currents were known in lakes and thousands have been measured and
reservoirs,and they appeared to be used to reconstruct paleoflow
competent to transport sediment for patterns in hundreds of turbidiie
fairly long distances. Many of these basins.
different lines of evidence were pulled 3) Within the graded sandstone beds.
together by Kuenen and Migliorini in many different sedimentary
1950 when they publishedtheir structures were recorded. By thelate
experimental results in a now classic 1950s, some authors were proposing
paper on "Turbidity currents as a cause turbidite models, or ideal turbidiies.
of graded bedding". A full review of why based upon a generalization of these
and how the concept was established in sedimentary structures and the
Facies Models geology has recently been published
(Walker. 1973).
sequence in which they occurred.
This generalization is akin tothe
2. Turbidites and After its introduction in 1950,the distillation process discussed in the
previous paper, and the final
Associated turbidity current interpretation was
applied to rocks of many different ages. distillation and publication of the
Coarse Clastic in many different places. Emphasis was
laid upon describing a vast and new
presently accepted model was done
by Arnold Bouma in 1962. A version
Deposits assemblage of sedimentary structures. of the Bouma model is shown in
Figure 1
and using those structures to interpret
paleocurrent directions. In the absence
Roger G. Walker of a turbidite lacies model (see pevious Th. B O U M T~rbldll. h C i 0 8 MOdd
Department of Geology article in this issue of Geoscience The Bouma sequence, or model(Figs. 1,
McMaster University Canada),there was no norm with which 2) can be considered as a very simple
Hamilfon, Ontar10L8S 4M7 lo compare individual examples, no facies model that effectively carries out
framework for organizing observations. all ol the four functions of facies models
no logical basis for prediction in new discussed in the previous article. Iwill
lntroduetlon situations, and no basis for a consistent examine these in turn, b d h toshed light
To the sedimentologist. Me turbidity hydrodynamic interpretation.Yet upon turbidites in general, and to use
current concept is both simple and gradually duringthe years 1950-1960, a turbidites as an illustration of a facies
elegant. Each turb~dite(defined as the relatively small but consistent set of model in operation. I have described the
deposit of aturbidity current) is the result sedimentary features began to be model as very simple because it
of a single, short lived event, and once associated with turbidites. These are contains relatively few descriptive
deposited, it is extremely unlikely to be considered in the following list, and can elements, and because it is narrowly
rewciked by other currents. The now be taken as a set of descriptors for focussed upon sandy and siltyturbidites
concept is elegant because it allows the classical turbidites: only. I shall later refer to these as
interpretationof thousands of graded 1 ) Sandstone beds had abrupt, sharp "classical" turbidites.
sandstone beds, alternating with shales. bases, and tended to grade upward
as the result of a series of similar events. into finer sand. silt and mud. Some of I . The Bouma modelas a NORM. The
and it can safely be stated that nosimilar the mud was introduced into the model (Fig. 1) as defined by Bouma
volume of clastic rock can be interpreted basin by the turbidity current (it consists of five divisions. A-E, which
so simply. conta~nedshallow benthonic occur in a fixed sequence. Bouma did
In this review. I will begin by studying forams), but the uppermost very fine not give normalized thicknesses for the
the "classical" turbidite, and will then mud contained bathyal or abyssal divisions, and this type ol information is
gradually broaden the scale to benthonic forams and represented still unavailable. In Figure 3,l have
encompass turbidites and related the constant slow rain of mud onto sketched three individual turbidites
coarse clastic rocks in their typical the ocean floor. which clearly contain some of the
depositional environments - deep sea 2) On the undersurface (sole) of the elements of the Bouma model,yet which
fans and abyssal plains. sandstones there were abundant obviously differ from the norm. They can
The concept of turbidites was markings, now classified into three be characterized as AE, BCE and CE
introduced to the geological profession types: tool marks, carved into the beds. Without the model. we could ask
in 1950.At that time, nobody had underlying mud by rigid tools (sticks. no more questions about these three
observed a modern turbidity current in stones) in the turbidity current; scour turbidites, but with the norm, we can ask
the ocean, yet the evidence for density marks, cut into the underlying mud by why certain divisions of the sequence
currents had become overwhelming. fluid scour: and organic markings - are missing. I will try and answer this
The concept accounted for graded trails and burrows - filled in by the rhetorical question later.
sandstone beds that lacked evidence of turbidity current and thus peserved
shallow water reworking, and it on the sole. The tool and scour 2. The Bouma model as a framework
accounted for transported shallow water markings give an accurate indication andguide lor description. The model has
forams in the sandstones, yet bathyal or of local flow directions of theturbidity served as the basis for description in a
abyssal benthonic forams in currents, and by now, many large number of studies, particularly in
interbedded shales. Low density Canada, U.S.A. and Italy. With the
p-'
BOUMA DIVISIONS
..............
. :............:.......
T :
I.. .
.......................
.......................
.......................
......................
......................
.......................
INTERPRETATION
TRACTION IN
LOWER
UPPER
FLOW REGIME
3
Figure 7
'Dish' sliuclures, lormed by rapld dewaler~ngp~pes (arrow on photo).
dewarerlng 01 a massrve sandsfone. Some of Ordovrclan Cap Enrage Formation, near SI-
the drsh edges curve upwardrnlo vertical Slrnon. Quebec.
\/ OUTER FAN
available at the source, and laterally
equivalent to mudstones deposited on
the channel levees and in the low areas
behind the levees. It is DOSSible durina
D(STAL NO mL.II"c %.LC il.LI0
- progadation, even in agenerally -
aggrading situation, that the inner fan
Figure 13
channel could cut intooneof the braided
Submarrnelanenv~ronmenralmodelSeelexl
lor IuNdrscuss~onD - 8 is disorgan~zed-bed suprafan lobes.
conglomerale model D F is debns flow Channel fill sequences, both in the
inner fan and braided suprafan
channels, may consist of "thinning- and
lags in the bottoms of some suprafan a checklist to define environments - in fining-upward sequences" (Fig. 16).
channels. The gradual downfan change th~scase, the abundance of CE beds Mutti and his ltaltan colleagues have
from inverse-to-normally graded types and their facies relationships (with suggested that these sequences result
tograded-stratifiedtypes is suggested in conglornerates, or with basin plain from progressive channel
Figure 13, but this change is tentative muds) must be considered before an abandonment, depositing thinner and
and IS ind~catedonly by theory, not by interpretation can be made. finer beds from smaller and smaller
direct observation. The bottom of the flows in the channels. Thus an inner fan
feeder channel and the foot ofthe slope Stratigraphic Aspects of Fan channel might have a conglomeratic
are the most likely environments for Progradation basal fill. and pass upward into finer
slumping and debris flows (D.F. in Fig. By comparison with a deltaic situation, conglornerates,and massive and pebbly
13) because of the steeper gradients. we can reasonably assume that sandstones.
The disorganized-bed (D-B in Fig. 13) submarine fan progradationwould result There are at leat two alternative
conglomerates might also be assigned in a stratigraphic sequence passing stratigraphic records of submarine fans.
here. from outer fan, through mid fan, into other than the steady progradation
The inner fan levees are built up by inner fan deposits upwards in the discussed above. First, if supply for the
flows which fill the channel and spills succession (Fig. 14). Progradationin the fan is cut off at source (or diverted
onto the levees and the area behind the outer fan area would result in the elsewhere), the fan will be abandoned.
levees. Sedlment consists only ofthe deposition of a sequence classical and will be covered by a rather uniform
finest suspended material (silt andclay) turbidites that became more proximal in layer of hemipelagic mud. The
but these may be sufficient current aspect upwards. This type of sequence previously active channels will also be
strength to ripple the silt and produce is now termed thickening- and mud-filled. Abandoned mud-filled
turbiditethat would be described as CE coarsening-upward". channels are known in the stratigraphic
in the Bouma model. Hence although a The progradation of individual record, and include the Mississippi
thick seqence of CE. BCE and C(D)E suprafan lobes might also be expected submarme channel (abandoned by
beds probably does define a distal to result in thickening- and coarsening- post-Pleistocene rise of sea level), the
environment..~a few siltv, CE beds could u~ward seauences, but these mav not Rosedale Channel (Late Miocene. Great
oakum
~
~
also indicate levee or back-levee be restricted to classical turbidites. The Valley of ~aliforniajand the
environments on the inner fan (a smooth, outer suprafan lobes would be Channel (Middle Eocene, Texas Gulf
prox~malenvironment by any definition). represented by classical turbidites, but Coast).
Again, I emphasize that one cannot use these would pass upward into massive
Geoscience Canada. Volume 3, Number I . Februa~y.1976 33
I !
0 However, the fan model as presented
cn seems to be a useful framework for
C.T.
C-U considering many small to medium
scale ancient basins. It cannot be
SMOOTH Z applied to the long (hundreds of km)
M.S. 2
a
exogeosynclinal troughs in which the
LZ
paleoflow pattern is dominantly parallel
SMOOTH 0 to the tectonic strike. Examples of
C-u 2
C.T. PORTION V) turbidites in such troughs include the M.
OF Ordovician Cloridorme Formation
-- (Gasp6 Peninsula) and its time
II SUPRAFAN
LOBES equivalent in the Central Appalachians,
C.T. c-U the Martinsburg Formation.Thedeposits
--
ir
consist dominantly of classical turbidites
hundreds of metres thick, but showing
no consistent proximal to distal change
along the length of the trough in the
C.T. c-U OUTER FAN downflow direction. It is commonly
suggested that turbidity currents flowed
downslope toward the trough axis.
FININQ- OR
perhaps constructing fans at the trough
COARSENING-
UPWARD
margin. However, at the trough axis the
flows turned and continued to flow
-
Fiaure 14 parallel tothe trough axis. The marginal
n , p ,mcr ca s.or.,a, nc rho srrar yrdpn c o t s i s ' c n .i,ron$ s o . \ iricncnng- 3rro lans #err p r c s ~ ~ n a/ oocstroyeo by
)E )..once ~ 1 3 o . 0 0~., fan .~rour3gar
. !,n ,'oarsen -7-.cn-ro .,cqxncrs l C - d s,o s.0scq~enl leclon cs an0 tne absence
C T ,classical lurbndite.M S . , massrve th~nning- and iin~ng-upward sequences (F- of consistent proximal to distal changes
sandstone, P.S.,pebbly sandstone; D F UJ See lext lor details along the trough axis is probably due to
input from a whole series of fans along
the trough margin. Thus any consistent
Second, if the sediment supply coarser) being transported muchfarther changes developing from one source
increases considerably, or the gradlent into the San Diego Trough. A poss~ble would be masked by inputfrom adjacent
of the slope into the basin increases ancient example is the Cambrian St. sources up and down the trough. At
(tectonically?),the fan channel may be Roch Formationat L'lslet Wharf (near St- present, there is no facies model that
~ncisedacross the entire fan, and all Jean-Port-Joli). Quebec, where a acts as a good predictor in this type of
sed~menttransported much farther into thinn~ng-and fining-upwards sequence turbidite basin.
the basin. This is the situation in the of conglomerates and pebbly
modern La Jolla Fan (California), which sandstones rests in a channel (Fig. 17).
has been entirely by-passed, with most The channel cuts into a thick sequence
of the coarser sediment (sand and of relatively thinly bedded turbidites
Henderson.J. 8.. 1972. Sedimentology
of Archean turbidites at Yellowknife.
Northwest Territories: Can. Jour Earth
Sci., v. 9. p. 882-902.
Turner. C. C. and R. G Walker. 1973.
Sedimentology. strat~graphyand crustal
evolutionof the Archeangreenstone belt
near Sioux Lookout. Ontarto: Can. Jour.
Earth Sci. v. 10, p. 81 7-845.
Rousell. D. H.. 1972, The Chelmsford
Formation of the Sudbury Basin - a
Precambrian turbidite. m J. V. Guy-Bray.
ed., New Developments in Sudbury
Geology: Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Paper
10, p. 79-91
Cantin. R. and R G. Walker. 1972,Was
the Sudbury Basin c~rcularduring
deposition of the Chelmsford
Formation7,in J. V. Guy-Bray, ed.. New
Flgure 15
Porllon of large channel cutting rnto shales Channel trll consals of drsorganrzed-bed
Developments In Sudbury Geology:
conglomerates and lenlrcular sandstones, with an overallth,nnmg- andfmmg-upwardsequence Geol Assoc Can Spec. Paper 10,p 93-
Ordovrcran Grosses Rocks, Ouebec, Apoalachrans 101.
2. Appalachian area
Enos. P ,1969. Anatomy of aflysch. Jour.
Sed Petrol.,v. 39, p. 680-723. (Note thts
IS the classlc paper on the Cloridorme
Formation.)
Parkash. 8.. 1970. Downcurrent
changes in sedimentary structures In
Ordovtctan turbldtte greywackes Jour
Sed Petrol.. v. 40, p. 572-590.
Parkash. B. and G V Middleton. 1970.
Downcurrent textural changes in
Ordovician turbidite greywackes.
Sedimentology.v. 14. p. 259-293 (Note:
these two papers by Parkash are
detalled studies of the Cloridorme
Formation.)
Sk~pper.K.. 1971. Antidune cross-
stratillcation in a turbidite sequence
Cloridorme Formation. Gaspe, Ouebec.
Sedimentology. v. 17. p. 51 -68. (Seealso
Flgure 16 cont,?rns larqe boulders which dre our upward d~scussionof this paper, Sedimentology.
E i ?mole of a lhrnnlng and ltning upward 110wdrd~ o p l e f l lCenlre of sequence s a v 18, p 135-138.)
sesuence (see f cgure 141 from (he Cambro oebble conglomerate passing into pebbly
Skipper. K. and G. V. Middleton. 1975,
Ordovicran Cap Enrag6 Formatron near SI- sandslones (centre left) and lrnally rnlo
The sed~mentarystructures and
Simon The conglomerate (lower rrghll massrve sandstones (near water s edge)
deposttional mechanics of certain
Ordov~cianturb~dites.Clorldorme
Canadlan Examples: Turbidltes and because they are important Formation.Gaspe, Quebec: Can. Jour.
Associated Coarse Clastlcs contributions to a general understanding Earth Sci., v. 12, p. 1934-1952.
The papers ltsted below do not of turb~dites
Hubert, C.. J. Lajoie and M. A. Leonard,
constitute a general set of readings w~th
1. Precambrian turbidites 1970, Deep sea sediments in the Lower
respect to an introduction to theturbidite
Walker. R. G. and F. J. Pettijohn. 1971 Paleozoic Ouebec Supergroup, in J.
concept. Rather, they are significant
Archean sedimentation: analysis of the Lajote. ed.. Flysch Sedimentology in
contrtbutions to Canadian geology,
Minnitaki Basin, northwestern Ontario. North America: Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec.
either because they discussturbidites
Canada: Geol. Soc Am. Bull.. v. 82. Paper 7, p. 103-125. (Note: the main
and the~rimportance to specific
p. 2099-21 30. areas discussed in the paper are L'lslet
problems of regional geology. or
GeoscienceCanada.Volume 3, Number I.February. 1976 35
5. Western Canada
Danner. W. R.. 1970. Western
Cordilleran llysch sedimentation.
southwestern British Columbia, Canada.
and northwestern Washington and
central Oregon, U.S.A.,~nJ. Lajoie.
Flysch Sedimentology in North America:
Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Paper 7,
p. 37-51.
Cook. H. E.. P. N. McDaniel. E. Mountjoy
and L. C. Pray. 1972. Allochthonous
carbonate debris flows at Devonian
bank ("reef") margins, Alberta, Canada:
Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol.. v.20, p.439-497.
Srivastava. P.. C. W. Stearn, and E. W.
Mountiov. 1972. A Devonian
Figure 17 loregrourirl (wilhgcnlogrsl lor scale), andcirll megabreccia at the margin of the
Channel in Carnbrsan St Roch Formalron at ar lop right Note the graded-stralrlred Ancient Wall carbonate complex.
L Isle1 Wharl Quebec Stralrgraphlc lop lo conqlornerate I~llmg lowerparl 01 channel, Alberta: Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol.. v. 20.
nghl Channelcuts tnlo classical lurbrd!les andpassing up Into masswe sandstone p. 41 2-438.
andcons~slsolal least two rnam porhons- (lower right)
(Note: It seems astonishing that so little
work has been published on the deep
Wharf. and the Cap Enrage Formation in marine clastic sediments of the Western
tectonics in west Newfoundland and
the Bic - St. Fabien area. See also Cordillera. The area should command
their possible bearing on a Proto-
Rocheleau and Lajoie, and Davies and the immediate attention of Canadian
Atlantic ocean, ;n J. Lajoie, ed.. Flysch
Walker, below.) sedimentologists. My own casual
Sedimentology in North America: Geol.
observations on field trips suggest that
Rocheleau,M. and J. Lajoie. 1974. Assoc. Can. Spec. Paper 7, p. 165-177.
at least parts of the Miette Group
Sedimentary structures in resedimented Horne. G. S. and J. Helwig, 1969. (Precambrian.Windemere) and Aldridge
conglomerate of the Cambrian flysch, Ordovician stratigraphy of Notre Dame Formation (Precambrian, Lower Purcell)
L ISel Oueocc Appalacn~ans- o ~ rSee Bdy Newio~ndlana!n M <ay n o , North of Aqbena and B C contaln l ~ i o ! o tes
Prtro v 4 4 p 826-836 Allant c - Geo oov and Con1 nenta Dr tl riloner
" n the sect on, tne Tr asslc
~ ~ ~ Snrav
- - 3- -
~ ~
7
Davies, I. C. and R. G. Walker, 1974. Am. Assoc petri; Geol. Mem. 12, p. River Formation and Jurassic Fernie
Transport and deposition of 388-407. Formation also appear to contain some
resedimented conglomerates: the Cap Belt. E. S. and J. Riva, in preparation. turbidites in the foothills of Alberta.)
Enrag6 Formation. Cambro-Ordovician, Sedimentologyof the Middle Ordovician
GaspB. Ouebec: Jour. Sed. Petrol.. v. 44. succession in the Ste-Anne-du-Nord
6. Fleld Guidebooks
p. 1200-1216, River, and its relationship to lateral Hubert. C. M.. 1969. ed.. Flysch
facies elsewhere in Ouebec: to be sediments in parts of the Cambro-
Hendry, H. E.. 1973, Sedimentation of Ordovician sequence of the Ouebec
deep water conglomerates in Lower Submittedto Can. Jour. Earth Sci.
Appalachians Geol. Assoc Can..
Ordovician rocks of Ouebec - Osborne. F., 1956, Geology near Guidebook for field trip 1, Montreal. 38 p.
composite bedding produced by Ouebec City: Nat. Can.. v. 83, p. 157-
progressive liquefaction of sediment?: 223. Riva. J.. 1972. Geology of theenvironsof
Jour.Sed. petrol..^ 43, p. 125.136. Ouebec City: Montreal, Internatl. Geol.
3. Campus, Unlvenlty of Montreal Cong.. Guidebook 8-1 9,53 p.
Schenk. P. E.. 1970.Regional variation of
the flysch-like Meguma Group (Lower Lajoie. J.. 1972. Slump fold axis S. Julien. P., C. Hubert. W. B. Skidmore
Paleozoic) of Nova Scotia, compared to orlentatlons: an lnd~catlonof and J. Beland. 1972. Appalachian
recent sedimentation off the Scotian paleoslope?:Jour. Sed. Petrol.. v. 42, p. structure and strattgraphy, Ouebec:
.
Shelf,in J. Lajoie, ed Flysch 584-586. Montreal, lnternatl. Geol. Cong.,
Guidebook A-56.99 p,
Sedimentology in North America: Geol.
ASSOC. Can. Spec. Paper 7, p. 127.153. 4. Canadian Arctic
Harris. I. M.. ed.. (in press). Ancient
Treltin, H. P., 1970, Ordovician-Silurian
sediments of Nova Scotia. Eastern
Stevens, R. K.. 1970. Cambro- flysch sedimentation in the axial trough
Section. Soc Econ. Paleonl. Min..
Ordovician flysch sedimentation and of the Franklinian geosyncline.
Guidebook, ;n Maritime Sediments (to
northeastern Ellesmere Island. Arctic
appear in v. 11, numbers 1.2 and 3).
Poole, W. H. and J. Rodgers. 1972. 3. Modem and Ancient fans - Walker, R. G.. 1975. Generalized facies
Appalachian geolectonic elements of cornpartson models for resedimented
the Atlantic Provinces and southern Nelson. C. H. and T. H. Nilsen. 1974. conglomerates of turbidite association:
Quebec: Montreal. Internatl. Geol. Depositional trends of modern and Geol. Soc Am. Bull.. v. 86. p. 737-748.
Congr., Gu~debookA-63.200 p. ancient deep sea fans,in R. H. Dott. Jr. This is the most recent paper on
and R. H. Shaver. eds.. Modern and resedimented conqlomerates - it ShOWS
how Bouma-like models were set up for
Sciectad RderHlces - B.ric
Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation:
Soc. Econ. Paleont. Min. Spec. Paper 19, ditferent types of conglOmera1eS.
This list is intentionally very brief. It is
p. 69-91 Helwig. J.. 1970, Slump folds and early
intended to serve as basic reading for
Good comparison of modern and structures, northeastern Newfoundland
those wishing to read further in various
ancient fans, showing how information Appalachians: Jour, Geol., v. 78, p, 72.
aspects of turbidites and associated
lrom both sources can be dovetailed 187.
coarse clastics in their basinal setting.
("distilled") together.
-
1. Turbidit- in basins faciea and
-
4. Proceoaes turbidity currenta and
MS received November 24.1975
faciea associations
associated sediment gravity flows
Walker. R. G., 1970, Review of the
Middleton, G. V, and M. A. Hampton.
geometry and facies organization of
turbidites and turbidile-bearing basins. 1975, Subaqueous sediment transport
and deposition by sediment gravity
,n J. Laloie, ed.. Flysch Sedimentology in
flows, in 0. J. Stanley and D. J. P. Swift.
North America: Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec.
eds., Marine Sediment Transport and
Paper 7. p. 21 9-251
Environmental Management: New York,
This paper discusses at length the
Wiley Interscience.
various turbidite and assoc~atedfacies.
All you need to know about turbidity
but predates the Normark-Mutti Ian
currents, and associated processes.
model. It contains an extensive
Non-mathematical.
reference list.
Walker. R. G. and E. Mutti. 1973. 5. History and phliosophy ol the
Turbidite facies and lacies associations. turbidity current concept
in G. V. Middleton and A. H. Bouma. eds. Walker. R. G., 1973, Mopping-up the
Turbidites and deep water turbidite mess, in R. N. Ginsburg. ed..
sedimentation: Pacific Section. SOC. Evolving Concepts in Sedimentology:
Econ Paleont. Min. Short Course Notes Baltimore,Johns Hopkins Press, p. 1-37
(-0s Ange.es) p 119-157 Dcta~ed n story ~ t phh losoph cal
An extenoeo a scbss.on of tne fac es commentarv. on tne evo ,I on of tne
and models discussed in the present turbidity current concept. This paper will
art~cle. not help you flnd oil, however!
Econ. Paleont. Min. Short Course Notes modern (post World War II)
(Los Angeles), p. 39-78. sedimentology.
Although emphasizing the N.W. Pacific.
this revlew paper, with abundant
relerences, is a good overall summary ol
fan morphology and sedimentation.