut off are equal.
B. Angle in a circle
 The angle which an arc of a circle subtends at the centre is double that which it subtends at any point on the
remaining part of the circumference.
 Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
 The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
C. Chords in a circle
 A straight line drawn from the centre of a circle to bisect a chord, which is not a diameter, is at right angles to
the chord, i.e. if OP bisects AB then OP  AB. Conversely, the perpendicular to chord from the centre bisects
the chord, i.e. if OPAB then AP = PB.
 Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre. Conversely, The chords that are equidistant from the
centre are equal.
 If two chords of a circle, AB & CD, intersect internally at O, then AO  OB = CO  OD.
D. Tangents to a circle
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 The tangent at any pint of a circle and the radius through that point of contact are perpendicular to each other.
OT is perpendicular to PT.
 If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an outside point, the length of the tangents from the external point to
their respective points of contact are equal, i.e. PA = PB.
 The angle which a chord makes with a tangent at its point of contact is equal to any angle in the alternate
segment, i.e. PTA = TBA.
 If PT is a tangent (with P being an external point and T being the point of contact) and PAB is a secant to circle
(with A and B as the points where the secant cuts the circle), then PT2 = PA  PB
E. Pair of Circles
 If two circles touch each other, the point of contact of he two circles lies on the straight line through the centres
of the circles, i.e. the points A, C, B are collinear.
 In a given pair of circles, there are two types of tangents – the direct tangents and the cross (or transverse)
tangents. In the figure given alongside, the direct tangents are AB and CD while EF and GH are the transverse
tangents.
 When two circles of radii R1 and R2 have their centres at a distance of d,
The length of direct common tangent = d 2  r 2 , where r = R1 – R2
The length of the transverse tangent is d 2  ( R1  R2 ) 2
Note that if the two circles touch d = R1 + R2
F. Cyclic Quadrilateral
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A quadrilateral whose vertices lie on the circumference of a circle  called cyclic quadrilateral.
 The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
In the given figure ADC + ABC =  +  = 1800.
 The area of a cyclic quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d is
abcd
( s  a )( s  b)( s  c )( s  d ) , where s =
2
Geometrical relationships
 Of all surface with a given area, the circle is the one which has the least perimeter.
 Of all surfaces with a given perimeter, the circle is the one which has the greatest area.
 If a circle is inscribed in a square, the diameter of the circle is equal to the side of the square. The area of the
  2
largest circle that can be inscribed in a square of side ‘a’ is  a
4
 If a square/rectangle is inscribed in a circle, then the diagonal of the square/rectangle is equal to the diameter of
the circle. Area of a square inscribed in a circle of radius r is 2 r2.
 If a circle is inscribed in a rectangle, the diameter of the circle is equal to the smaller side of the rectangle.
  2
 The area of a circle circumscribing an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ is   a . The area of a circle inscribed
3
  2
in an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ is  a .
 12 
 Two circles are said to be concentric if their centres coincide.
Solids
Solids can be classified into two main divisions viz. solids with flat surfaces and solids with curved surface. Solids
with flat surfaces are described as polyhedrons while surfaces of revolution would form the important part of solids
with curved surfaces.
Polyhedrons
A polyhedron is a closed solid object formed using planar surfaces. It has an overall convex shape, no curved
surfaces and has no perforations.
Cuboid
A rectangular solid having six faces – all of which are rectangles.
Cuboid metrics
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Let the cuboid have dimensions of length L, breadth B, and height H.
Volume = (cross section area  height) = L  B  H cubic units.
Area of four walls (excluding top and bottom faces) = 2[(L+B)H].
Total surface area = 2(LB+BH+HL) sq. units. Length of the diagonals of a cuboid = L2  B 2  H 2 units
Hollow cuboid
Consider for example a carton used for packing. It is not completely solid. Besides, L, B and H, there will another
dimension, which is the thickness T.
If L, B and H are the external dimensions, then the internal dimensions are [L-2T], [B-2T] and [H-2T].
Volume of material used = (External Volume – internal Volume). Thus
Volume of material used = LBH – [(L-2T)(B-2T)(H-2T)] cubic units.
However, if it is an open box, that is the top face is missing, then the internal dimensions will be [L-2T], [B-2T] and
[H-T].
Cube
A rectangular 6-faced solid whose every face is a square.

Every cube is a cuboid also, such that L = B = H.
Cube Metrics
Let the length of the edge of the cube be A. Volume = [(area of cross section)  (height)] = A3 cubic units.
Area of four walls of a cube (excluding the top and bottom faces) = 4A2.
Total surface area of a cube = (sum of areas of all six faces) = 6A2 sq. units
Length of a diagonals of a cube = A3 units.
Hollow cube
If the thickness is T,
Volume of material used = External Volume – internal Volume = A3-{A-2T}3, in the case of closed box.
= A3 – [{A-2T}2 {A-T}], in the case of an open box.
Pyramid
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A pyramid is a polyhedron with a polygonal base and planar angular surfaces on the side leading to an apex point or
a vertex at the top. A regular pyramid has a regular polygonal base. A right regular pyramid is a regular pyramid in
which all the side surfaces (all surfaces except the base) are equal. The axis of a pyramid is an imaginary line joining
the midpoint of the base polygon to the top vertex of the pyramid. In a right regular pyramid, the axis is perfectly
vertical (i.e. it is perpendicular to the base). In case the axis is not perpendicular, a tilted pyramid is formed.
Pyramid metrics (Right regular pyramid with base polygon of N sides)

Volume = 1/3  Area of the base  height , where the height is the length of the axis.
Surface area = Area of the base + (N  area of each side)
Prism
Prism contains similar top and bottom face and the side faces are rectangular shape. Let P is the perimeter of base, H
is the height of the prism and B is the base area of the prism then volume = B  H, Lateral surface are = P  H, total
surface area = (P  H) + 2  B.
Solids with curved surfaces

These are generally obtained by revolving a planar surface about some axis. Symmetrical curved solids of revolution
are obtained when the surface being revolved is symmetrical (say a regular polygon) and the axis of revolution is
also properly chosen.
Cylinder
A solid formed when a rectangle is revolved about one of its sides is called the right circular cylinder.
Cylinder metrics
Let the base radius be R and the height be H.

Volume of the cylinder = area of cross-section  height or V = R2H cubic units.
Curved surface Area of the cylinder (excludes the areas of the top and bottom circular regions) = area of rectangle
whose sides are 2R and H or CSA=2RH sq. units.
Total surface Area = Curved Surface Area + Areas of the top and bottom circular regions or
TSA = 2RH + 2R2=2R[R+H] sq. units.
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If it is a hollow cylinder of thickness T, then internal base radius = r = R – T, Volume of material in a hollow
cylinder = External Volume – Internal Volume or V = (R2 – r2)H cubic units.
Cone
A solid formed by rotating a right angled triangle about one of the sides containing the right angle.
Cone Metrics
Let the Base Radius = R, Vertical Height = H, and Slant Height = L.

Volume = 1/3 (R2H cubic units) Slant Height L = R 2  H 2 units
Curved Surface Area = RL sq. units total Surface Area = R(R + L) sq. units
Frustrum
If a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base, then the lower part is called the frustrum of the cone, Let the radius of
the top = r and the radius of the base – R and height = h.
h2   R  r . Curved Surface Area = [r + R]L sq. units.
2
Slant Height L =
Total surface area = [(r + R)L + r2 + R2]sq. units.

h
 
Volume =    r  R  rR cubic units.
2 2
 3
Sphere
A solid formed when a circle is revolved about its diameter.
Sphere Metrics
Let the Radius of the Sphere = R.
Volume = 4/3 (R3 cubic units) Surface Area = 4R2 sq. units
If R and r are the external and internal radii of a spherical shell, then its Volume =
3

4 3

R  r 3 cubic units.
Geometrical Relationships
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 Of all solids with a given volume, the sphere is the one which has the lest surface area.
 Of all solids with a given surface area, the sphere is the one which has the greatest volume.
Hemisphere
2
Volume = R 3 cubic units Surface Area = 3R2 sq. units
3
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MENSURATION
Solids
Solids can be classified into two main divisions viz. solids with flat surfaces and solids with curved surface. Solids
with flat surfaces are described as polyhedrons while surfaces of revolution would form the important part of solids
with curved surfaces.
Polyhedrons
A polyhedron is a closed solid object formed using planar surfaces. It has an overall convex shape, no curved
surfaces and has no perforations.
Cuboid
A rectangular solid having six faces – all of which are rectangles.
Cuboid metrics
Let the cuboid have dimensions of length L, breadth B, and height H.

Volume = (cross section area  height) = L  B  H cubic units.
Area of four walls (excluding top and bottom faces) = 2[(L+B)H].
Total surface area = 2(LB+BH+HL) sq. units. Length of the diagonals of a cuboid = L2  B 2  H 2 units
Hollow cuboid
Consider for example a carton used for packing. It is not completely solid. Besides, L, B and H, there will another
dimension, which is the thickness T.
If L, B and H are the external dimensions, then the internal dimensions are [L-2T], [B-2T] and [H-2T].
Volume of material used = (External Volume – internal Volume). Thus
Volume of material used = LBH – [(L-2T)(B-2T)(H-2T)] cubic units.
However, if it is an open box, that is the top face is missing, then the internal dimensions will be [L-2T], [B-2T] and
[H-T].
Cube
A rectangular 6-faced solid whose every face is a square.

Every cube is a cuboid also, such that L = B = H.
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Cube Metrics
Let the length of the edge of the cube be A. Volume = [(area of cross section)  (height)] = A3 cubic units.
Area of four walls of a cube (excluding the top and bottom faces) = 4A2.
Total surface area of a cube = (sum of areas of all six faces) = 6A2 sq. units
Length of a diagonals of a cube = A3 units.
Hollow cube
If the thickness is T,
Volume of material used = External Volume – internal Volume = A3-{A-2T}3, in the case of closed box.
= A3 – [{A-2T}2 {A-T}], in the case of an open box.
Pyramid
A pyramid is a polyhedron with a polygonal base and planar angular surfaces on the side leading to an apex point or
a vertex at the top. A regular pyramid has a regular polygonal base. A right regular pyramid is a regular pyramid in
which all the side surfaces (all surfaces except the base) are equal. The axis of a pyramid is an imaginary line joining
the midpoint of the base polygon to the top vertex of the pyramid. In a right regular pyramid, the axis is perfectly
vertical (i.e. it is perpendicular to the base). In case the axis is not perpendicular, a tilted pyramid is formed.
Pyramid metrics (Right regular pyramid with base polygon of N sides)

Volume = 1/3  Area of the base  height , where the height is the length of the axis.
Surface area = Area of the base + (N  area of each side)
Prism
Prism contains similar top and bottom face and the side faces are rectangular shape. Let P is the perimeter of base, H
is the height of the prism and B is the base area of the prism then volume = B  H, Lateral surface are = P  H, total
surface area = (P  H) + 2  B.
Solids with curved surfaces

These are generally obtained by revolving a planar surface about some axis. Symmetrical curved solids of revolution
are obtained when the surface being revolved is symmetrical (say a regular polygon) and the axis of revolution is
also properly chosen.
Cylinder
A solid formed when a rectangle is revolved about one of its sides is called the right circular cylinder.
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Cylinder metrics
Let the base radius be R and the height be H.

Volume of the cylinder = area of cross-section  height or V = R2H cubic units.
Curved surface Area of the cylinder (excludes the areas of the top and bottom circular regions) = area of rectangle
whose sides are 2R and H or CSA=2RH sq. units.
Total surface Area = Curved Surface Area + Areas of the top and bottom circular regions or
TSA = 2RH + 2R2=2R[R+H] sq. units.
If it is a hollow cylinder of thickness T, then internal base radius = r = R – T, Volume of material in a hollow
cylinder = External Volume – Internal Volume or V = (R2 – r2)H cubic units.
Cone
A solid formed by rotating a right angled triangle about one of the sides containing the right angle.
Cone Metrics
Let the Base Radius = R, Vertical Height = H, and Slant Height = L.

Volume = 1/3 (R2H cubic units) Slant Height L = R 2  H 2 units
Curved Surface Area = RL sq. units total Surface Area = R(R + L) sq. units
Frustrum
If a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base, then the lower part is called the frustrum of the cone, Let the radius of
the top = r and the radius of the base – R and height = h.
h2   R  r . Curved Surface Area = [r + R]L sq. units.
2
Slant Height L =
Total surface area = [(r + R)L + r2 + R2]sq. units.

h
 
Volume =    r  R  rR cubic units.
2 2
 3
Sphere
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A solid formed when a circle is revolved about its diameter.
Sphere Metrics
Let the Radius of the Sphere = R.
Volume = 4/3 (R3 cubic units) Surface Area = 4R2 sq. units
If R and r are the external and internal radii of a spherical shell, then its Volume =
3

4 3

R  r 3 cubic units.
Geometrical Relationships
 Of all solids with a given volume, the sphere is the one which has the lest surface area.
 Of all solids with a given surface area, the sphere is the one which has the greatest volume.
Hemisphere
2
Volume = R 3 cubic units Surface Area = 3R2 sq. units
3
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SET THEORY
Sets: A set is a well defined collection of objects. These are called elements of the set. The sets will be denoted by
capital letters A, B, ……… X, Y. The elements of the set are denoted by small letters a, b, ….. x, y.
A set can be represented in two ways. (i) Roster form (ii) Set builder form.
Example: Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. (Roster form)
All the elements are written in a curly bracket.
S = {x / x  N ; x < 8} (Set builder form)
We represent the elements of the set as ‘x’ and after it we put” / “(such that) and then give the rule
which every element of the set should satisfy.
If all the elements in set A are in set B then we say A is a subset of B. (A  B). B is super set of A.
Number of elements in the set Number of subsets Number of proper subsets
2 22 22-2
3
3 2 23-2
4
4 2 24-2
n
N 2 2n-2
Power set: Let A be any given set. A set which contains all the subsets of A as elements, is called the power set of
A. It is denoted by P [A].
Example: A = {p, q, r}
P[A] = [{p}, {q}, {r}, {p, q}, {p, r}, {q, r} [p, q, r} ]
Finite set and Infinite set: If the number of elements in a set are finite, then it is called a finite set. A set which is
not finite is called an infinite set.
Equal sets: Two sets are said to be equal if they contain same elements.
Ex: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {2, 4, 1, 3}
Since the elements in both A and B are equal, they are called equal sets.
Equivalent sets: Two sets are to be equivalent if the number of elements in two sets are same.
Ex: A = {1, 2, 3}; B = {p, q, r}
Number of elements in both the sets are same. So A and B are equivalent sets.
If there are not elements in a set, then it is called a null set. It is denoted by { } or .
Union of sets: The set containing the elements of A or B or both is called as union of sets.
A B = {x / x  A or x  B}
Representing A  B by Venn diagrams.
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Intersection of sets: The set containing the common elements of set A and set B is called intersection of A and B.
A B = {x / x  A and x  B}
Representing AB by Venn diagrams:
The difference of two sets A – B: The set consisting of all the elements, which belong to A and do not belong to B,
is called the difference of A and B. It is denoted by A-B.
A-B = {x / x  A and x  B}
Similarly B-A = {x / x  B and x  A}
A-B  B-A
Symmetric difference of two sets: The symmetric difference of two sets is represented by A  B.
A  B = (A-B) (B-A) = (AB)-(AB)
Universal set: The union of sets which are to be observed is called universal set and it is denoted by .
Complementary set: The set of elements which belong to  and does not belong to A is called complementary of set
A. It is denoted by A or Ac.
Basic theorem: If XY and YX; then X=Y. In proving equality of two sets we use this basic theorem. This is
called Antisymmetric property.
(A’)’ = A, when A is a subset of some universal st.
In the following table A, B, C stand for sets;  the empty set;  a universal set and p, q, r stand for statements.
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‘’represents logical equivalence of statements: ‘t’ to take only the value of ‘T’ and ‘f’ to take
the only truth value of ‘F’.
Algebra of
S.No. Law
Sets Statements
1. Idempotent Laws AB = A, AA=A p v p  p, p ^ p ^ p
2. Associative Laws (AB)C = A (BC) (p v q) v r  p v (q v r)
(AB)C = A (BC) (p ^ q) ^ r  p ^ (q ^ r)
3. Commutative Laws AB=BA pvqqvp
AB=BA p^qq^p
4. Distributive Laws A(BC) = p v (q ^ r)  (p v q) ^ (p v r)
(AB)(AC) p ^ (q v r)  (p ^ q) v (p ^ r)
A(BC) =
(AB)(AC)
5. Identity Laws A=A, A= p v f  p, p v t  t

A=A, A= p ^ f  f, p ^ t  p
6. Complement Laws A A = , AA =  p v (~p)  t, p ^ (~P)  f
(A) = A,  = , = ~ (~p)  p, ~t = f, ~ f  t
7. De Morgan’s Laws (AB) = A  B ~(p v q)  (~p) ^ (~q),
(AB) = AB ~(p ^ q)  (~p) v (~q)
In any law of equality of sets, if we interchange  and ; and  and ; the resulting law would also be true. This
principle is known as Principle of duality.
Example: A = A A = A
If A  B = ; then a and B are called disjoint sets.

AB A  B and B  A.
A and B are two subsets of a universal set . Then A  B = A - B = B - A.
If A  B then A  B.
[If A is a subset of B, then A is superset of B]
A - B = B – A
AB=  A =  and B = 
If A  B ; B  C; then A  C (Transitive property).
A – (A – B) = A  B.
A  B = A  B  A = B.
If A  B then A  (B – A) = B.
If A and B are disjoint sets, then n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B).

If A and B are any two non-empty sets, then n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A  B).
N (A B  C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (C) – n(A  B) – n(B  C) – n(C A) + n(A  B  C)
l and m are two coplanar lines. If l  m = ; then the lines l and m are parallel to each other.
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PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
1. Principle of Counting: If some procedure can be performed in n1 different ways and if, following procedure, a
second procedure can be performed in n2 different ways, and if, following this second procedure, a third procedure
can be performed in n3 different ways, and so for; then the number of ways the procedures can be performed in the
order indicated is the product n1, n2, n3 …………….
2. The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r (0rn) at a time is given by
n!/(n-r)! ; nr
where nPr =
0 ; n<r
3. The number of permutations of n objects taken all together, when p1 of the objects are alike of one kind, p2 of
them are alike and of the second kind,…., pr of them are alike and of the rth kind, where p1 + p2 + ….. pr = n is given
by
n!/p1! P2!.....pr!
4. The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r (0  r  n) at a time is given by
n n!/(n-r)! r!, n  r
= C(n, r) =
r 0 , n<r
5. Some Result to Remember

(i) nC0 = 1 = nCn
(ii) nCr = nCn-r (0  r  n)
(iii) nCr-1 + nCr = n+1Cr (1  r  n)
(iv) nCr = nCs implies r = s or r + s = n.
(v) nCr = {n-r+1)/r} nCr-1
r = n/r, n even
(vi) nCr is greatest =
r = n1/2, n odd
(vii) nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + ….+nCn = 2n.

(viii) nC0 + nC2 + …. = nC1+nC3 +……=2n-1.
(ix) 2n+1C0 + 2n+1C1 +….+2n+1Cn =22n.
(x) The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken
r( n) at a time, when k(0  k  r) particular objects always occur, is n-kCr-k.
(xi) The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time, when k(1  k  n) never occur, is n+kCr.
(xii) The total number of selections of one or more objects from n different objects
= 2n – 1 = (nC1 + nC2 + nC3 +….+nCn).
(xiii) Cr + r+1Cr +….+nCr = n+1Cr+1
r
6. The total number of selection of any number of things from n identical things
n+1 , (when selection of 0 things is allowed)


n , (when at least one thing is to be selected)
7. The total number of selections from p like things, q like things of another type and r distinct things
= (p + 1) (q + 1) 2r – 1 (if at least one thing is to be selected)
(p + 1) (q + 1) 2r – 2 (if none or all cannot be selected)
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8. The total number of selections of r tings from n different things when each thing can be repeated unlimited
number of times = n+r-1Cr.
9. The number of ways to distribute n different things between two persons, one receiving p things and the other q
things, where p + q = n  nCp  n-pCq
= n!/p!(n – p)!  (n - p!/q!(n – p – q)! = n!/p!q! {n = p + q}
Similarly for 3 persons, the number of ways
= n!/p! q! r!, where p + q + r = n.
10. The number of ways to distribute m  n different things among n persons equally = (nm)!/(m!)n.
11. The number of ways to divide n different things into three bundles of p, q and r things
= n!/p! q! r! . 1/3!.
12. The number of ways to divide m  n different things into n equal bundles
= (mn)!/(m!)n . 1/n!
13. The total number of ways to divide n identical things among r persons = n+r-1Cr-1.
14. The number of ways in which n different objects can be distributed into r different boxes, blank boxes being
admissible is rn.
15. The number of ways in n different objects can be distributed into r different boxes are not allowed, is coefficient
of n in n! (e-1)r.
16. The number of circular arrangements of n different things (n – 1)!
17. When clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are not different, number of circular arrangements of n
different things
= ½(n – 1)!
18. Types of Permutations based upon Geometrical Applications:
(i) Out of n non-concurrent and non-parallel straight lines points of intersection are = nC2
(ii) Out of ‘n’ points the number of straight lines are (when no three are collinear)
= nC2
(iii) If out of n points m are collinear, then
Number of straight lines = nC2 – mC2 + 1
(iv) To find number of diagonals
Number of diagonals = n(n – 3)/2
(v) Number of triangle formed from n points
(when no three points are collinear)
(vi) Number of triangles out of n points in which m are collinear
= nC3 – mC3
(vii) Number of triangles that can be formed out of n points (when none of the side is common to the sides of
polygon)
= nC3 – nC1 – nC1. n-4C1
(viii) Number of parallelogram in two system of parallel lines (when I set contains m parallel lines and II set
contains n parallel lines)
= nC2  mC2
(ix) Number of squares m-1
=  (m – r) (n – r) ; (m < n)
r=1
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PROBABILITY
Experiment
An operation which results in some well-defined outcomes is called an experiment.
Random Experiment
An experiment whose outcome cannot be predicted with certainty is called a random experiment. In other words, if
an experiment is performed many times under similar conditions and the outcome of each time is not the same, then
this experiment is called a random experiment.
Example: a) Tossing of a fair coin
b) Throwing of an unbiased die
c) Drawing of a card from a well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards
Sample Space
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiments is called the sample space for that experiment. It is usually
denoted by S.
Example:
a) When a die is thrown, any one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can come up. Therefore. Sample
space
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
b) When a coin is tossed either a head or tail will come up, then the sample space w.r.t. the tossing of
the coin is
S = {H, T}
c) When two coins are tossed, then the sample space is
Sample point / event point

Each element of the sample spaces is called a sample point or an event point.
Example: When a die is thrown, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} where 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are the
sample points.
Discrete Sample Space

A sample space S is called a discrete sample if S is a finite set.
Event
A subset of the sample space is called an event.
Problem of Events
 Sample space S plays the same role as universal set for all problems related to the particular experiment.
  is also the subset of S and is an impossible Event.
 S is also a subset of S which is called a sure event or a certain event.
Types of Events
A. Simple Event/Elementary Event
An event is called a simple Event if it is a singleton subset of the sample space S.
Example:
a) When a coin is tossed, then the sample space is
S = {H, T}
Then A = {H} occurrence of head and B = {T} occurrence of tail are called Simple events.
b) When two coins are tossed, then the sample space is

S = {(H,H); (H,T); (T,H); (T,T)}
Then A = {(H,T)} is the occurrence of head on 1st and tail on 2nd is called a Simple event.
B. Mixed Event or Compound Event or Composite Event
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A subset of the sample space S which contains more than one element is called a mixed event or when two or more
events occur together, their joint occurrence is called a Compound Event.
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Example:
When a dice is thrown, then the sample space is
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Then let A = {2, 4 6} is the event of occurrence of even and B = {1, 2, 4} is the event of occurrence of exponent of 2
are Mixed events
Compound events are of two type:

a) Independent Events, and
b) Dependent Events
C. Equally likely events

Outcomes are said to be equally likely when we have no reason to believe that one is more likely to occur than the
other
Example: When an unbiased die is thrown all the six faces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are equally likely to come up.
D. Exhaustive Events
A set of events is said to be exhaustive if one of them must necessarily happen every time the experiments is
performed.
Example: When a die is thrown events 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 form an exhaustive set of events.
Important
We can say that the total number of elementary events of a random experiment is called the exhaustive number of
cases.
E. Mutually Exclusive Events

Two or more events are said to be mutually exclusive if one of them occurs, others cannot occur. Thus if two or
more events are said to be mutually exclusive, if not two of them can occur together.
Hence, A1, A2, A3,…, An are mutually exclusive if and only if AiAj =   i  j
Example:
a) When a coin is tossed the event of occurrence of a head and the event of occurrence of a tail are mutually
exclusive events because we cannot have both head and tail at the same time.
b) When a die is thrown, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let A is an event of occurrence of number greater than 4 i.e., {5, 6}
B is an event of occurrence of an odd number {1, 3, 5}
C is an event of occurrence of an even number {2, 4, 6}
Here, events B and C are Mutually Exclusive but the event A and B or A and C are not Mutually Exclusive.
F. Independent Events or Mutually Independent events

Two or more event are said to be independent if occurrence or non-occurrence of any of them does not affect the
probability of occurrence of or non-occurrence of their events.
Thus, two or more events are said to be independent if occurrence or non-occurrence of any of them does not
influence the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other events.
Example: Let bag contains 3 Red and 2 Black balls. Two balls are drawn one by one with replacement.
Let A is the event of occurrence of a red ball in first draw.
B is the event of occurrence of a black ball in second draw.
then probability of occurrence of B has not been affected if A occurs before B. As the ball has
been replaced in the bag and once again we have to select one ball out of 5(3R + 2B) given balls for event B.
G. Dependent Events
Two or more events are said to be dependent, if occurrence or non-occurrence of any one of them affects the
probability of occurrence or non-occurrence of others.
Example: Let a bag contains 3 Red and 2 Black balls. Two balls are drawn one by one without replacement.
Let A is the event of occurrence of a red ball in first draw
B is the event of occurrence of a black ball in second draw.
In this case, the probability of occurrence of event B will be affected. Because after the occurrence
of event A i.e. drawing red ball out of 5(3R + 2B), the ball is not replaced in bag. Now, for the event B, we will have
to draw 1 black ball from the remaining 4(2R + 2B) balls which gets affected due to the occurrence of event A.
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H. Complementary Events
Let S be the sample space for a random experiment and let E be the event. Also, Complement of event E is denoted
by E’ or E, where E’ means non occurrence of event E.
Thus E’ occurs if and only if E does not occur.
 n(E) + n(E’) = n(S)
Occurrence of an Event
For a random experiment, let E be an event
Let E = {a, b, c}. If the outcome of the experiment is either a or b or c then we say the event has occurred.
Sample Space : The outcomes of any type
Event : The outcomes of particular type
Probability of Occurrence of an event
Let S be the same space, then the probability of occurrence of an event E is denoted by p(E) and is defined as
P(E) = n(E)/n(S) = number of elements in E/number of elements in S
P(E) = number of favourable/particular cases
total number of cases
Example:
a) When a coin is tossed, then the sample space is S = {H, T}
Let E is the event of occurrence of a head
 E = {H}
b) When a die is tossed, sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let A is an event of occurrence of an odd number
And B is an event of occurrence of a number greater than 4
 A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {5, 6}
 P(A) = Probability of occurrence of an odd number = n(A)/n(S) = 3/6 = ½
and P(B) = Probability of occurrence of a number greater than 4 = n(B)/n(S) = 2/6 = 1/3
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PROGRESSIONS
1. Sequence
Sequence is a function whose domain is the set N of natural numbers.
Real Sequence: A sequence whose range is a subset of R is called a real sequence.
Series: If a1, a2, a3, a4,……, an,….. is a sequence, then the expression a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + ….+ an + ….is a
series.
A series is finite or infinite according as the number of terms in the corresponding sequence is finite or infinite.
Progressions: It is not necessary that the terms of a sequence always follow a certain patterns are called
progressions.
2. Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)
A sequence is called an arithmetic progression if the difference of a term and the previous term is always same, i.e.
an+1 – an = constant (=d) for all n  N
The constant difference, generally denoted by d is called the common difference.
For example. Show that the sequence <an> is an A.P. if its nth term a linear expression in n and in such a case the
common difference is equal to the coefficient of n.
Solution. Let <an> be a sequence such that its nth term is a linear expression in n i.e.
an = An + B where A, B are constants.
an+1 = A(n + 1) + B
 an+1 – an = {A (n + 1) + B} – {An + B} = A,
i.e. coefficient of n.
3. Properties of an Arithmetic Progression

(i) If a is the first term and d the common difference of an A.P., then its nth term an is given by
an = a + (n + 1) d
(ii) A sequence is an A.P. iff its nth term is of the form An + B i.e. a linear expression in n. the common difference in
such a case is A i.e. the coefficient of n.
(iii) If a constant is added to or subtracted from each term of an A.P., then the resulting sequence is also an A.P. with
the same common difference.
(iv) If each term of given A.P. is multiplied or divided by a non-zero constant k, then the resulting sequence is also
an A.P. with common difference kd or d/k, where d is the common difference of the given A.P.
(v) In a finite A.P. the sum of the terms equidistant from the beginning and end is always same and is equal to the
sum of first and last term i.e.
(vi) Three numbers a, b, c are in A.P. iff b = a + c.
(vii) If the terms of an A.P. are chosen at regular intervals, then they form an A.P.
(viii) If an, an+1 and an+2 are three consecutive terms of an A.P., then
2an+1 = an+an+2
4. Selection of Terms in an A.P.
It should be noted that in case of an odd number of terms, the middle term is a and the common difference is d while
in case of an even number of terms the middle terms are a – d, a + d and the common differences is 2d. i.e.
(i) Selecting two terms of A.P. are a – d, a + d.
(ii) Selecting four terms of A.P.: a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d and so on…..
(iii) Selecting 3 terms of A.P.: a – d, a, a + d
(iv) Selecting 5 terms of A.P.:
a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d.
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5. Some Useful Results
6. Sum to n Terms of an A.P.

The sum Sn of n terms of an A.P. with first term ‘a’ and common difference ‘d’ is given by
Sn = (n/2)[2a + (n – 1)d]
Also, Sn = (n/2)[a + l], where l = last term = a + (n – 1)d.
Note. A sequence is an A.P. if and only if the sum of its n terms is of the form An2 + Bn, where A, B are constants.
In such a case, the common difference of the A.P. is 2A.
7. Insertion of Arithmetic Means

If between two given quantities a and b we have to insert n quantities A1, A2,…, An such that a, A1, A2,…An, b form
an A.P., then we say that A1, A2,…, An are arithmetic means between a and b.
Insertion of n Arithmetic Means between a and b

Let A1, A2,…,An be n arithmetic means between two quantities a and b. Then,
a, A1, A2,…, An, b is an A.P.
Let d be the common difference of this A.P. Clearly, it contains (n + 2) terms.
These are the required arithmetic means between a and b.
8. Geometric Progression
A sequence of non-zero numbers is called a geometric progression (or G.P.) if the ratio of a term and the term
proceeding to it is always a constant quantity.
The constant ratio is called the common ratio of the G.P.

In other words, a sequence a1, a2, a3,…, an,…is called a geometric progression if
(an+1) / an = constant for all n  N
For example. Show that the sequence given by an = 3 (2n). for all n  N, is a G.P. Also, find its common ratio.
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Solution. We have, an = 3 (2n)
an+1 = 3 (2n+1)
Now, (an+1)/an = 3(2n+1)/3(2n) =2
Clearly, (an+1)/an = 2 (constant), for all n  N. So, the given sequence is an G.P. with common ratio 2.
9. Selection of Terms in G.P.

Sometimes if is required to select a finite number of terms in G.P. It is always convenient if we
select the terms in the following manner:
No. of terms Terms Common ratio
3 a/r, a, ar R
4 a/r3, a/r, ar, ar3 r2
5 a/r2, a/r, a, ar, R
ar2
If the product of the numbers is not given, then the numbers are taken as a, ar, ar2, ar3,…..
10. Properties of Geometric Progressions

(i) If all the terms of a G.P. be multiplied or divided by the same non-zero constant, then it remains a G.P. with the
same common ratio.
(ii) The reciprocals of the terms of a given G.P. form a G.P.
(iii) If each term of a G.P. be raised to the same power, the resulting sequence also forms a G.P.
(iv) In a finite G.P. the product of the terms equidistant form the beginning and the end is always same and is equal
to the product of the first and the last term.
(v) Three non-zero numbers, a, b, c are in G.P. iff b2 = ac.
(vi) If the terms of a given G.P. are chosen at regular intervals, then the new sequence so formed also forms a G.P.
(vii) If a1, a2, a3,…, an,…is a G.P. of non-zero non-negative terms, then log a1, log a2,…, log an,… is an A.P. and
vice-versa.
For example. The third term of a G.P. is 4. Find the product of its first give terms.
Solution. Let a be the first term and r the common ratio. Then,
a3 = 4  ar2 = 4 ………… (i)
Now,
Product of first five terms
= a1a2a3a4a5
11. Sum of Terms of a G.P.
(i) The sum of n terms of a G.P. with first term ‘a’ and common ratio ‘r’ is given by
(ii) If l is the term of the G.P., then l = arn-1
(iii) If | r | < 1, then lim rn = 0. Therefore, the sum S of an infinite G.P. with common ratio r satisfying | r | < 1 is
given by
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Thus, the sum S of an infinite G.P. with first term a and common ratio r(-1 < r < 1) is given by
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STATISTICS
1. Arithmetic Mean
(i) Mean of unclassified data. Let x1, x2, …., xn be n observations, then their arithmetic mean is given by
n
x = x1+x2+…..+xn/n = 1/n  xi
i 1
(ii) Mean of grouped data. Let x1, x2, x3,…, xn be n observations and let f1, f2,…, fn be their corresponding
frequencies, then their arithmetic mean is given by
n
_
f x  f x  ...  f n x n fx i i
x 1 1 2 2  i 1
f1  f 2  ....  f n n
f
i 1
i
2. Weighted Arithmetic Mean

If w1, w2, w3,…, wn are the weights assigned to the values x1, x2, x3, ,…, xn respectively, then the weighted
average is defined as:
w1 x1  w2 x2  ....wn x n
WeightedA.M . 
w1  w2  ....  wn
3. Combined Mean
If we are given the A.M. of two data sets and their sizes, then the combined A.M. of two data sets can be
obtained by the formula
_ _
_
n x1  n2 x 2
x12  1
n1  n2
where x12 = Combined mean of the two data sets 1 and 2

x1 = mean of the first data
x2 = Mean of the second data
n1 = Size of the first data
n2 = Size of the second data.
4. Geometric Mean
If x1, x2, x3 are n observations, none of them being zero, then their geometric mean is defined as
G.M. = (x1, x2, x3….xn)1/n
5. Harmonic Mean
The harmonic mean of n observation x1, x2,….., xn is defined as:
n
f i
H .M .  i 1
n
 fi 
  x
i 1  i 

6. Relation among A.M, G.M. And H.M.

The arithmetic mean (A.M.), geometric mean (G.M.) and harmonic mean (H.M.) for a given set of
observations are related as under:
A.M.  G.M.  H.M.
Equality sign hold only when all the observations are equal.
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7. Median
(i) Median of an individual series. Let n be the number of observations.
(A) Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
(B) (a) If n is odd, then
Median = value of the ½ (n+1)th observation
(b) if n is even, then
Median = mean of the (n/2)th and (n/2 + 1)th observation
(ii) Median of a discrete series
(A) Arrange the values of the variate in ascending or descending order.
(B) Prepare a commulative frequency table.
(C) (a) If n is odd, then Median = size of the ((n+1)/2)th term
(b) If n is even, then

n n 
      1 
 2   2 
Median = size of the   th term
2
 
 
(iii) median of a Continuous Series
(iv) Prepare the commulative frequency table.
(B) Find the median class, i.e. the class in which the (n/2)th observation lies.
(C) The median value is given by the formula

n 
 cf 
 2   h,
Median = l +   where
f
 
 
l = lower limit of the median class
n = total frequency
f = frequency of the median class
h = width of the median class
cf = cumulative frequency of the class
preceding the median class.
8. Quartiles, Deciles and percentiles

(a) For ungrouped data Quartiles are also a kind of positional averages which divide the complete
frequency distribution into four equal parts.
Qr = nr/4 ; r = 1, 2, 3
Decline divide the frequency distribution into 10 equal parts.
Dr = nr/10 ; r = 1, 2, 3…… 9
Percentiles divide it into 100 equal parts
Pr = nr/100 ; r = 1, 2, 3,…….99
(b) For grouped data Arrange data is ascending order and prepare cumulative frequency
 Nr  i
Qr  l    F  ; r  1, 2 ,3
 4  f
 Nr  i
Dr  l    F  ; r  1, 2 ,3.....9
 10  f
 Nr  i
Pr  l    F  ; r  1, 2 ,3.....99
 100  f
where l is lower limit of the required class, i is class interval, f is frequency of the class and F is sum of all
frequencies just above the class of quartile/decile/percentile.
9. Mode
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(i) Mode of individual series In the case of individual series, the value which is repeated maximum number of
times is the mode of the series.
(ii) Mode of discrete series In the case of discrete frequency distribution, mode is the value of the variate
corresponding to the maximum frequency.
(iii) Mode of continuous series
(A) Find the modal class, i.e. the class which has maximum frequency. The modal class can be determined either by
inspection or with the help of grouping table.
(B) The mode is given by the formula Mode = l + (fm – fm-1/2fm – fm-1 – fm+1)  h,
where
l = the lower limit of the modal class
h = the width of the modal class
fm-1 = the frequency of the class preceding modal class
fm = the frequency of the modal class
fm+1 = the frequency of the class succeeding modal class.
In case, the modal value lies in a class other than the one containing maximum frequency, we take the help
of the following formula
Mode = l + fm+1/fm-1+fm+1  h,
where symbols have usual meaning.
A distribution in which mean, median and mode coincide is called a symmetrical distribution. If the
distribution is moderately skewed, then mode can be calculated as follows:
Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean.
10. Measures of Dispersion

(i) Range It is the difference between the greatest and the smallest observation of the distribution.
If L is the largest and S is the smallest observation in a distribution, then its Range = L – S. Also.
Coefficient of range = L-S/L+S
(ii) Quartile Deviation Quartile deviation or semi-interquartile range is given by
Q.D. = ½ (Q3 – Q1)
Coefficient of Q.D. = Q3 – Q1/Q3+Q1
(iii) Mean deviation For a frequency distribution, the mean deviation from an average (median, or arithmetic mean)
is given by
n _
 f i | xi  x |
M .D.  i 1
n
f
i 1
i
Coefficient of M.D. = Mean deviation/Corresponding average
(iv) Standard deviation The standard deviation of a statistical data is defined as the positive square root of the
squared deviations of observations from the A.M. of the series under consideration.
(A) Standard deviation (also denoted by ) for ungrouped set of observations is given by
n _
 f (x
i 1
i i  x) 2
S .D.  
N
(B) Standard deviation for frequency distribution is given by,

n _
i 1
f i ( xi  x ) 2
S .D. 
N
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where, fi is the frequency of xi(1  i  n).
11. Skewness
We study skewness to have an idea about the shape of the curve which we can draw with the help of the
given data. The term ‘skewness’ refers to lack of symmetry. We can define skewness of a distribution as the
tendency of a distribution to depart from symmetry.
(i) In a symmetrical distribution, we have
mean = median = mode.
(ii) When the distribution is not symmetrical, it is called asymmetrical or skewed.

In a skewed distribution Mean  Median  Mode.
Note:
(a) Absolute measures of skewness.
(i) Sk = mean – median (ii) Sk = mean – mode
(iii) Sk = Q3 + Q1 – 2Q2 or Sk = Q3 + Q1 – 2 (median).
(b) Relative measures of skewness. The following are four important relative measures of skewness:
(i) Karl Pearson’s coefficient of skewness
Sk = mean – mode/Standard deviation
If mode is well defined then using the relation,
Mode = 3 median – 2 mean,
For a moderately skewed distribution, we get
Sk = 3 (mean – median)/Standard deviation.
If follows that Sk = 0, if mean = mode = median.
(ii) Empirical relationships. If the data is moderately non-symmetrical, then the following empirical relationships
hold:
Mean deviation = 4/5 
Semi-inter-quartile range = 2/3 .
Probable error of standard deviation = 2/3  = Semi-inter-quartile range
Quartile deviation = 5/6 M.D.
From these relationship, we have
4 S.D. = 5 M.D. = 6 Q.D.
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ICET

1. Real Number System --------------------------------------- 03-12

10. Plane Geometry --------------------------------------- 62-80

COUNTING METHODS & PROBABILITY

12. Set Thoery --------------------------------------- 91-97

17. Progressions -------------------------- 126-132

Illustration 1 We represent the number 309872546 as shown below:

Ten Thousand 104

The method is best illustrated with the help of following example:

Step 1 Add 1st column: 54321

Highest common factor

Symbolically, these can be written as H.C.F. or G.C.D. or G.C.M., respectively.

Methods of Finding H.C.F.

Step 2 Choose Common Factors.

Illustration 1 Find the H.C.F. of 70 and 90.

Illustration 3 Find the H.C.F. of 360 and 132.

Illustration 4 If x = 23  35  59 and y = 25  37  511, find H.C.F. of x and y.

II. Method of Division

B. For more than two numbers:

Least Common Multiple

Least common multiple, i.e. L.C.M. of 12 and 18 is 36.

Methods of Finding L.C.M.

A. Method of Prime Factors

Illustration 7 Find the L.C.M. of 32, 48, 60 and 320.

Illustration 8 Find the L.C.M. of 12, 15, 20 and 54.

Some Useful Short-Cut Methods

1. H.C.F. and L.C.M. of Decimals

2. L.C.M. and H.C.F. of Fractions

H.C.F. = H.C.F. of the numbers in numerators

3. Product of two numbers

6. To find the least number which is exactly divisible by x, y and z.

Step 1 L.C.M. of x, y and z = L

Step 1 L.C.M. of x, y and z = L

SOME BASIC FORMULAE

1. If four quantities are in proportion, then product of Means = product of Extremes

Illustrational 1 Find a fourth proportional to the numbers 2, 5, 4.

Illustration 2 Find a third proportional to the numbers 2.5, 1.5

SOME USEFUL SHORT-CUT METHODS

Solution Here, a = 3, b = 4, c = 8 and x = 975

Illustration 8 If A : B = 3 : 4 and B : C = 8 : 9, find A : B : C.

Illustration 9 If A : B = 2 : 3, B:C = 4 : 5 and C : D = 6 : 7, find A :D.

1. To Convert a fraction into a per cent:

Some useful shortcut methods

SOME BASIC FORMULAE

1. Average = sum of quantities/ Number of quantities

Solution Price of 5 toys = 200  5 = Rs 1000

Solution Total marks

Solution Number of days in the month of September

SOME USEFUL SHORT–CUT METHODS

1. Average of two or more groups taken together

No. of quantities in the combined group = n1+n2

2. If x is the average of x1, x2, …, xn, then

Solution The weight of the new person

5. a).The average of first n natural numbers is (n +1) /2

Illustration 12 Find the average of first 81natural number.

Illustration 14 Find the average of cubes of natural numbers from 1 to 27.

Illustration 15 What is the average of odd numbers from 1 to 40?

Illustration 16 What is the average of even numbers from 1 to 81?

Illustration 17 Find the average of 7 consecutive numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

Illustration 19 Find the average of first 31 consecutive even numbers.

Illustration 20 Find the average of first 50 consecutive odd numbers.

SOME BASIC FORMULAE