Generalbio2 Stec

GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
GENERAL
BIOLOGY
2
Congratulations! You have
survived General Biology 1.
You might have been bored for
the past few weeks or months
without the thrills of studying
the nature of life. I welcome you
back to the rollercoaster ride of
Dr. Acar’s mighty lectures,
experiments, quizzes.
As a former student, I have

compiled notes for future
generations to come hahaha.
Kidding aside, I hope I can help
students with this file for I find
the method of staring into the
numerous slides of powerpoint
presentation draining.
Cheating and leaking of
answers are definitely a bad
thing. You have to study the
material to learn and retain
information, not just for the
sake of getting good grades.
Whatever may be your

course in the future, it is
important to study biology.
However, it is not tolerable to
sacrifice other subjects for a one
major. Remember being a
STECian means to be holistic.
The motto may state that
“Excellence is our habit, Perfection
is our Goal”. It is very idealistic
yet it is a constant reminder to
be excellent. How to be
excellent, you may ask? You
have to be persistent. Just
continue to move forward, do
consistent efforts. Do not
compare yourself to others,
rather assess yourself. Tap
yourself in the shoulder for
facing the challenge!
Good luck to you. I hope this

notes will guide you all
throughout.
-John V. Labrador 12 Neuron
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL BIOLOGY II 1-5

Historical Background of Zoology as Science
Historical Background of General Biology
List of Zoologists (General and Notable)
Areas of Specialization
Characteristics of Life and Properties of Living systems
Plants vs Animals
2 GENETICS 5-8
Gregor Johann Mendel
Genetic Terms
Punnett Square
Mendel’s Principles
3 SEX DETERMINATION, SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE & HUMAN GENETIC DISORDERS 8 - 14

Sex Chromosomes
Sex-Linked Diseases
Human Genetic Disorders
Autosomal
Chromosome Abnormalities
Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
DNA Mutations
Diagnosing Genetic Disorders
4 DNA, RNA, and PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 14 - 19

History of Nucleic Acids
Classification, Distribution and Composition of Nucleic Acids
Protein Synthesis
Transcription
Translation
Codon – Amino Acid Table
--- RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY 19 - 21
5 EARTH HISTORY: GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 22 – 29

PreCambrian
Paleozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
Cenozoic Era
Human Evolution
Hominids to Homo Sapiens
6 EVOLUTION
A MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION 30 – 32
Natural Selection vs Selective Breeding
Two Types of Genetic drift
B EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION 32 - 36
Charles Darwin
Alfred Russel Wallace
Fossil Record
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7 KINGDOM ANIMALIA 37 - 45
Taxonomy
Modern Phylogenetic Taxonomy
Cladistics
Characteristics of Kingdom Animalia
Table Summary about Animals
50 Scientific Names of Common Animals
10 Animal Phyla
Classes under Chordata
More on Mammals
Order Primata
FROG ATLAS 46 - 50
9 Skeleton
11 Muscular System
13 Body Organs
8 SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISM 51 - 55

Comparing Animal Senses
More on 5 Senses
Vertebrate Visual System
Skeletal System
Muscles
10 ANIMAL NUTRITION 55 - 59
Animal Diet
4 Main Stages of Food Processing
Alimentary Canal and Accessory Glands
Digestion in the Small Intestine
Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems
Feedback Circuits regulate Digestion, Energy Storage and Appetite
12 CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE 59 - 63

General Properties of Circulatory Systems
Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems
Heart Beat and Blood Pressure
Respiratory System
Gas Exchange and Respiratory Pigments
--- PHILIPPINE ENDEMIC SPECIES 64 – 65

14 REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE AND FLUIDS 66 - 68
Homeostasis
Thermoregulation
Freshwater vs Saltwater Fish
Urinary System
Key Processes
Hormones
15 IMMUNE SYSTEM AND BODY DEFENSE 68 - 75

Innate vs Adaptive Immunity
List of Infectious Microorganisms
Antigen Recognition
Active and Passive Immunization
First Line of Defense
Types of Animal Defense
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16 REGULATION OF CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS SYSTEM 75 - 80

Endocrine System
Hormones
Glands
Problems
Nervous System
Neuron and Nerves
Impulse and Response
Nervous Regulation On Different Organisms
CNS and Brain
Behaviors
PNS and Spinal Cord
Problems
17 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION 80 - 85
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction and Fertilization
Human Female Reproductive Anatomy
Male Reproductive Anatomy
Gametogenesis
Sex Hormones
Female Reproductive Cycles
Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive System
Human Sexual Response
18 ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT 85 – 91
Fertilization and Acrosomal Reaction
LIST OF COMMON ANIMALS SCIENTIFIC NAMES 86 – 87
Cortical Reaction and Cleavage Formation
Morphogenesis and Gastrulation on Different Organisms
Organogenesis and Neurulation
Cell Fate Specification
Spemann’s experiment and Vertebrate Limb Formation
19 HOMEOSTASIS 91 – 97
Teleological vs Mechanistic Views of Physiology
Level of Structural Organization
More on Homeostasis
Negative vs Positive Feedback Loop
Controlling Body Temperature
Controlling Glucose Levels
Controlling Water Levels
Diagram: Body systems and Homeostasis
20 SAMPLE QUIZZES
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LESSON 1
Talkie Time (Zoological Term)
Hotchi-witchi is an old Roman nickname for the hedgehog. Precisely what the name means is
unclear, but it’s likely that the first part is an alternation of urchin (another old English name for the
hedgehog) while the second is probably an old Romany word meaning something like “woodland” or
“forest.”
If you thought JK Rowling made the name Dumbledore up, think again—dor is an Old English
word for a flying or buzzing insect, and dumbledore is actually an 18th century nickname for a bumblebee.
In an interview in 1999, Rowling herself explained that she gave the wise old headmaster of Hogwarts the
name because of his love of music: “Dumbledore … seemed to suit the headmaster,” she said, “because
one of his passions is music, and I imagined him walking around humming to himself.”
Onos is the Ancient Greek word for an ass, while a crotalus is another name for a castanet, or the
clapper inside a bell. This literally makes an onocrotalus an “ass-clapper,” but despite appearances it’s
actually an old nickname for the pelican. Although the word has long since vanished from the language,
the scientific name of the great white pelican is still Pelecanus onocrotalus.
Science – Systematized body of knowledge based on facts and principles gathered through
experimentation and observation. Has 3 divisions:
Pure Science Applied Science Natural Science

A science which Uses scientific facts and A science which deals with the study of nature.
explains the facts and principles to make things
(refers to the entire physical universe and all
principles about the useful to man.
organisms in it.)
universe.
Scientific knowledge
Abstract - Concrete
Research conducted for used for practical
intangible – tangible sciences
acquiring knowledge. knowledge/purpose.
sciences Physical Science
– non-living sciences
Sociological Science
– relationship, interaction
Biological Science
– living organism
3 divisions of Biology:
Botany – plants Zoology – animals Microbiology – microorganism
Historical Background of ZOOLOGY as a science
1. In ancient India, texts described some aspects of bird life, and in
2. Egypt, the metamorphosis of insects and frogs was described. Egyptians
3. and Babylonians also knew of anatomy and physiology in various forms.
4. In ancient Mesopotamia, animals were sometimes kept in what can be described as the first zoological
gardens.
5. In the Greco-Roman world, scholars became more interested in rationalist methods. Greek scientist
and philosopher Aristotle, during the 300s B.C.E., described many animals and their behaviors, and
devoted considerable attention to categorizing them.
6. In ancient Rome, Pliny the Elder is known for his knowledge of nature. Later, Claudius Galen became
a pioneer in medicine and anatomy.
7. The medieval period from the fifth century to early sixteenth century has often been called the dark
age of biology. Of the Arab biologists, Al-Jahiz, who died about 868, is particularly noteworthy. He
wrote Kitab al Hayawan (Book of animals).
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8. In the 1200s, the German scholar named Albertus Magnus wrote De vegetabilibus (seven books) and
De animalibus (26 books). He discussed in some detail the reproduction of animals.
9. During the Renaissance, roughly from mid-1300s C.E. to early 1600s C.E., naturalists described and
classified many animals, and artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci contributed accurate
drawings of animals. Many visual artists were interested in the bodies of animals and humans and
studied the physiology in detail. Such comparisons as that between a horse leg and a human leg were
made. Books about animals included those by Conrad Gesner
10. In the middle and late 1600s, the pioneering use of the microscope led to insights on physiology, such
as observations on blood by Marcello Malphighi, and on minute organisms by Robert Hooke, who
published Micrographia in 1665, based on his observations using a compound microscope. Hooke
described the compartments of cork tissue as "cells."
11. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), who made more than 400 microscopes himself, was the first
person to view single-celled microbes.
12. Systematizing and classifying dominated biology throughout much of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, developed a classification for animals
based on shared characteristics. His new system greatly standardized the rules for grouping and
naming animals and plants.
13. At this time, the long-held idea that living organisms could originate from nonliving matter
(spontaneous generation) began to crumble, particularly through the work of Louis Pasteur (1822–
1895).
14. 1859, Charles Darwin, with his publication of The Origin of Species, placed the theory of organic
evolution on a new footing, by his marshalling of evidence for evolution by descent with modification,
and by presentation of a process by which it could occur, the theory of natural selection. Darwin's
theories revolutionized the zoological and botanical sciences.
15. Gregor Mendel's object was to gain a better understanding of the principles of heredity. Mendel made
his chief experiments with cultivated varieties of the self-fertilizing edible pea. When the importance
of Mendel's work was realized, it led to the merging of Darwinian theories with an understanding of
heredity, resulting in the "modern evolutionary synthesis" or neo-Darwinism. The modern synthesis was
integral to the development of much of zoology in the twentieth century.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (General Biology):
1. Greeks – 500 B.C.

2. Aristotle – father of biology. Studied the hearts and brain of animals. He described the warming &
cooling of the mammalian heart
3. Galen – greatest authority in human anatomy – model – barbary ape.
- Student – Andreas Versalius – created a book in anatomy.
4. William Harvey – physiologist – studied the circulation of blood.

5. 1800’s – Marie Francois Bichat – discovered that organs are made of tissues.
6. Robert Hooke – 1665 – coined the term cell – basic unit of life.
7. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek – made the first microscope. - discovered the single-celled organism –
animalicules/ animalcules
8. James Watson and Francis Crick – discovered the double helix DNA – made DNA model.
9. Jean de Baptiste Lamarck – introduces the theory in evolution – Use and Disuse and Spontaneous
Generation Theory.
10. Charles Darwin – father of evolution – book Origin of Species - theory known as Natural Selection
11. Gregor Jahann Mendel - father of genetics
12. Louis Pasteur – father of bacteriology
13. Dorothy Hodgkin - studied the structure of penicillin and Vitamin B12
14. Alexander Fleming - discovered the penicillin.
15. Jonas Salk - discovered the polio-vaccine injectible.
16. Paul Erick - introduce the chemotheraphy.
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General Zoology
Ancient Period Medieval period 17th - 18th Century 19th – 20th Century
Plato – Atlantis – the Leonardo da Vinci – Bartholin – lymphatic Karl Ernst Von Baer -
cradle of civilization give definition of fossil. system germ layer – father of
Embryology
Anaximander – first Konrad Gesner – Wharton – Glands in
evolutionary theory – frenchman who the body Leydig – Tissue
that man developed illustrated the first formation
Marcelo Malphigi
from fishes to fishes workbook in zoology.
– father of Histology Purkinje discovered
with action of
Gullaume Rondelet – the purkinje fiber in the
mudlight. Jan Swammerdam –
comparative anatomy of cerebellum of the brain.
father of entomology
Herophilus – fishes.
August Weismann –
discovered the retina of Rudolphi – father of
Pierre Belon – divided Chromosomes
the eye and optic nerve modern parasitology
the fishes into bony and
of the brain. Thomas Morgan
cartilaginous one.
breeding experiment of
Diogenes – first to give
Fallopio – reproductive the fruit fly
the anatomical
system
description of man. Arthur Komkerg –
Paracelsus - pathology synthesis of DNA
Xenophanes – wrote
about marine fossils Columbus – hearing
sense.
Hippocrates – father of
medicine. Cesalpino – circulatory
system
Notable zoologists
1. Aristotle 5. Desmond Morris (ethology)

2. Charles Darwin 6. Konrad Lorenz (ethology)
3. William Kirby (father of entomology) 7. Richard Dawkins (ethology)
4. E.O. Wilson (entomology, founder of 8. Louis Agassiz (malacology, ichthyology)
sociobiology) 9. Diane Fossey (primatology)
10. Carolus Linnaeus (father of systematics)
11. Ernst Mayr (1905-2005) (influential evolutionary biologist, one of the founders of the "modern
synthesis" of evolutionary theory in the 1940s.)
Areas of Specialization: General Zoology

Morphology Genetics – heredity Conchology – shells Zoogeography
–forms and structure – animal
Evolution – origin of Parasitology – parasites
of organism distribution
the organism.
Anatomy Helminthology Endocrinology
Microbiology – worms/parasites
-parts of the organism – hormonal actions
– microorganism
Physiology Malacology – mollusks Cryptozoology
Biochemistry –
– functions of the parts. - study of unknown
chemistry of life
Arachnology – spiders & unclassified species
Cytology – cell
Entomology – insects
Histology - tissues Protozoology - one- Virology – virus
Ichthyology – fishes celled animals
Myology – muscles Cindology - study of
Ornithology – birds Nutrition – science of coelenterates.
Embryology food conversion
– growth and Herpetology - reptiles Euthenics - Study of
development and amphibians Ethology – Animal improvement of human
behavior race through laws of
Ecology Mammalogy-mammals
–organism and Paleontology – fossils heredity.
their environment. Anthropology Karyology - nucleus.
Taxonomy – study of man
– classification
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Related to Medical Science Highly Specialized Field

Epidemiology Acarology (Acarologist) Echinology studies echinoderms
Study of epidemic diseases. a division of zoology that
studies mites and ticks Epimorphosis - development of
Immunology
an organism or form of animal
Study of defense and Carcinology (-ist)
life in which body segmentation
resistance against any diseases. the branch of zoology that
is complete before hatching. —
Enzymology - study of enzymes. studies crustaceans.
epimorphic, adj.
Hematology - Study of blood. Cetology (-ist) study of whales
Lepidopterology (-ist)
Cardiology - Study of heart. Coadunation - the state or Entomology; studies butterflies.
condition of being united by
Oesteology - Study of bones. Zoonomy (-ia)the laws of animal
growth. — coadunate
life or the animal kingdom.
Endocrinology - study of Coccidology (-ist) - studies
endocrine glands and hormones. Zoopathology
scales, mealy bugs, and other science of the diseases of
members of the family animals; animal pathology.
Crustaceology - the branch of Zoophysiology
zoology that studies crustaceans. the physiology of animals, as
Cynology (-ist) - studies the dog, distinct from that of humans.
especially its natural history. Zootaxy - zoological
classification; the scientific
classification of animals.
Tools in Biology:
1. Optical Instruments
2. Non – Optical Instruments
3. Complicated Technology
3.1 Centrifuges – used to separate the parts of cell by spinning it around the solution.
3.2 Microdissection Apparatus – used to control movement of instrument to work on minute organism.
3.3 Computer – data purposes.
3.4 Microscopes – produced greatly magnified images
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Organized Protoplasm 6. Ability to Reproduce

2. Cellular Organization 7. Definite Life span
3. Constant Energy Requirements 8. Response to stimuli
4. Ability to grow 9. Adaptation to Changes
5. Definite Size & Form 10. Ability to Move
Properties of Living Systems

1. Chemical Uniqueness Made up of large molecules (macromolecules)
4 categories: nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
2. Complexity and One level builds on previous level:
Hierarchical Macromolecules  Cells  Tissue  Organs  Organ Systems,etc.
Organization Emergent Characteristics – unique characteristics that appear at a
given level of organization
3. Reproduction Replacement of individuals in a population. Can be asexual or sexual
4. Possession of a Genetic Faithful transmission of traits – Heredity
Program Information contained in Genes. Specifically encoded in the DNA
5. Metabolism Complex chemical processes that go on in cells to provide energy
Anabolism – building up reactions Catabolism – breaking down
6. Growth/Development Changes that take place during the life of an organism
Metamorphosis – transformation that takes place in post-embryonic stages
7. Environmental Ecology – study of interactions between organisms and their environment.
Interaction Organisms responding to stimuli from environment; irritability
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PLANTS ANIMALS SIMILARITIES

Autotrophic Heterotrophic Made up of protoplasm – then to
cell
Rigid Cell wall with cellulose None. Cell membrane The same metabolic processes
Oxygen is a waste product Carbon dioxide
Restricted movement Locomotive
Variable body size and shape Fix ed
Organs are added externally Internally added
Restricted response Pronounced response
Carbohydrates as starch Glycogen
Spores/asexual reproduction Fertilization
LESSON 2 : GENETICS
GENETICS – branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation of organisms.
• Chromosomes carry the hereditary information (genes)
Arrangement of nucleotides in DNA; DNA  RNA  Proteins
Chromosomes (and genes) occur in pairs - Homologous Chromosomes
New combinations of genes occur in sexual reproduction - Fertilization from two parents
Gregor Johann Mendel
Austrian Monk, born in what is now Czech Republic in 1822
Son of peasant farmer, studied Theology and was ordained priest Order St. Augustine.
Went to the University of Vienna, where he studied botany and learned the Scientific Method
Worked with pure lines of peas for eight years
Prior to Mendel, heredity was regarded as a "blending" process and the offspring were essentially a
"dilution"of the different parental characteristics.
Mendel looked at seven traits or characteristics of pea plants:
In 1866 he published Experiments in Plant Hybridization,

(Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden) in which he
established his three Principles of Inheritance
He tried to repeat his work in another plant, but didn’t

work because the plant reproduced asexually! If…
Work was largely ignored for 34 years, until 1900, when 3

independent botanists rediscovered Mendel’s work.
• Mendel was the first biologist to use Mathematics – to explain his results quantitatively.
Mendel predicted:
1. The concept of genes 2. That genes occur in pairs 3.That one gene of each pair is present in the gametes
Genetics terms you need to know:
a. Gene – a unit of heredity; a section of DNA sequence encoding a single protein

b. Genome – the entire set of genes in an organism
c. Alleles – two genes that occupy the same position on homologous chromosomes and that cover the
same trait (like ‘flavors’ of a trait).
d. Locus – a fixed location on a strand of DNA where a gene or one of its alleles is located.
e. Homozygous – having identical genes (one from each parent) for a particular characteristic.
f. Heterozygous – having two different genes for a particular characteristic.
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g. Dominant – the allele of a gene that masks or suppresses the expression of an alternate allele; the trait
appears in the heterozygous condition.
h. Recessive – an allele that is masked by a dominant allele; does not appear in the heterozygous
condition, only in homozygous.
i. Genotype – the genetic makeup of an organisms
j. Phenotype – the physical appearance of an organism
(Genotype + environment)
k. Monohybrid cross: a genetic cross involving a single pair of
genes (one trait); parents differ by a single trait.
l. P = Parental generation
m. F1 = First filial generation; offspring from a genetic cross.
n. F2 = Second filial generation of a genetic cross
Punnett square
• A useful tool to do genetic crosses
• For a monohybrid cross, you need a square

divided by four….
• Looks like a window pane… We use the
Punnett square to predict the genotypes and

phenotypes of the offspring.
Using a Punnett Square (STEPS: )

1. determine the genotypes of the parent organisms
2. write down your "cross" (mating)
3. draw a p-square; Parent genotypes: TT and t t. Cross :T T × t t
4. "split" the letters of the genotype for each parent & put them "outside" the p-square
5. determine the possible genotypes of the offspring by filling in the p-square
6. summarize results (genotypes & phenotypes of offspring)
Monohybrid cross: F2 generation
• If you let the F1 generation self-fertilize, the next

monohybrid cross would be:
Secret of the Punnett Square (key!)
• Determine the gametes of each parent… How? By “splitting” the genotypes of each parent
Shortcuts for Punnet Square:
If either parent is Genotypes:

HOMOZYGOUS 100% T t
Phenotypes:
100% Tall plants
Another example: Flower color
If you cross a homozygous Purple (PP) with homozygous white (pp): PP x pp  Pp; You get all
purple. Crossing the F1 generation will yield you 3 purples and 1 white flowers. (1 PP, 2 Pp and 1 pp).
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Mendel’s Principles
1. Principle of Dominance:
One allele masked another, one allele was dominant over the other in the F1 generation.
2. Principle of Segregation:
When gametes are formed, the pairs of hereditary factors (genes) become separated, so that each
sex cell (egg/sperm) receives only one kind of gene.
Mendel’s Principles of Heredity apply universally to all organisms.
Human case: Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
o It is a lethal genetic disease affecting Caucasians.

o Caused by mutant recessive gene carried by 1 in 20 people of European descent (12M)
o One in 400 Caucasian couples will be both carriers of CF – 1 in 4 children will have it.
o CF disease affects transport in tissues – mucus is accumulated in lungs, causing infections.
Inheritance pattern of CF
IF two parents carry the recessive gene of Cystic Fibrosis (c), that is, they are heterozygous (C c),
one in four of their children is expected to be homozygous for cf and have the disease:
Of course, the 1 in 4 probability of getting the disease

is just an expectation, and in reality, any two carriers
may have normal children.
However, the greatest probability is for 1 in 4

children to be affected.
Important factor when prospective parents are

concerned about their chances of having affected
children.
Now, 1 in 29 Americans is a symptom-less carrier (Cf cf) of the gene.
Gaucher Disease is a rare, genetic disease. It causes lipid-

storage disorder (lipids accumulate in spleen, liver, bone
marrow)
It is the most common genetic disease affecting Jewish

people of Eastern European ancestry
(1 in 500 incidence; rest of pop. 1 in 100,000)
Dihybrid crosses
• Matings that involve parents that differ in two genes (two independent traits)
For example, flower color: P = purple (dominant) and p = white (recessive) and stem length: T = tall
and t= short.
Shortcut: If possible gametes for parents are TP and tp; the F1

generation will be composed of all tall purple flowers (TtPp).
Dihybrid cross F2
If F1 generation is allowed to self pollinate, Mendel

observed 4 phenotypes: TtPp x TtPp.
Possible gametes: TP, Tp, tP and tp.
Four phenotypes observed:
Tall, purple (9); Tall, white (3); Short, purple (3); Short, white (1)
9 Genotype ratios: 1 ttpp (short, white)
1 TTPP, 2 TTPp, 2 TtPP, 4 TtPp (Tall, purple)
1 TTpp and 2 Ttpp (Tall, white) ; 1 ttPP and 2 ttPp (Short, purple)
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Based on these results, Mendel postulated the

3. Principle of Independent Assortment:
“Members of one gene pair segregate independently from other gene pairs during gamete formation”
Genes get shuffled – these many combinations are one of the

advantages of sexual reproduction
Relation of gene segregation to meiosis…
There’s a correlation between the movement of chromosomes in

meiosis and the segregation of alleles that occurs in meiosis
When you have an individual with an unknown genotype, you do a

test cross.
Test cross: Cross with a homozygous recessive individual.
For example, a plant with purple flowers can either be PP or Pp… therefore, you
cross the plant with a pp (white flowers, homozygous recessive)
• If you get all 100% purple flowers, then the unknown parent was PP…
• If you get 50% white, 50% purple flowers, then the unknown parent was Pp…
Dihybrid test cross??
If you had a tall, purple plant, how would you know what genotype it is? (TTPP x ttpp)
Beyond Mendelian Genetics: Incomplete Dominance
Mendel was lucky! Traits he chose in the pea plant showed up very clear. One allele was dominant
over another, so phenotypes were easy to recognize. But sometimes phenotypes are not very obvious…
Snapdragon flowers come in many colors. If you cross a red snapdragon (RR) with a white snapdragon (rr)
You get PINK flowers (Rr)! What happens if you cross a pink with a white? A pink with a red?
Gene show incomplete dominance when the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate.
When F1 generation (all pink flowers) is self pollinated, the F2 generation is 1:2:1 red, pink, white
LESSON 2 SUMMARY
• Chromosomes carry hereditary info (genes)
• Chromosomes (and genes) occur in pairs
• New combinations of genes occur in sexual reproduction
• Monohybrid vs. Dihybrid crosses
Mendel’s Principles:
• Dominance: one allele masks another
• Segregation: genes become separated in gamete formation
• Independent Assortment: Members of one gene pair segregate independently from other gene
pairs during gamete formation
LESSON 3 : Sex Determination & Sex-Linked Inheritance & Human Genetic Disorders
Most species of animals and plants carry a pair of chromosomes that determine the individuals sex.
These are called sex chromosomes. All other chromosomes are called autosomal
 Females have two complementary sex chromosomes: XX
 Males have 2 non-complementary sex chromosomes: XY
 Blood clotting
The Y chromosome is much smaller than the X. It carries a small number

of genes, most of which are for “male characteristics”
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X chromosome
o All human eggs contain the X chromosome.

o The X chromosome contains genes that code for all aspects of
femaleness and genes unrelated to gender.
Including genes for: Vision and Immunity
Sex-Linked Genes
o Genes unrelated to gender on the X chromosome.

o Females have two X chromosomes (so they can be heterozygous
or homozygous for each of these genes)
o Males have one copy of the sex-linked genes.
o Thus, the male is referred to as hemizygous.
Hemophilia Color-Blindness
Description o A blood disorder where the blood does not clot Color Blindness is a sex-linked
properly. trait found on the X
o A minor cut can cause serious injury and chromosome.
demand medical attention.
Males are more likely
o Bleeding into the joints, internal bleeding and
to be color blind due to the fact
deep cuts can be fatal for hemophiliacs.
they only have one X
o Genetic lack of one of the clotting factors
chromosome.
produced by the liver.
o There is no cure for hemophilia but treatment
options with clotting factor transfusions are
available.
Complications Bruising and bleeding into the muscles, bleeding
into the joints, infection, adverse reaction to
transfusions and serious bleeding.
Genetics o The gene for hemophilia is found on the X Red-green
chromosome. It is a recessive disorder. colorblindness is caused by an
o It is referred to as a sex-linked recessive disorder. abnormal gene for
Males are more likely to get hemophilia. photoreceptors in the retina
o Females have the possibility of being
The genes for both red
heterozygous for hemophilia.
and green photoreceptors are
(This makes them a carrier)
located on the X chromosome –
colorblindness can result from
recessive alleles for either one or
both of these genes.
Examples Pedigree of Queen Victoria
Czar Nicholas II and Family
Gregor Rasputin
In this example:
The father has hemophilia. He cannot give his son
hemophilia because he gives his son the Y chromosome.
He can give his daughter the recessive gene, but if her mother
does not give her the recessive gene, she will not have hemophilia.
She will be a carrier.
On the right: The mother is a carrier of hemophilia. She does not have
hemophilia but she is heterozygous for the trait.
There is a 50% chance her son will have hemophilia.
In this example: the mother is a carrier of the colorblind gene.
There is a 50% chance her son will be colorblind but unless the father is
colorblind the daughter cannot end up colorblind.
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Sex-Linked Inheritance Punnett Square

In the punnett square the mother is a carrier and the father is normal.
Male offspring: 50% normal & 50% hemophiliac
Female offspring: 50% normal 50% carrier
Cross a normal mother with a hemophiliac father.
What is the only way for a female to show a recessive sex-linked trait?
She must inherit a recessive trait from both her mother and father. (her father must have the disorder)
How does a male show a recessive sex-linked trait?
He must inherit the recessive trait from his mother. He gets the Y from his father so it has no
bearing on a sex-linked disorder.
Human Genetic Disorders can be:
Autosomal (Single genes or Multiple genes); Sex-linked or Chromosome abnormalities
Autosomal genetic disorders are caused by alleles on autosomes (chromosomes other than the sex
chromosomes)
 Most are recessive (need 2 recessive alleles to have the disorder)
People with 1 recessive allele are carriers – they do NOT have the disorder but are able to pass the allele
on to their children Ex: Cystic fibrosis (CF), sickle cell anemia
 Can also be dominant (need only 1 allele to have the disorder) Ex: Huntington’s disease
Cystic Fibrosis Sickle-Cell Anemia/Disease

Description is the most common genetic disorder among The most common genetic disorder
white people among black people
o 1 in 2500 white babies are born with CF (4- o About 1 in 500 African Americans
5 born every day) has sickle-cell anemia.
o It is estimated that 1 in 20 white people is a o Carriers are said to have sickle-cell
carrier for CF
trait
o Caused by an abnormal gene on
chromosome 7 o Caused by an abnormal gene on
o The gene is for a protein pump that uses chromosome 11
active transport to regulate the movement o The gene is for one of the
of sodium (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-) polypeptide chains in hemoglobin, a
into and out of cells protein found in red blood cells that
In healthy individuals, the normal protein is responsible for transporting
allows movement of Na+ and Cl- ions. ( It keeps oxygen through the bloodstream
mucus thin and easily swept away) o Sickle-cell anemia causes
o With CF, not enough Cl- ions are pumped hemoglobin to clump within red
out
blood cells, which distorts their
o Thickening of mucus in airways and
pancreatic ducts shape from the normal biconcave
disc to a sickle shape.
Symptoms Buildup of mucus in lungs/respiratory People with sickle-cell trait have
system (difficulting breathing and infections) some abnormal hemoglobin but do not
have the symptoms of sickle-cell disease.
Blocks digestive enzymes (produced by the
Here are some symptoms of sickle-cell
pancreas from entering the intestine. anemia:
(malnutrition)
Abnormal hemoglobin cannot
Abnormal Na+ transport also results in salt deliver oxygen as efficiently to cells as in
sweat healthy individuals
(It will cause Fatigue, Dizziness and
Headaches)
Sickled red blood cells cannot move
as easily through capillaries as normal
RBCs include
(Chronic pain, especially in bones ; Strokes)
Reduced immune response to infections
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Treatments For respiratory symptoms: Treatments for sickle-cell anemia

Physical therapy, Breathing exercises, include:
Antibiotics and Lung transplants in severe cases o Blood transfusions and
o Antibiotics
For digestive symptoms: Capsules containing
o Drugs that increase oxygen-
pancreatic digestive enzymes
carrying capacity of RBCs (3)
Even with treatment, CF continues to be o Drugs that “switch on” the
fatal, but patients live longer and have a higher gene for fetal hemoglobin,
quality of life which is normally switched off
after birth
Cystic fibrosis
Sickle-Cell
Anemia
(Sickle-Cell
Disease)
More Autosomal Recessive Diseases
Tay Sachs Disease PKU (Phenylketonuria)

Fatty substance builds up in neurons Can’t break down amino acid phenylalanine
(missing critical enzyme)
Gradual paralysis and loss of nervous function
by age 4-5 Phenylalanine builds up and interferes with
Single defective enzyme nervous system leading to mental retardation and
even death
Heterozygote carriers (Hh) do not have
disorder, but are resistant to Tuberculosis Early screening  phenylalanine restricted diet
for children with disorder
Especially common in Jewish population
(central and eastern European descent), up to 11%
are carriers
Why are cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell anemia so common?
Sickle-cell anemia is most common in areas of the world where malaria is prevalent
o Malaria is caused by a parasite that invades red blood cells
o These parasites do not thrive in people with abnormal hemoglobin, so people

with sickle-cell trait (who are heterozygous) are resistant to malaria.
People who are heterozygous for the cystic fibrosis allele may be more resistant to cholera. When
carriers have an advantage over people who are homozygous dominant, it is heterozygote superiority
Huntington’s Disease
 Caused by an abnormal dominant allele (unlike most human genetic disorders)
 Both men and women need only one Huntington’s allele to get the disorder.
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Symptoms of Huntington’s disease
o Huntington’s disease affects a person’s brain cells
Clumsiness, Irritability, Depression, Memory loss, Loss of muscle coordination & ability to speak
o Symptoms normally appear by age 40 and (2) is always fatal

Death normally occurs within 20 years of the onset of symptoms
Multiple Genes
o Cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease, and Huntington’s disease caused by mutant alleles for a single gene.
o Many other genetic disorders are believed to be the result of multiple genes:
Diabetes mellitus, Heart disease and some personality disorders like Bipolar disorder and, schizophrenia
o These are much more complicated to analyze than disorders caused by

single genes
Chromosome Abnormalities
Autosomal and sex-linked genetic disorders are both caused by certain

alleles – small segments of DNA that make up part of a chromosome
Other genetic disorders result from chromosome abnormalities caused

by mistakes made during meiosis. (It may change the number or structure
of chromosomes within gametes)
1. Nondisjunction is the failure of a pair of chromosomes to separate

during meiosis. Results in one gamete having too many
chromosomes and the other too few
Trisomy – a zygote gets 3 copies of a chromosome
Monosomy – a zygote gets only 1 copy of a chromosome
2. Translocation is when a piece of one chromosome breaks off and

attaches to a different chromosome. It often happens to 2
chromosomes at once
Both nondisjunction and translocation can be detected in

karyotypes
A karyotype is made from taking individual pictures of all

of a human’s chromosomes and matching up homologous
pairs
Down syndrome - a genetic disorder caused by chromosome abnormality
• Nondisjunction – the person has an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21)
• Translocation – most of chromosome 21 breaks off during

meiosis and fuses with another chromosome, usually #14. This
cause of Down syndrome is most likely to occur in children born
to mothers over age 40
Symptoms of Down syndrome include:
Mild to severe mental retardation, short stature,
Heart, vision, and intestinal problems and (4) Susceptibility to infections and leukemia.
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Edward Syndrome Patau Syndrome

Caused by Trisomy 18 Caused by Trisomy 13
Symptoms: Symptoms:
Mental and physical retardation Mental and physical retardation
Skull and facial abnormalities Skull and facial abnormalities
Defects in all organ systems Defects in all organ systems
Poor muscle tone Cleft lip & large triangular nose
Average life expectancy: 2-4 mos. Extra digits
Average life expectancy: 6 months (but ½ die in the first
month)
Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
Turners Syndrome (X0 - female) Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY - male)

1 in 2000 1 in 1000
Infertile, sexually underdeveloped, Reduced sexual maturity, secondary sexual characteristics
short stature, narrow aorta, normal (breast swelling), no sperm production
intelligence
Triple X Syndrome (XXX – female) Jacob Syndrome (XYY – male)

1 in 1500 Incidence unknown (lack of diagnosis)
Slight IQ reduction, menstrual Tall, acne issues, speech/reading problems
irregularities Disproportionate number incarcerated
96% are normal (most don’t realize they have this condition)
DNA Mutations
Cri du Chat Syndrome Fragile X

(cry of the cat) Repeated sequences of CCG on X chromosome
Deletion on part of chromosome 5 Normal = 6-50 copies
Carrier (males) = 50-230 copies
Disorder = more than 230 copies
Causes mental retardation (2nd next to Down Syndrome)
Congenital disabilities are different from genetic disorders
They are Not inherited and they do Occur during fetal development
Both genetic disorders and congenital disabilities can often (but not always) be detected before a
baby is born
Genetic counseling
Can help parents determine the likelihood of their child being born with a genetic disorder
o Genetic counselors study the family histories of both parents
o Create pedigree charts to trace the passage of traits
o Medical geneticists analyze blood tests to determine if parents are carriers of certain genetic disorders
Genetic counseling usually can NOT determine whether or not a child will be born with a genetic disorder
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Diagnosing Genetic Disorders
ANALYSIS OF FETAL CELLS

Amniocentesis Chorionic Villus Biopsy
Amniotic fluid is the fluid that surrounds a fetus Chorionic villi are structures that help
inside the uterus maximize the surface area for nutrient and gas
Also contains fetal cells exchange between a mother and developing fetus
A sample of amniotic fluid is taken and cells are (they are part of the placenta)
grown in a lab The villi develop from fetal cells and therefore
Can be used to make a karyotype – takes 10 days have the same chromosomes as the fetus &
to grow enough cells amniotic fluid
Detects chromosome abnormalities
A sample of these cells can be taken and
Can be analyzed for defective alleles
analyzed as in amniocentesis
Detects other genetic disorders
Karyotyping
Cannot be conducted until the 14th week of Tests for recessive alleles
pregnancy
Can be done as early as the 9th week of pregnancy
IMAGING TECHNIQUES
Ultrasonography Fetoscopy
Uses high-frequency sound waves which A small incision is made in a pregnant woman’s
bounce off of tissue abdomen
Depending on the density of tissue, waves An endoscope tube is inserted through the incision
“echo” back at different wavelengths and are used Has a camera on the end that shows an image on a
to produce a computerized image called an monitor
echogram Instruments can be inserted through the endoscope
to perform additional procedures
Used in most pregnancies to detect the position
and anatomy of the fetus
Used with amniocentesis to reduce risk of injury
Can also help doctors detect abnormalities such
as congenital heart defects
Developing Cures for Genetic Disorders : Gene therapy
o Introducing normal genes into the cells of people with defective alleles
o Using viruses to inject alleles into cells
o Enclosing alleles in droplets of fat, which are taken into cells by endocytosis
o Currently these are still experimental procedures and have had limited success
LESSON 4 - Primary & Secondary Structures of DNA and RNA
The History of Nucleic Acids
 1869, F. Miescher , nuclein, pus cells (leukocytes )
F. Miescher （1844-1895）, a Swiss physician and biologist, isolated various phosphate-rich chemicals,
which he called nuclein (now nucleic acids), from the nuclei of pus cells (leukocytes) obtained from
discarded surgical bandages.
 1889, Altman , from yeast and animal tissue, nucleic acid, acidic properties.
In 1889, Altmann extracted nucleic acid from yeast and animal tissue. He coined the term “nucleic acid”
in exchange for nuclein, when it was demonstrated that nuclein had acidic properties.
 1902, E. Fischer, the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, glucose and purines
 1953 Watson & Crick, DNA double helix model, The Nobel Prize in Physiology in Medicine 1962
“For their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for
information transfer in living material.”
14
Classification, Distribution and Composition of Nucleic Acids
1. Classification of nucleic acids : DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid and RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
Roles of RNA and DNA: DNA is the MASTER PLAN, RNA is the BLUEPRINT of the Master Plan
Genes are DNA segment that carries the hereditary information. Proteins are key substances for
all aspect of cell life.
DNA – information is encoded in sequence of bases along each side of ladder like DNA molecules.
Role of RNA – serves as decoder and messenger.
DNA RNA
Nucleus Nucleus and cytoplasm
Pair – A-T, G-C Pair – A-U, G-C
Deoxyribose Ribose
2 strand 1
Carrier of genetic code For protein synthesis
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
o Function：Storing the Genetic Code
o Distribution：Eukaryote：nucleus (98%)，organelle (2%)；
Prokaryote：nucleoid，
Prokaryotic Cell: nuclear zone，circular DNA
DNA has a double helix structure.
A can link only with T . G can link only with C
Two DNA strands are “complimentary” to each other
RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
o Type： rRNA,mRNA, tRNA, and other small RNA molecules
o Distribution: cytoplasm (90%), nucleus (10%); virus
o Function：The major role of RNA is to participate in protein synthesis
Messenger RNA (mRNA) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Long Straight chain of rRNA is a single strand 100
Nucleotides to 3000 nucleotides long
Made in the Nucleus
Copies DNA & leaves through Globular in shape
nuclear pores
Made inside the nucleus of
Contains the Nitrogen Bases A,
G, C, U ( no T ) a cell
Carries the information for a Associates with proteins to
specific protein
form ribosomes
Made up of 500 to 1000
nucleotides long Site of protein Synthesis
Sequence of 3 bases called
codon
AUG – methionine or start Codons and Anticodons
codon The 3 bases of an anticodon
UAA, UAG, or UGA – stop are complementary to the 3
codons bases of a codon
Example: Codon ACU
Anticodon UGA
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2. Composition of nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are linear polymers of nucleotides, the monomeric units are
nucleotides.
Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate;
Nucleoside = pentose + bases
Pentose-- Ribose and Deoxyribose
3. Biological functions of nucleic acids
o Take part in the syntheses of proteins;

o Play an important role in transfer energy;
o The components of several co-enzymes;
o Important regulators of cellular metabolism.
Secondary structure -DNA double-helix structure
Watson J. D, Crick F. H (1953)
Molecular structure of nucleic acids: a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid. Nature 171: 737-738.（April 25 th ）
(1) right-handed oriented double helix, antiparallel
(2) Backbone outside, bases inside
(3) base-pairing, A=T, G≡C
Summary Background
A running of the helix containing 10 The analysis of base composition of DNA——Chargaff rules
pairs of bases
The analysis of chemical and physical data on DNA building
Structure stable depends on the vice- model
bonds
Primarily X-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind
There are minor grooves and major franklin and Maurice Wilkins
grooves
Chargaff rules (1952) showed that A=T G=C (A+G = C+T)
X-ray diffraction pattern of DNA：DNA from different sources have the similar pattern----uniform
double-helix structure, 0.34 nm；diameter = 2 nm
Tertiary structure of DNA- supercoil Formation of a chromosome from its DNA Structure of RNA
1. Structure of RNA
o Pentose → Ribose， A C G U；RNA molecules are largely single-stranded. ; [A] ≠ [U]; [C] ≠ [G];
o But there are double-stranded regions（A-U、C-G），any unpaired bases in the molecule produce
loop --- hairpin structures or loop-stem structure ；
o Base stacking forces
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Protein Synthesis: Transcription & Translation
It is the most complicated synthetic activity which occur in cell, consist of linking together various
activated amino acids in an order determined by the DNA and structural gene.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Carries genetic information Forms the ribosomes where Small clover leaf like shaped
from DNA to ribosome. proteins are built. molecules.
Long single nucleotide strand For reading and site for Carries amino acid from
that resemble half of DNA translation. cytoplasm to the ribosomes.
molecule and carry the message
Known as soluble or adaptor
containing instructions for
RNA.
Protein synthesis from DNA
gene in molecules.
Major Events of Protein Synthesis:
a. Transcription – occurs in nucleus- process of transferring information from DNA.

b. Translation has 3 steps:
1. Inititiation – one reading leads to another carried by tRNA then goes to cytoplasm.
2. Elongation – repeated reading
3. Termination – when AUU AUC or ACU come across with the stop codons.
DNA Begins the Process
o DNA is found inside the nucleus
o Proteins, however, are made in the cytoplasm of cells by organelles called ribosomes
o Ribosomes may be free in the cytosol or attached to the surface of rough ER
o DNA ‘s code must be copied and taken to the cytosol
o In the cytoplasm, this code must be read so amino acids can be assembled to make polypeptides
(proteins) This process is called PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
DNA  mRNA  ribosome  protein
The flow of information from transcription of ribonucleic acid

(RNA) in the nucleus to translation of proteins on ribosomes in the
cytoplasm.
1. Transcription: DNA  mRNA
Process of making messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA template to

take the DNA info outside of the nucleus
During transcription, RNA polymerase DNA can NOT leave the

binds to DNA and separates the DNA nucleus (too big)
strands
Messenger RNA
RNA Polymerase then uses one strand (mRNA) carries the info
of DNA as a template to assemble encoded in DNA out of
nucleotides into RNA the nucleus to the
ribosomes located in the
cytoplasm.
Steps of Transcription
1. DNA strands unwind & separate

2. DNA strand containing a specific gene serves as a template strand
3. RNA nucleotides are matched to complimentary DNA bases
4. mRNA molecule is complete and DNA rewinds
17
mRNA Processing
Introns: the mRNA contains extra info (junk) that must be removed (cut out)
Exons: the remaining pieces carry useful information are spliced (connected)
together to make the complete mRNA
After the DNA is transcribed into RNA, editing must be done to the nucleotide
chain to make the RNA functional
Introns, non-functional segments of DNA are snipped out of the chain
mRNA Editing
o Exons, segments of DNA that code for proteins, are then rejoined by the enzyme ligase
o A guanine triphosphate cap is added to the 5” end of the newly copied mRNA
o A poly A tail is added to the 3’ end of the RNA
o The newly processed mRNA can then leave the nucleus
The bases of mRNA pair with DNA bases but RNA replaces T with U
mRNA Transcript - mRNA leaves the nucleus through its pores and goes to the ribosomes
2. Translation: mRNA  protein. It is a process of making proteins from info on mRNA
The mRNA travels out of nucleus to the ribosome, which

“reads” the mRNA as a series of 3 letter words called codons
• Translation is the process of decoding the mRNA into a

polypeptide chain
• Ribosomes read mRNA three bases or 1 codon at a time

and construct the proteins
Codon: 3-base code on mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid Ex. CGU = alanine, GUU = valine
The sequence of bases in DNA tell mRNA what order amino acids must join together to make a
particular protein.
Initiation mRNA transcript start codon AUG attaches to the small ribosomal subunit
Small subunit attaches to large ribosomal subunit
Elongation As ribosome moves, two tRNA with their amino acids move into site A and P of the
ribosome. Peptide bonds join the amino acids
Termination
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Codons found in mRNA
End Product : The Protein!
The end products of protein synthesis is a primary

structure of a protein
A sequence of amino acid bonded together by peptide

bonds
How DNA determines proteins
o DNA molecules serve as templates for

making messenger RNA molecules
o Messenger RNA molecules move to

ribosomes
o Transfer RNA molecules bring amino

acids to the ribosome
o Polypeptides (proteins) are formed as

ribosomes move along the messenger RNA
strand
Thought for the Day:
Our DNAs and RNAs are the key to our Individuality and survival! You are unique as God created
You! Nobody can take away your identity, You are one and only you!
LESSON 5: Recombinant DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA and Gene Cloning
o Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a form of artificial DNA that is created by combining two or more
sequences that would not normally occur together through the process of gene splicing.
o Recombinant DNA technology is a technology which allows DNA to be produced via artificial
means. The procedure has been used to change DNA in living organisms and may have even more
practical uses in the future.
The dragon is a mythical creature that can fly and walk. Dragon can change
its form and has divine powers to summon wind and rain. The dragons are said
to be made up of many different types of animals of the Earth. Dragon is an
imagination creature, which has
deer's antlers snake's neck tiger's paws

camel's head carp's scales ox's ears.
hare's eye eagle's claws
Recombinant DNA: Cloning and Creation of Chimeric Genes
Recombinant DNA technology is one of the recent advances in biotechnology, which was
developed by two scientists named Boyer and Cohen in 1973.
19
Stanley N. Cohen , who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1986 for his work on
discoveries of growth factors.
Stanley N. Cohen (1935–) (top) and Herbert Boyer (1936–) (bottom), who constructed the
first recombinant DNA using bacterial DNA and plasmids.
What is Recombinant DNA Technology?
o Recombinant DNA technology is a technology which allows DNA to be produced via

artificial means.
o The procedure has been used to change DNA in living organisms and may have even more
practical uses in the future.
o It is an area of medical science that is just beginning to be researched in a concerted effort.
Recombinant DNA technology works by taking DNA from two different sources and combining that
DNA into a single molecule. That alone, however, will not do much.
Recombinant DNA technology only becomes useful when that artificially-created DNA is reproduced.
This is known as DNA cloning.
I. The basic concepts for recombinant DNA technology
In the early 1970s, technologies for the laboratory manipulation of

nucleic acids emerged. In turn, these technologies led to the
construction of DNA molecules composed of nucleotide sequences
taken from different sources. The products of these innovations,
recombinant DNA molecules, opened exciting new avenues of
investigation in molecular biology and genetics, and a new field was
born— recombinant DNA technology.
Concept of Recombinant DNA
o Recombinant DNA is a molecule that combines DNA from two sources. Also known as gene cloning.
o Creates a new combination of genetic material
o Human gene for insulin was placed in bacteria
o The bacteria are recombinant organisms and produce insulin in large quantities for diabetics
o Genetically engineered drug in 1986
o Genetically modified organisms are possible because of the universal nature of the genetic code!
Genetic engineering is the application of this technology to the manipulation of genes. These advances
were made possible by methods for amplification of any particular DNA segment (how?), regardless of
source, within bacterial host cells. Or, in the language of recombinant DNA technology, the cloning of
virtually any DNA sequence became feasible.
o Recombinant technology begins with the isolation of a gene of interest (target gene). The target gene is
then inserted into the plasmid or phage (vector) to form replicon.
o The replicon is then introduced into host cells to clone and either express the protein or not.
o The cloned replicon is referred to as recombinant DNA. The procedure is called recombinant DNA
technology. Cloning is necessary to produce numerous copies of the DNA since the initial supply is
inadequate to insert into host cells.
o Some other terms are also in common use to describe genetic engineering.
Gene manipulation Gene cloning (Molecular cloning)
Recombinant DNA technology Genetic modification
Cloning——In classical biology, a clone is a population of identical organisms derived from a

single parental organism.
For example, the members of a colony of bacterial cells that arise from a single cell on a petri plate
are clones. Molecular biology has borrowed the term to mean a collection of molecules or cells all identical
to an original molecule or cell.
20
Recombinant DNA technology
A series of procedures used to join together (recombine) DNA segments. A recombinant DNA
molecule is constructed (recombined) from segments from 2 or more different DNA molecules. Under
certain conditions, a recombinant DNA molecule can enter a cell and replicate there, autonomously (on its
own) or after it has become integrated into a chromosome.
How recombinant technology works?
These steps include isolating of the target gene and the vector, specific cutting of DNA at defined
sites, joining or splicing of DNA fragments, transforming of replicon to host cell, cloning, selecting of the
positive cells containing recombinant DNA, and either express or not in the end.
Six steps of Recombinant DNA
1. Isolating (vector and target gene) 4. Transforming
2. Cutting (Cleavage) 5. Cloning
3. Joining (Ligation) 6. Selecting (Screening)
II. The Basic Procedures of Recombinant DNA Technology
DNA molecules that are constructed with DNA from different sources are called recombinant DNA
molecules. Recombinant DNA molecules are created in nature more often than in the laboratory;
o For example, every time a bacteria phage or eukaryotic virus infects its host cell and integrates its DNA
into the host genome, a recombinant is created.
o Occasionally, these viruses pick up a fragment of host DNA when they excise from their host’s genome;
these naturally occurring recombinant DNA molecules have been used to study some genes.
Six basic steps are common to most recombinant DNA experiments
1. Isolation and purification of DNA
Both vector and target DNA molecules can be prepared by a variety of routine methods, which are
not discussed here. In some cases, the target DNA is synthesized in vitro.
2. Cleavage of DNA at particular sequences.
As we will see, cleaving DNA to generate fragments of defined length, or with specific endpoints, is
crucial to recombinant DNA technology. The DNA fragment of interest is called insert DNA. In the
laboratory, DNA is usually cleaved by treating it with commercially produced nucleases and restriction
endonucleases.
3. Ligation of DNA fragments.
A recombinant DNA molecule is usually formed by cleaving the DNA of interest to yield insert DNA
and then ligating the insert DNA to vector DNA (recombinant DNA or chimeric DNA). DNA fragments are
typically joined using DNA ligase (also commercially produced). Ex. : T4 DNA Ligase
4. Introduction of recombinant DNA into compatible host cells.
In order to be propagated, the recombinant DNA molecule (insert DNA joined to vector DNA) must
be introduced into a compatible host cell where it can replicate. The direct uptake of foreign DNA by a host
cell is called genetic transformation (or transformation). Recombinant DNA can also be packaged into
virus particles and transferred to host cells by transfection.
5. Replication and expression of recombinant DNA in host cells.
Cloning vectors allow insert DNA to be replicated and, in some cases, expressed in a host cell. The
ability to clone and express DNA efficiently depends on the choice of appropriate vectors and hosts.
6. Identification of host cells that contain recombinant DNA of interest.
Vectors usually contain easily scored genetic markers, or genes that allow the selection of host cells that
have taken up foreign DNA. The identification of a particular DNA fragment usually involves an additional
step—screening a large number of recombinant DNA clones. This is almost always the most difficult step
21
LESSON 5 - Earth History: Geologic Time
• Geologic Time: It is very, very long.
– Earth is estimated to be around 4.6 billion years old based on the rock and fossil record.
– Geologic time is broken up into sections based on major changes in Earth .
Largest Division: Eons, divided into Eras: Eras are divided into Periods
PreCambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, Ceno – recent ,Meso – middle, Paleo – ancient, Zoic - life
PreCambrian ( 543 million years ago to ~ 4 billion years ago (?) )
 “Age of Bacteria” , Oldest Era, Longest Era because we know so little about the earth that long ago
 Very little life: only basic forms including bacteria, the oldest fossils ever found were seaweed,
jellyfish and worms
 Photosynthesis of the seaweed added oxygen to the early atmosphere, paving way for land life
Key Events of Precambrian time
Acasta Gneiss is dated at 3.96 bya. It is near Yellowknife Lake
, NWT Canada.
Zircons possibly a bit older in Australia
Early Hadean Highlights
Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago from coalescing

interstellar dust. Earth was bombarded by large
planetesimals adding to earth’s mass (adds heat)
Hot spinning pre-earth mass melted, caused differentiation

of materials according to density. Distinct earth layers begin to
form
 Dense iron and nickel sink to center forms core.

o Silicate material floats up, forms mantle
Formation of Continents
Early earth surface was magma sea, gradually cooled to form

the crust.
Continents did not always exist but grew from the chemical
differentiation of early, mafic magmas in the young hot earth.
Floating “Volcanic Islands” of less dense higher silica magmas.
Growth of the Early Continents
Island Arcs and other terranes accrete to edge of small continents as intervening ocean crust is subducted.
Temps so high that convection is intense, divergence breaks up

protocontinents.
Little Archean ocean crust survives: most was subducted
Origin of Archean Life
• The origin of life required the organization of self-replicating organic molecules.
The basic minimum requirements:
– A membrane-enclosed capsule to contain the bioactive chemicals.
– Energy-capturing chemical reactions capable of promoting other reactions.
– Some chemical system for replication (RNA-DNA).
Formation of Enzymes
1950's and 1960's experiments produced amino acids by combining atmospheric gases, electrical
sparks and heat. Further experiments demonstrated that drying and re-wetting of these organic
compounds could produce cell-like membranes and simple proteins.
22
Those experiments…
– Led to shallow water “primordial soup” theory.
– But organic compounds in shallow pools would have been instantly destroyed by
ultraviolet radiation. Need an Oxygen-rich atmosphere to make an Ozone-Layer
– Modern theory life started at deep sea vents near “Black smokers”
Stanley L. Miller, working in the
– 2 bya atmosphere has oxygen O2 and ozone O3 which blocks UV laboratory of Harold C. Urey at the
University of Chicago.
DNA => mRNA, TRNAaa bound to mRNA in Ribosomes; Makes chain of amino acids (protein)
The DNA sequence in genes is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA). Ribosomes then read the
information in this RNA and use it to produce proteins. Ribosomes do this by binding to a messenger RNA
and using it as a template for the correct sequence of amino acids in a particular protein.
The amino acids are attached to transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which enter one part of the
ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA sequence. The attached amino acids are then joined together by
another part of the ribosome. The ribosome moves along the mRNA, "reading" its sequence and producing
a chain of amino acids.
Origin of Life : Origin of Archaebacteria 3.5 bya
– Archaebacteria are the most primitive fossil life forms. (Likely ancestors of all life)
Primitive Archaebacteria are hyperthermophiles that thrive near boiling point of water.
– Modern Archaebacteria live in deep-sea volcanic vents.
Some Archaebacteria feed directly on sulfur (chemoautotrophs).
– Archean life probably arose in deep oceans hydrothermal environment; volcanic vents that would
have formed near Mid-Ocean Ridges. Vents provide:
o chemical and heat energy,

o abundant chemical and mineral compounds, including sulfur
o deep water: protection from oxygen and ultraviolet radiation
They differ from other bacteria (called Eubacteria) because:
o they are mostly anaerobic
o the RNA of their ribosomes is different from that of Eubacteria.
They include the methane forming, the salt loving and the heat loving bacteria.
Example: Methane Forming/ the methanogenic bacteria create Adenosine Tri Phosphate ATP by reducing
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using hydrogen, formate, or methanol. As a result methane is
liberated. This can only be done in the absence of free oxygen.
Fossil Bacteria
• . About 2 bya Eubacteria (prokaryotes lack membrane bound nucleus)
– Eubacteria form stromatolites (photosynthetic). Archean is the age of pond-scum.
– More common in upper Archean as shallow water shelves began to form along
margins of early continents.
• Molds of individual bacterial cells found in Late Archean and Proterozoic cherts.
Chroococcalean 0.85 bya
Evolution of Eukaryotes Palaeolyngbya 1. bya
• Probably began as a endosymbiotic relationship between different prokaryotes. Grypania 2.1 bya
• Early eukaryotes “ate” but could not digest a cell which became a mitochondria. oxidation
• Plant-like eukaryotic ancestors “ate” chloroplast-bearing cyanobacteria. photosynthesis
• Once eukaryotes evolved, multi-cellular forms proliferated.
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Ediacara Fauna
Proterozoic Life: First metazoans evolve 580-542 mya.
Paleozoic Era: Life starts in the seas and moves onto land (570 to 225 mya)
Six periods: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian
Cambrian Period Cambrian Explosion – Most major animal phyla are 550-505 mya;
(570-500 mya) found in the fossil record (mostly aquatic first trilobites, forams,
invertebrates with exoskeletons). brachiopods, nautiloids,
clams, snails, crustaceans,
Burgess Shale – major fossil site located in
crinoids, gastropods,
Canadian Rockies
corals, protozoans
Ordovician 1st vertebrates - jawless fish (filter feeders) 505-438 mya;

Period The vertebrate protects the spinal cord, which First starfish, sea urchins,
(500-435 mya) carries signals from the brain throughout the body. blastoids, eurypterids,
Lamprey today is a parasite. bryozoa, scaphopods,
Hagfish is a scavenger jawless fish, echinoids
Silurian Period 1st jawed fish (later evolved into sharks-made of 438-408mya;
(435-395 mya) cartilage). First land plants, ferns,
Ozone (O3) layer formed which blocks harmful UV sharks, boney fish,
radiation; life could evolve on land. scorpion (eurypterid)
1st land plants (mosses & ferns) followed by 1st
land animals (arthropods-spiders & scorpions).
Devonian Period “Age of the Fish” (giant armored fish). 408-360 mya;
(395-345 mya) 1st bony fish (scales and swim bladder for First insects, tetrapods,
buoyancy). ammonites, placoderms
1st vertebrates on land – amphibians (early tetrapods,
Evolved from the lobed-fin fish which include Acanthostega and
some species of lungfish. Icthyostega)
Carboniferous North America is at the equator (tropical swamps Mississippian Epoch

Period form coal deposits) (360-325 mya);
(345-280 mya) Amphibians & insects dominate and become large First reptiles, spiders,
(dragon flies-1m wing span; cockroaches-10 cm long). amphibians
1st reptiles Pennsylvanian Epoch
(325-286 mya);
First conifers, synapsid
Permian Period Reptiles dominate. (286-248 mya)
(280-225 mya) Pangaea begins to form (Appalachian Mnts; dry Heyday of synapsids,
climate; ice age in the southern hemisphere) including pelycosaurs
Mass Extinction (90% of all species go extinct- and Dimetrodon
mostly marine invertebrates).
Early Permian reptiles, Cacops in front & Casea in
back. The middle Permian reptile, Anteosaurus.
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The Mesozoic Era: When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth
Began approximately 245 mya and ends about 66 mya after a major mass extinction.
Is subdivided into 3 periods: Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous
Mesozoic Reptiles
 Turtles, Crocodiles/Alligators, Lizards

 Ichthyosaurs (large marine reptiles)
 Pterosarus (large flying reptiles)
 Dinosaurs (land dinosaurs)
Dinosaurs Myths
o All dinosaurs are the same

o Everything that is big and extinct is a dinosaur
o All dinosaurs lived at the same time
o All ‘dinosaurs’ are extinct.. you’ll see
Triassic Period (245-206 mya)

Immediately after the Permian Mass Extinction. Lots of new area is open for animals to live.
Three general types of animals: Triassic Plant Life includes:
1. holdovers from before the extinction Mosses
2. new groups that lasted only a short time scale trees (palm trees)
3. new groups that lasted a long time and ginkos
Two Groups of Dinosaurs
Ornithischian Saurischian
hips were similar to modern bird hips hips were similar to reptile hips
-short-necked carnivorous herbivorous with or without grinding-teeth
long-necked herbivorous
Earliest Dinosaurs (Triassic)
Eoraptor: Lesothsaurus: Pisanosaurus

Length:3 feet Length:3 feet Length:3 feet
Height:1 feet Height:1 foot Height:1 foot
Weight:20 pounds Weight:15 pounds Weight:15 pounds
Jurassic Period (206-144 mya)
o Giant plant-eating dinosaurs o Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs
o Vicious carnivore dinosaurs o Pterosaurs
o Oceans full of fish, squid, sharks, etc. o Birds
Jurassic Plant Eating Dinosaurs
Had many different forms and many had ‘armor’ to protect themselves i.e. Triceratops and Ankylosaurus
Many are very large (larger than a Rhino/Hippo)
Some were extremely large (as long as a city block): Diplodocus
Jurassic Carnivorous Dinosaurs have many different forms
Some very large i.e. Tyrannosaurus Rex and Allasaurus
Some were smaller like raptors and many more
All had sharp teeth, claws, and speed
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Jurassic Marine Dinosaurs
Most with similar shapes as a dolphins or sharks
They ate fish and other marine animals
Some were VERY large and all could swim VERY fast
Jurassic Pterosaurs (Pterodactyls and Pterosaurs)
o Most had trouble ‘walking’ o Had hollow bones
o Were very good flyers o Small (~ 1 foot) and very large (~ 16 feet)
More Pterodactyls like
Ctenochasma, Dsungaripterus, Germanodactylus, Gnathosaurus
Pteranodon ingens, Pteranodon sternbergi, Tropeognatl
Archaeopteryx is a Jurassic Bird not a pterosaur
It has jaws and bone structure like dinosaurs
Archaeopteryx have bones that are hollow and feathers like birds
(Was this an evolutionary link?)
Cretaceous Period (144-66 mya) - First flowering plants!
It is the last period when Dinosaurs lived for it ends with a mass extinction around 66 mya.
First plants with flowers (Could insects have helped the flowering plants evolve?)
o Their appearance was very rapid

o They appeared at the same time as the number of insects increased…
Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous
What caused the extinction?
Meteorite impact theory
66 million years ago, a ~10 km wide meteorite struck the Earth near what is now Mexico.
How could a meteorite impact cause a mass extinction?
o The impact caused shock waves, tidal waves, and sent a tremendous amount of dust into the
atmosphere
o As the dust re-entered the Earth’s atmosphere, it would have instantly heated the atmosphere causing
tremendous forest fires
o The dust could have caused the Earth’s climate to cool in the long-run by blocking sunlight
o Plants, animals, etc went extinct due to the climate changes and competition between organisms
Meteorite Impact Evidence #2 - Iridium
An element that is very rare in Earth rocks and very common in meteorites
The layer of rocks above the last dinosaur bones contains ~160 times ‘normal’ levels of iridium
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Cenozoic Era – Shaping the Modern World
• Changes in Life • Formation of the San Andreas Fault
• Age of Mammals • A Return to the Ice
• Make Way birds • Several major glacial events
• The Ascent of Humans • Major Volcanic Eruptions
• Mountain Building in Western

America continues
Early Cenozoic
 India begins its collision with Asia, causing the Himalayas to be lifted
 Formation of the “Ring of Fire”
 Australia separates from Antarctica
 The demise of the dinosaurs allows not only mammals, but birds to diversify
and flourish. Birds got very large (op to 10ft tall) and were predatory. Songbirds also develop in
this time period.
 First flowering plants develop – angiosperms
 The climate of the Paleogene was notably drier than previous periods
o Also much warmer than it is currently and Lead to more land being above sea level
o Allowed for the evolution of first grasses and therefore, grazing mammals (like horses)
evolve
 Mammals diversify and grow very large
o Mammals are an extremely varied group!
o All major mammal groups are in place by the middle of the Cenozoic
 The marine mammals evolve at this time
o Whales, dolphins, etc, Relative of camels!!!, Lose their visible

limbs over time
o Sharks take over as the dominant predator in the sea, filling the
niche left by extinct mosasaurs and pleisosaurs
Mammals of the Paleogene Marine Animals
The Neogene: Middle of the Cenozoic to Present (23 mya – Present)
During the Neogene, the continents take their modern shapes
• North and South America join, Iceland emerges from the sea, and Polar Ice Caps form
In North America, the San Andreas Fault forms
The Pliestocene (1.6 mya – 10,000) is often referred to as the “Ice Age”
There are about 4 major ice advances and 3 retreats
It leads to sea level retreats and advances and Great Lakes formation.
Other major event includes the eruption of the Yellowstone caldera and (even worse!) the eruption of
the Toba caldera which nearly wipes out humans
(Pleistocene) Megafauna refers to the extreme large mammals that dominated this time period
• Include the Mammoth, Mastodon, Saber-cat, Giant Sloth and Giant Beaver (among others)
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Ice Ages Calderas of the Pleistocene
Pleistocene Megafauna
Pleistocene Extinction
At the end of the last Ice Age (about 18,000 - 12,000 ya) most of the large mammals went extinct
This extinction event only affected large mammals. Probable causes include climate changes
affecting the web chain and overkill by early humans
Still plenty of room for doubt. One question – is this extinction event a thing of the past, or is it
continuing today?????
HUMAN EVOLUTION
I. Primates
Humans belong to the group of mammals called primates which also includes all monkeys and apes.
Physical Characteristics Social Characteristics

• Strong Hands • Complex Social Behaviors- Live In Large
• Opposable Thumbs-Grasping Groups
• Shoulder Joints Move Freely-Swinging In • Take Care Of Young For Extended Time After
Trees, Hand To Hand Birth
• Binocular Vision Judge Distance (These Are • Use Tools
Traits From Our Tree-Dwelling Ancestors) • Hunt For Other Animals
• Larger, More Complex Brain Than Most
Mammals
What are the traits that humans have while other primates do not?
• Upright Posture • Shorter Arms
– Because Shape Of Pelvis • Human Spine Curved
• Shorter Pelvis • Ape Spine Straighter
II. Primate Evolution
The oldest primate fossil is at 65 Myo and at 55 Mya, Primates Split Into 2 Groups:
1. Prosimians-Pre-Monkey
Small, W/Large Forward Facing Eyes. Nocturnal, Insect Eaters, Tree Dwellers. Prehensile Tail
2. Anthropoids – includes monkeys, apes and humans
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Hominids -Anthropoids That Are Human
Homo Sapiens – Only Hominids Living
Scientists have not found the first Hominid ancestor that separated from
the apes. Fossil evidence of other hominids indicates that this may have
occurred 5-8 Million Years Ago
The oldest hominid fossil is 6.0 million years. The genus Australopithecus
were around 3.5-4.4mya
Are also known as “Southern Ape”. It was discovered in South Africa in 1924
by Raymond Dart. Found child’s skill of an Australopithecus africanus
which lived around 2.7-2.1 mya
a. Australopithecus Discoveries
1936 - Hip bone fossil found. Anthropologists determine Bi-pedalism, upright walking
1974 – Donald Johanson found a small female skeleton Lucy – A. Afarensis lived 3-4 mya
Mary Leaky found hominid footprints of an adult and child.
Australopithecus Characteristics Lucy

Bipedal Height was approx. 3 ft.
Ape-Like Features 6 in
They have longer arms than Homo sapiens, Weighed 62 lbs
brains not much larger than modern apes, and also Was 25 years old
short stature She was the most
No tools have so far been found with their complete skeleton
remains. Why? found.
d
b. Homo habilis aka ‘Handy Man’ around 2.5 to 1.7 mya
They are the direct ancestor of modern humans. In 1964, discovered in Africa.
Anthropologists found tools and weapons and are ½ size of modern humans.
(also bigger brains)
c. Homo erectus aka ‘Upright Man’ 1.7 - ? mya
1 million years ago, they are the first hominid that migrated out of Africa into Europe and Asia.
They may have been hunters and gatherers. Have larger cranium than the H. habilis.
Found hand axes and charred animal bones with remains
It was hypothesized that they may have lived in shelters and wore animal hides;
lived during an Ice Age
d. Homo sapiens aka ‘Wise Man’ with fossils date around 500 to 300 thousand years old
Neanderthal Cro-magnon
They lived throughout Europe 150-30k 1868 found in France by Louis Lartet
years ago Lived 100 thousand years ago
Brain size the same as modern Cave paintings and tool use
humans Narrower nasal opening
They may have spoken Small, pointed chin
Hyoid bone in throat found with
some fossils
Heavy brow ridge
Small chin and large, broad nose
Tools at grave, recent evidence of cave
paintings
What happened to Neanderthals?
1. Did they get out competed by Cro-Magnon?
2. Did they interbreed with them?
(Evidence most people of European ancestry have 1-4% Neanderthal DNA in
their DNA Sequence)
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Lesson 6A: Mechanisms of Evolution
1. Artificial Selection
Domesticated breeds have not always been in their current form. This change has been achieved by
repeatedly selecting for breeding the individuals most suited to human uses. This shows that selection
can cause evolution.
Genetic Variation
Individuals in a species carry different alleles (An allele is an alternative form of a gene (one member
of a pair) that is located at a specific positionon a specific chromosome.
Any change in gene (and allele) frequencies within a population or species is Evolution
Allele Frequency – proportion of gene copies in a population of a given allele
2. Natural Selection
Affects variation in a population as the better adapted (more fit) individuals to their environment
survive and reproduce, passing on their genes to the successive generations increasing the frequency of
favourable alleles in the population.
Nature “selects” which organisms will be successful.
Imagine that green beetles are easier for birds to spot (and hence, eat). Brown beetles are a little more
likely to survive to produce offspring. They pass their genes for brown coloration on to their offspring. So
in the next generation, brown beetles are more common than in the previous generation.
4 Steps of Natural Selection:
1. In nature , more offspring are produced than can survive.
2. In any population, individuals have variation.
3. Individuals with advantageous variations survive and pass on their variations to the next generation.
4. Overtime, offspring with certain advantageous variations make up most of the population
Natural Selection vs. Selective Breeding (Artifical)
Environmental and Human Influences
Natural selection and selective breeding can both produce changes in animals and plants.
The difference between the two is that natural selection occurs in nature, but selective breeding only
occurs when humans intervene.
Natural Selection Selective Breeding

Process by which organisms that are best suited Method of breeding that allows only those
to their environment survive and reproduce most organisms with desired characteristics to produce
successfully. the next generation.
Process of selection whereby favorable traits A form of artificial selection whereby deliberate
become more common and less favorable traits breeding results in desired traits in plants and
become less common in following generations. animals
Can you see the moths?
Most of the peppered moths in the area were light colored with dark spots.
As the industrial revolution progressed, the tree trunks became covered with soot and
turned dark.
Over a period of 45 years, the dark variety of the peppered moth became more common.
Why? Survival of the strongest? NO
Survival of the fittest –the organism best fit for the environment may survive and pass its favorable
adaption/variation down to the next generation. Darker moths were now better hidden from predators
and survived in greater numbers, living to reproduce, pass their now favorable trait on and continue to
increase in numbers.
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Selective breeding (Human Influence on characteristics and behavior)
 Domestic Animals ( chickens, dogs, cows, horses )

 Plants ( corn, wheat, fruit, hybrids)
These are the steps in selective breeding:
1. Decide which characteristics are important
2. Choose parents that show these characteristics
3. Select the best offspring from parents to breed the next generation
4. Repeat the process continuously
3. Gene Flow
Is the movement of alleles into or out of a population (immigration or emigration).
Gene flow can introduce new alleles into a gene pool or can change allele frequencies.
The overall effect of gene flow is to counteract natural selection by creating less differences between
populations. Example is when a plant pollen is being blown into a new area.
This what happens when two or more populations interbreed. This generally increases genetic diversity.
Imagine two populations of squirrels on opposite sides of a river. The squirrels on the west side have
bushier tails than those on the east side as a result of three different genes that code for tail bushiness. If a
tree falls over the river and the squirrels are able to scamper across it to mate with the other population,
gene flow occurs.
4. Genetic drift
The change in allele frequencies as a result of chance processes. These changes are much more
pronounced in small populations. Directly related to the population numbers.
Smaller population sizes are more susceptible to genetic drift than larger populations because there is
a greater chance that a rare allele will be lost.
Imagine that in one generation, two brown beetles happened to have four offspring survive to
reproduce. Several green beetles were killed when someone stepped on them and had no offspring. The
next generation would have a few more brown beetles than the previous generation—but just by chance.
These chance changes from generation to generation are known as genetic drift.
a. The Founder Effect occurs when a new colony is started by a few members of original population
Small population that branches off from a larger one may or may not be genetically representative of
the larger population from which it was derived.
Only a fraction of the total genetic diversity of the original gene pool is represented
in these few individuals.
Ex.: The Afrikaner population of Dutch settlers in South Africa is descended mainly
from a few colonists. Today, the Afrikaner population has an unusually high
frequency of the gene that causes Huntington’s disease, because those original Dutch
colonists just happened to carry that gene with unusually high frequency. This effect
is easy to recognize in genetic diseases, but of course, the frequencies of all sorts of
genes are affected by founder events.
b. Population Bottleneck occurs when a population undergoes an event in

which a significant percentage of a population or species is killed or
otherwise prevented from reproducing.
The event may eliminate alleles entirely or also cause other alleles to be over-represented in a gene pool.
Ex. : Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic variation probably because of a population bottleneck
humans inflicted on them in the 1890s. Hunting reduced their population size to as few as 20 individuals
at the end of the 19th century. Their population has since rebounded to over 30,000 but their genes still
carry the marks of this bottleneck. They have much less genetic variation than a population of southern
elephant seals that was not so intensely hunted. (also cheetahs hehe)
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Bottleneck is any kind of event that reduces the population significantly like
earthquake, flood, disease.
5. Mutations are inheritable changes in the genotype.
It provides the variation that can be acted upon by natural selection.
Mutations provide the raw material on which natural selection can act.
Only source of additional genetic material and new alleles.
Can be neutral, harmful or beneficial (give an individual a better chance for survival).
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is one form.
Mutation is a change in DNA the hereditary material of life. An organism’s DNA affects how it looks,
how it behaves, and its physiology—all aspects of its life. So a change in an organism’s DNA can cause
changes in all aspects of its life.
 Somatic mutations occur in non-reproductive cells and won’t be passed onto offspring.
For example, the golden color on half of a Red Delicious apple was caused by a somatic mutation. The
seeds of this apple do not carry the mutation.
 The only mutations that matter to large-scale evolution are those that can be passed on to offspring.
These occur in reproductive cells like eggs and sperm and are called germ line mutations.
A single germ line mutation can have a range of effects: No, Small, or Big Changes occurs in phenotype.
Some really important phenotypic changes, like DDT resistance in insects are sometimes caused by
single mutations. A single mutation can also have strong negative effects for the organism.
Mutations that cause the death of an organism are called lethals —and it doesn't get more negative
than that.
Causes of Mutations
o DNA fails to copy accurately

o External Influences can create mutations (such as specific chemicals or radiation)
6. Non-random mating/Recombination
In animals, non-random mating can change allele frequencies as the choice

of mates is often an important part of behaviour.
Many plants self-pollinate, which is also a form of non-random mating

(inbreeding).
Sexual reproduction results in variation of traits in offspring as a result of crossing over in meiosis
and mutations. Genetic shuffling is a source of variation.
Sexual selection occurs when certain traits increase mating success. There are two types:
a. Intrasexual selection – competition among males

b. Intersexual selection – males display certain traits to females
Lesson 6B : Evidences of Evolution
Charles Darwin published the “Origin of Species” (1859)
1. Argued from evidence that species inhabiting Earth today descended from
ancestral species
2. Proposed a mechanism for evolution  Natural Selection
 Individuals in a species show a wide range of variation because of differences in their genes
 Genes that allow individuals to survive are then passed on to their offspring)
 Individuals poorly adapted are less likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their genes
Many scientists helped pave the way for Darwin’s Theory
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Natural Selection and Horses
Early Horses (Eohippus) lived 55 – 60 mya
They lived in forests and ate leaves. They are

about the size of a fox and have 4 toes to walk
on soft forest floor.
Modern Horses (Equus) began to develop 2 mya. As a result of changes in the global climate, they
lived in grasslands and ate grass. They developed long legs and one toe (hoof) to help the horse run faster
from predators and longer teeth to eat the grass.
Galapagos Islands  in 1850’s Charles Darwin described how organisms might change over time (5 yrs)
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
In each generation of a species, individuals have slight differences. Sometimes these variations make
an individual more successful in its environment (more food, live longer, reproduce more, and attract better
mates). Then individual may then reproduce and pass this variation on to its offspring.
Variations in individuals are controlled by genes. Individuals have no control over what variations
they will have. Useful variations are NOT ALWAYS passed on. Variations that are not useful may also be
passed on.
Selective Breeding of Horses and Dogs (Ancient Wild Horses Help Unlock Past)
Aug. 23, 2011 — An international team of researchers has used ancient DNA to produce compelling
evidence that the lack of genetic diversity in modern stallions is the result of the “domestication” process.
 Horses were first domesticated for transportation, agricultural work and warfare
 Today they are also bred for racing and companionship
Different varieties of dog have been produced over many generations

by selective breeding. For example, pedigree dogs come in lots of different
varieties, called breeds of dog. They may be different colors and sizes, but
they are all still dogs. They are all still the same species.
Cows bred for Meat or Milk
The cow above has been selectively bred for meat. She produces enough milk to feed one calf. Her
calf will milk her six times per day. She only needs a small udder.
The picture above shows a dairy cow. She has been bred for
milk. She has been selectively bred to produce enough milk for ten
calves, but her calf is removed from her shortly after birth. Most cows
are only milked twice a day. It may have to carry over 20 liters of milk.
Many cows go lame through carrying all this milk
The chickens on the left are egg-laying hens. They have been selectively bred to lay lots of eggs,
but they grow at a normal rate. Most are still kept in battery cages, though this system is to be banned in
2012. The chickens on the right are broiler chickens. They have been bred for meat. They grow twice as
quickly and are usually slaughtered at six weeks old. Most meat chickens are kept intensively in large
sheds. You can click on the link to read more about these chickens.
Hybrid Fruits include Nectarcots, Pluots, and Peacotums. ( a peach/apricot/ plum hybrid that
has a texture of a peach, but tastes like a blend of plum and apricot.
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Alfred Russel Wallace co-discovered Natural Selection and prompted Darwin to

finally rush in his Origin of Species to press.
One of the modern world’s greatest scientific adventurer explorers
An eight-year exploration of Southeast Asia and the Malay Archipelago he wrote

The Malay Archipelago in 1869,
Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876) is one of the seminal works in the field.
The workhorse of Darwinian evolution, diverged from Darwin’s methodological

naturalism (i.e., the notion that scientists must invoke only natural processes functioning via unbroken
natural laws in nonteleological ways) to propose a theory of evolution defined by intelligence and design.
Major Evidences for Evolution
o Fossil record
o Homologous structures
o Vestigial structures
o Biochemical evidence
o Embryological development
o Geographical Location
1. Fossil Record tells us about the organisms

o looks (size, shape, etc. )
o where and how they lived
o what other organisms they lived with
o What time period they lived in (based on location in rock layers)
o What order living things came in (based on location in rock layers)
o Transitional forms
Organisms that were intermediate (between) two other major organisms
American Museum of Natural History
An exhibit from old mammal halls

showing simplistic version of the
evolution of the horse. Fossils are
arranged chronologically, from oldest to
youngest fossil. From Dingus (1996).
The fossil record shows a sequence from simple bacteria to more complicated
organisms through time and provides the most compelling evidence for evolution.
All the pieces of evidence that we have discussed so far point to the inter-
relatedness of all living things and their evolution from a single common ancestor.
However, perhaps the most compelling piece of evidence in support of evolution is the
fossil record itself. The fossil record shows a sequence from simple bacteria in the oldest
rocks through to more complicated organisms like dinosaurs and humans in much
younger rocks. It shows that different species arose at different times and, as we see in the
next slide, in many cases there are clear transitions from one species, or group, to another.
Transitional fossils
Many fossils show a clear transition from one species, or group, to another.
One of the most famous examples of a species that is transitional between

two major groups, is the 150 million year old Archaeopteryx. Archaeopteryx has
several characteristic features seen in certain dinosaurs including teeth and a
bony tail. However, it has more features that are characteristic of modern birds
such as a wishbone, wings with flight feathers, and a partially reversed first toe.
Archaeopteryx was found in Germany in 1861. It share many

characteristics with both dinosaurs and birds. It provides good evidence that
birds arose from dinosaur ancestors
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Fossils ~ Earth is Millions of years old!
Fossils in older layers are more primitive than those in the upper layers.
Extinct Fossils resemble modern animals which shows a common ancestry
Types of Fossils
1. Permineralization occurs when minerals carried by water are deposited

around a hard structure
2. Natural cast forms when flowing water removes all of the original tissue,
leaving an impression.
3. Amber-preserved fossils are organisms that become trapped in tree resin
that hardens after the tree is buried.
4. Fossilized insects
5. Impressions are imprints left in rock
6. Preserved remains form when an entire organism becomes encased in
material such as ice, ash, tar..
Dating of Fossils
Relative Dating Radiometric Dating

Estimates the time during Measures the half-life of the isotope ( the time it takes for half of the
which an organism lived. isotope to break down)
It compares the placement of Carbon-12 is stable while Carbon-14 is radioactive; Carbon-14 has
fossils in layers of rock a half-life of 5730 years which decays into Carbon-12, Scientists
compare ratio of C-14 to C-12 to age fossil
Scientists infer the order in
which species existed Uses Radiactive Isotopes – atoms of the same element with
differing neutrons
2. Homologous Structures – bodily structures that are similar in structure, but different in function,
due to sharing a common ancestor. The study of anatomy provides evidence for evolution.
Analogous Structures – bodily structures that similar in function, but not in structure. It is not an
evidence of Common Ancestry. It is a kind of comparative anatomy.
3. Vestigial Structures – structures that serve no function but useful structures in earlier ancestors.
Structural patterns are clues to the history of a species. Vestigial Structured are
remnants of organs or structures that had function in an early ancestor.
As evolution progresses, some structures get side-lined as they are no longer of

use. These are known as vestigial structures.
The coccyx is a much reduced version of an ancestral tail, which was formerly
adapted to aid balance and climbing. Another vestigial structure in humans is the
appendix. Pythons have tiny femurs (leg bone)
Examples: Ear muscles, Ostrich wings, Wisdom teeth, Whale and snake pelvis/hind legs.
4. Embryological Development
Embryo is a fertilized egg that will or is in the process of growing into a new individual.
Closely related organisms go through similar developmental stages early in development.
All vertebrates have gill pouches sometime during their early development.
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Embryology
Vertebrates all share gill slits and a tail in their early embryo
stage; thus they share a common ancestor.
5. Molecular/Biochemical Evidence
DNA used to translate nucleotide sequences into amino

acid is essentially the same in all organisms
Proteins in all organisms are composed of the same set of 20

amino acids. Powerful argument in favor of the common
descent of the most diverse organisms.
Molecular and Genetic Evidence (Biochemical Evidence)
Two closely-related organisms will have similar DNA, RNA, and protein
(amino acid sequences). This also gives evidence of a common ancestor.
The DNA sequences of whale and ungulates are very similar, as

demonstrated by the DNA fragments below.
Examples of Biochemical Compounds: DNA, Cyt C, 20 amino acids and some enzymes
Cytochrome c
o An ancient protein common to all aerobic (oxygen breathing)

organisms
o Amino acid sequence to make cytochrome c differs increasingly the

more distantly related two organisms are (very similar amino acid
sequence = closely related)
o The cytochrome c of humans and chimpanzees is identical
6. Geographical Distribution as well as environment gives evidence for evolution.
Island species most closely resemble nearest mainland species.
Populations can show variation from one island to another
A rather different source of evidence in support of evolution

comes from the geographic distribution of species today.
If we take for example the case of marsupials, we see that this

primitive group of mammals is found in the Americas and Australasia.
Marsupials are not renowned as strong swimmers so this raises the questions
as to how two populations came to be separated by the Pacific Ocean if they
evolved from a common ancestor. However, this problem is resolved if we
remember that the Earth’s continents have not remained stationary over time
but have drifted around the surface of the Earth.
During the Jurassic Period, 160 million years ago, all the Southern Hemisphere landmasses were
joined together and you could have walked from Australia to South America across what is present day
Antarctica. Fossil evidence shows that marsupials evolved in the Jurassic but after the continents started to
break-up, the marsupials must have got separated into two populations, one in the Americas and the other
in Australasia. In fact fossil marsupials have even been found in Antarctica and South Africa as well,
providing evidence that that these continents acted as a land bridge connecting the two populations for a
time.
Evidence: Antibiotic resistance (Staphylococcus)
This is an example of natural selection in action. The antibiotic acts as an

environmental pressure. It weeds out those bacteria with low resistance and only those with
high resistance survive to reproduce. Only bacteria with high resistance survive and pass
their alleles to the next generation.
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Lesson 7: Kingdom Animalia (Characteristics and Taxonomy)
Early System of Classification
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and groups organisms according to their
characteristics and evolutionary history.
Organisms were first classified more than 2,000 years ago by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
Modern System: Hierarchy; Seven Levels of Organization
Carolus Linnaeus (mid-1700’)s was a Swedish biologist who established a simple system
for classifying and naming organisms.
He developed a Hierarchy (a ranking system) for classifying organisms that is the Basis
for Modern Taxonomy. For this reason, he is considered to be “father” of modern taxonomy.
Linnaeus used an organisms morphology (form and structure), to categorize it.
His system is still being used today.His system allowed organisms to be grouped with similar organisms.
He first divided all organisms into two Kingdoms, Plantae (Plants) AND Animalia (animals). This was
the same as Aristotle’s main categories.
Modern system: Kingdom  Phylum (division)  Class  Order  Family  Genus  Species
Note: Phyla and Family were not in Linnaeus’ classification system but were added by modern scientists.
The genus and species comprises the scientific name of an organism.
Remember: King Philip Came Over For Grandma’s Soup.
Binomial Nomenclature: Rules for Writing Scientific Names
When we use the Latin name for an organism, we always capitalize the Genus (first part) but not the
species identifier (second part).
We also print the name in Italics or Underline them or the name can be abbreviated For example:
Acer rubrum (scientific name) - red maple tree (common name) or Acer rubrum or A. rubrum
Acer is the Latin name for Maple (genus) while rubrum is the Latin word for Red (species)
Humans are named: Homo sapiens
Homo because of our large brain and upright posture. sapiens from our intelligence and ability to speak
Modern Phylogenetic Taxonomy
Systematics is a system that organizes the tremendous diversity

of organisms into a phylogenetic tree.
A phylogenetic tree is a family tree that’s shows the

evolutionary relationships thought to exist between organisms.
It represents a hypothesis that is based on lines of

evidence such as the fossil record, morphology, embryological
patterns of development, and chromosomes and
macromolecules.
Cladistics is a system of taxonomy that reconstructs phylogenies by inferring

relationships based on similarities. It is used to determine the sequence in
which different groups of organisms evolved.
To do this, it focuses on a set of unique characteristics found in a particular

group of organisms. These unique characteristics are called derived traits or
derived characters.
Using patterns of shared derived traits, biologists used cladisitcs to construct a branching diagram
called a cladogram. A cladogram shows show a sequence in which different groups of organisms evolved
The key to Cladistics is identifying morphological, physiological, molecular, or behavioral traits that
differ among the organism being studied and that can be attributed a common ancestor.
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Six Kingdoms of Life
Kingdom Cell Type Number of cells Nutrition

Archaebacteria prokaryotic unicellular autotrophy and heterotrophy
Eubacteria prokaryotic unicellular autotrophy and heterotrophy
Protista eukaryotic unicellular and multicellular autotrophy and heterotrophy
Fungi eukaryotic unicellular and multicellular heterotrophy
Plantae eukaryotic multicellular autotrophy and (rarely) heterotrophy
Animalia eukaryotic multicellular heterotrophy
Three Domain System
Living things fall into three broad groups called domains.
1. Domain Archaea (archaebacteria)

2. Domain Bacteria (eubacteria)
3. Domain Eukarya (eukaryotes) which has true nuclei with linear chromosomes and membrane-bound
organelles. Includes Protista, plantae, fungi and Animalia.
Why many scientists group viruses in a category separate from living things?
o Viruses have no nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles, or cell membrane, so they cannot carry out cellular
functions. They are very small, size ranges from 20nm to 250 nm (size of small bacteria)
o Only able to replicate by infecting cells and using the organelles and enzymes within
o Consists of two parts: a nucleic acid and a protein coat called a capsid
o Nucleic acid may be DNA or RNA but not both
o Some viruses have a membrane-like structure outside the capsid called an envelope
Flu Virus HIV Virus Cladogram
Cladistics
Derived characteristic: similarity that is inherited from the most recent common ancestor of an entire
group. Ancestral: similarity that arose prior to the common ancestor of the group
In cladistics, only shared derived characters are considered informative about evolutionary relationships
To use the cladistic method character variation must be identified as ancestral or derived
Characters can be any aspect of the phenotype such as: Morphology, Physiology, Behavior and DNA
Characters should exist in recognizable character states. Example: Teeth in amniote vertebrates has two
states, present in most mammals and reptiles and absence in birds and turtles.
Examples of ancestral versus derived characters
• Presence of hair is a shared derived feature of mammals
• Presence of lungs in mammals is an ancestral feature; also present in amphibians and reptiles
Construction of a cladogram
• Polarize characteristics
• Clade: species that share a common ancestor as indicated by the possession of shared derived
characters. Clades are evolutionary units and refer to a common ancestor and all descendants
• Synapomorphy: a derived character shared by clade members
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A simple cladogram is a nested set of clades
• Plesiomorphies: ancestral states
• Symplesiomorphies: shared ancestral states, not informative about phylogenetics.
• Homoplasy: a shared character state that has not been inherited from a common ancestor
Results from convergent evolution or evolutionary reversal
• If there are conflicts among characters, use the principle of parsimony which favors the hypothesis
that requires the fewest assumptions. It says the phylogenetic tree that requires the fewest
evolutionary changes is the one you should assume is correct.
Parsimony and Homoplasy Cladogram (DNA)
The grouping of organisms into KINGDOMS is based on 3 factors:
1. Cell Type (prokyotic or eukaryotic)
2. Cell Number (unicellular or multicellular)
3. Feeding Type (autotroph or heterotroph)
Archea have classified Kingdoms; Bacteria do not (yet)
On the contrary, Eukaryota is composed of well-defined

Kingdoms including Plants, Fungus and Animals; the
exception is Protists which we’ll discover are not
monophyletic and include groups that are similar in design,
but not in evolutionary processes
Kingdom Animalia
• Eukaryotic (Domain Eukaryota)
• Multi-cellular (unlike most Protists)
• Lack cell walls (unlike Plants and Fungi) ; Lack rigid cell walls; fungi
absorb their nutrients by excreting enzymes into the substrate
• Heterotrophic, by ingestion – Animals obtain their nourishment by ingesting other organisms (unlike
Fungi)
• Most animals are mobile (Except sponges, sessile animals have muscle fibers for movement in sudden
or short bursts)
• Sexual reproduction; haploid cells fuse directly to produce zygote, and no alternation of generations
• Tissues – cells are organized into structurally functional tissues
• Radial symmetry – body parts arranged around a central axis (simple)
Radial… in such a way that any plane passing through the central axis divides the
organisms into halves that are approximate mirror images; evolved first in
Cnidarias (jellyfish)
Dorsal (top) and ventral (bottom); anterior (front) and dorsal (back);
• Bilateral symmetry – body has a right and a left half that are mirror images of
each other (advanced)
Bilateral symmetry allows different organs to concentrate in different parts of

the body, with sensory organs usually concentrated at the anterior end
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Kingdom Animalia (cont’d)
Evolution of a body cavity enabled the evolution of supporting organ systems and a means for
distributing materials
The body cavity – a space surrounded by mesodermal tissue formed during development (Coelom)
• Three germ layers: Ectoderm (outside), Mesoderm (middle), and Endoderm (inside)
*Three germ layers in most animals (Cnidarians only have endo and ecto); Sponges lack any germ layers
*Germ layers develop into different organ systems (skin, brain, etc) - development
• Pseudocoelomates move nutrients and wastes through pseudocoel
• Coelomates developed a circulatory system; blood carries oxygen, nutrients,

carbon dioxide and wastes through (and out of) body
10 PHYLA of KINGDOM ANIMALIA
1. Porifera – Sponges 6. Annelida – Segmented worm

2. Cnidaria/Coelenterara – Hollow Bodied 7. Mollusca – Mollusks (Shell)
Animals (Jelly Fish) 8. Arthropoda – Joint legged animals
3. Ctenophora – Comb Jellies 9. Echinodermata – Spiny Skinned
4. Platyhelminthes – Flatworm 10. Chordata – with notochords (lungs)
5. Nematoda – Roundworm
Phylum Chordata 3 Sub Phylums

Urochordata (non vertebrates) Cephalochordata – notochord (non-vertebrates)
Vertebrata – vertebrates (vertebral columns) 6 Classes of Sub-Phylum Vertebrata
Chondricthyes – cartilaginous fishes Reptilia – reptiles
Osteichthyes – bony fishes Aves – birds
Amphibia – salamanders and frogs Mammalia – Mammals
3 Sub-Classes of Class Mammalia
Prototheria – monotremes, platypus
Metatheria – marsupial, kangaroo
8 Orders of Sub-Class Eutheria Eutheria - placentals
Carnivora – canine, dogs Rodentia – rats, squirrel
Perissodactyla – horses Chiroptera – bats
Artiodactyla – cows, pigs Insectivora – shrews and moles
Proboscoidea - elephants Primata - primates
2 Sub-orders of Order Primata
Prosimians Three Superfamilies of Sub-Order Prosimians
Lemurodea
Lorisoidea
Tarsioidea
Anthropods Three Superfamilies of Sub-Order Anthropods
Ceboidea – new world monkeys
Cercopithecoidea – old world monkeys
Hominoidea – hominids – apes and humans
2 Families of Hominoidea
Ponginidae Hominidae
Full Taxonomy of Human Being
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata Sub-Phylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia Sub-Class: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria
Order: Primates Sub-Order: Anthropoidea
Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: sapiens
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SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF COMMON ANIMALS

Ant Hymenopetrous formicida Panther Panthera pardus
Ass Equs asinus Lion Panthera leo
Bat Chiroptera Lizard Sauria lacertidae
Bear Ursidae carnivora Mouse Rodentia muridae
Buffalo Bison bonasus Panda Alurpoda melanoleuca
Camel Camelus camelidae Pig Artiodactyla suidae
Cat Felis catus Chameleon Chamaele ontidate
Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus Porcupine Hystricomorph hystricidae
Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes Rabbit Leporidae cuniculas
Cobra Elapidae naja Rattle snake Cortalus horridus
Cougar Fenis concolour Reindeer Rangifer tarrandus
Crocodile Crocodilia niloticus Rhinocerus Perrissodanctyl rthinocerotidae
Deer Artiodactyl cervidae Scorpion Archinida scorpionida
Dog Cannis familiaris Sea Horse Hippocampus syngnathidae
Dolphin Delphinidae delphis Seal Pinnipedia phocidae
Elephant Proboscidea elephantidae Sheep Bovidae ovis
Fox Cannis vulpes Spider Monkey Arboreal ateles
Frog Anura ranidae Squirrel Rodentia sciurus
Giraffe Giraffa camalopardalis Tiger Panthera tigris
Giant Panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca Tiger Cat Felis tigrina
Goat Capra hircus Whale Shark Rhincodon typus
Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius Zebra Equidae burcheli
Horse** Eqqus caballus Mosquito Culex pipiens fatigan
Hyena Hyaenidae carnivora House fly Musca domestica
Kangaroo Macropus macropodidae Fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster
Digging Deeper the Different Phyla
1. Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

o The simplest of animals, most primitive o Lack germ layers
animal o No defined symmetry, Asymmetrical
o No nervous, digestive, or circulatory o Pores—filter feeders
systems o Provide habitat for other animals
o Not motile (sessile), Sessile o Eaten by starfish and some fish
2. Phylum Cnidaria (Jellyfish, sea anemones, coral)

o All are Nematocysts – they have stinging cells
o Radial symmetry
o Digestive cavity called a coelenteron
o Predators-feed on crustaceans
o Corals provide important habitat for fish
o Coral used for decoration and threatened by pollution
3. Phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies)

o Colloblasts – sticky cells o Largely bioluminescent
o Strictly marine o Largest cilia of any organism
4. Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
o Half of all flatworms are parasitic in the digestive tract (flukes, tapeworms, etc)
o Bilateral symmetry
o Cephalization- head and brain
o Acoelomate- no body cavity
o Incomplete digestive system (one opening)
o In early 1900’s models ate them to be thin—YUCK!
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5. Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)

o Pseudocoelomates o Decomposers, predators (bacteria,
o Can be free-living or parasitic inverts)
o Also called nematodes o Eaten by insects, mice
o Complete digestive system-separate o Beneficial to garden by eating insects
mouth and anus (2 openings)
6. Phylum Annelida (Segmented worms)

o Coelomates, true coelom
o Oligochaetes (earthworms) and Polychaetes (bristle worms)
o Sensitive to vibrations on ground-rain
o Prey for robins, shrews, jays, snakes
o Leeches have cornified knobs to break skin, anticoagulant and anesthetic
7. Phylum Mollusca
o Mantle – secretes shell; forms siphon and external flaps
o Bivalves (clams, mussels, etc), Snails, Squid, Octopus, Sea Slugs
o i.e. snails, slugs, clams, mussels, scallops, oysters, octopus and squid
o Variety in form
o Giant squid = sea serpent
o Introduction of garden snails
8. Phylum Arthropoda (jointed legged animals)
Insects, spiders, scorpions, shellfish (crustaceans), centipedes (1 pr legs per segment), millipedes (2 pr)
“Jointed foot”; jointed limbs, rigid cuticle/exoskeleton (mostly made of chitin)
Sub-phylums: Insecta, Arachnida, Crustacea, and others – VERY SUCCESSFUL!
Approx. 2/3 of all named species are arthropods (80% of that are insects, most of which are beetles)
Other Characteristics include: Exoskeleton, Metamorphosis, Pheromones, and Molting
9. Phylum Echinodermata are strictly marine and ‘spiny skin’

o Includes sea stars, sea urchins, and brittle stars
o *Nearest relatives to the chordates! – the only other deuterostomes
o Has a water vascular system, tube feet and they are important predators
10. Phylum Chordata includes all vertebrates (Subphylum Vertebrata)

All have (at one stage of their life cycle):
a. A notochord – a flexible rod; “backbone” that develops along the back of the embryo; muscles
attach to this rod and enable movement
b. A hollow, dorsal nerve cord; develops into spinal cord and brain
c. Pharyngeal slits* – filtering apparatus for feeding
d. An endostyle* – longitudinal ciliated groove in pharynx, produces mucus to capture food particles
e. A post-anal tail* *only present during embryonic stage in advanced vertebrates.
This tail extends beyond anus, nearly all other animals have a terminal anus
Early chordate ancestor may have given rise to 1st vertebrate
Pikaia which is a member of Burgess Shale Fauna
At the Cambrian Period 540-500 million years ago.
General Features Shared by Chordates:
1. Eukaryote 3. Bilateral- deuterstomes
2. Multicellular 4. Heterotrophic
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Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Urochordata
tunicates
Class Ascidiacea Solitary e.g. Styela montereyensis
Colonial - in groups but with own tunic
Compound Colonial - colonial with shared tunic
Sea Squirts
Class Thaliacea Salps (free swimming) , planktonic
Pyrosoma
Colonial salp (bioluminescent)
Class Larvacea Gelatinous house, planktonic
Oikopleura
Subphylum Cephalochordata
Lancet Strictly marine
Live buried in sand with head sticking out
Filter Feeders
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Chondrichthyes Includes sharks, skates, rays, and chimera
(cartilaginous fishes) • Heterocercal tail
• Two dorsal fins
• Paired pectorals
• 5-7 gill slits
• ureoosmotic
Class Osteichthyes • Swim bladder
(bony fishes) • Operculum (gill cover)
• Homocercal tail
• Scales of bony origin
– Smooth cycloid
– Spiny ctenoid
Class Amphibia There are about 3,500 species of amphibians
Characteristics include:
Cold blooded
Returns to water to breed
Metamorphosis
Some are toxic
Estivation-dry and hot , Hibernation- cold
Salamander, newt, mudpuppy, poison arrow frog, Coqui, Rana cancrivora
Class Reptilia There are about 6,500 species of reptiles
Characteristics include:
Cold blooded
Have scales
Amniotic egg
Dry skin
2 chambered heart (except crocks)
Ex: Marine iguana, Saltwater crocodile, marine turtle and sea snake
Class Aves Characteristics include:
Warm blooded, Feathers and wings
Hollow bones, Horny bill
Lungs have air sacks, Hard egg shell
Class Mammalia To be discussed comprehensively on the next page
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Characteristics of Class Mammalia
1. Warm Blooded 3. Suckle young

2. Have fur or hair 4. 3 middle ear bones
Class Mammalia has 4500 species in 19 orders
Characteristics
1. hairy animals with glands that produce milk
2. maintain constant body temp.
3. most develop in the uterus where they are nourished by a placenta
4. limbs are under the body, directed downwards
5. fully mobile jaw and socket teeth
**A Guide to characteristics of Class Mammalia
The Class Mammalia is well represented in Southern Africa. There are 293 species of land mammals and
37 species of marine mammals in the Southern African subregion. That is 330 of the around 5000 mammal
species found on Earth!
Class Mammalia -- all mammals share three characteristics not found in other animals: 3 middle ear bones;
hair; and the production of milk by modified sweat glands called mammary glands.
Mammals hear sounds after they are transmitted from the outside world to their inner ears by a chain of
three bones, the malleus, incus, and stapes. Two of these, the malleus and incus, are derived from bones
involved in jaw articulation in most other vertebrates.
Mammals have hair. Adults of some species lose most of their hair, but hair is present at least during
some phase of the ontogeny of all species. Mammalian hair, made of a protein called keratin, serves at least
four functions. First, it slows the exchange of heat with the environment (insulation). Second, specialized
hairs (whiskers or "vibrissae") have a sensory function, letting the owner know when it is in contact with
an object in its external environment. These hairs are often richly innervated and well-supplied with
muscles that control their position. Third, through their color and pattern, hairs affect the appearance of a
mammal. They may serve to camouflage, to announce the presence of especially good defense systems (for
example, the conspicuous color pattern of a skunk is a warning to predators), or to communicate social
information (for example, threats, such as the erect hair on the back of a wolf; sex, such as the different
colors of male and female capuchin monkeys; presence of danger, such as the white underside of the tail of
a whitetailed deer). Fourth, hair provides some protection, either simply by providing an additional
protective layer (against abrasion or sunburn, for example) or by taking on the form of dangerous spines
that deter predators (porcupines, spiny rats, others).
Mammals feed their newborn young with milk, a substance rich in fats and protein that is produced by
modified sweat glands called mammary glands. These glands, which take a variety of shapes, are usually
located on the ventral surface of females along paths that run from the chest region to the groin. They vary
in number from two (one right, one left, as in humans) to a dozen or more.
Other characteristics found in most mammals include highly differentiated teeth; teeth are replaced just
once during an individual's life (this condition is called diphyodonty, and the first set is called "milk teeth);
a lower jaw made up of a single bone, the dentary; four-chambered hearts, a secondary palate separating
air and food passages in the mouth; a muscular diaphragm separating thoracic and abdominal cavities;
highly developed brain; endothermy and homeothermy; separate sexes with the sex of an embryo being
determined by the presence of a Y or 2 X chromosomes; and internal fertilization.
The Class Mammalia includes around 5000 species placed in 26 orders (systematists do not yet agree
on the exact number or on how some orders are related to others). Mammals can be found in all continents
and seas. In part because of their high metabolic rates (associated with homeothermy and endothermy),
they often play an ecological role that seems disproportionately large compared to their numerical
abundance.
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Monotremes egg (leathery)-laying mammals

Subclass: Protothereia have a sense of electroreception to locate
Order: Monotremata their prey
only five species exist, the duck-billed
platypus and four sp. of spiny anteaters
(Echidna) Ornithorhynchidae
single hole that serves the urinary tract, Ornithorhynchus anatinus
anus, and reproductive tract
Marsupials the pouched animals- 272 species.
Subcless: Theria or Metatheria short gestation time is due to having a yolk-
Supercohort: Marsupalia type placenta in the mother marsupial
young are typically born in a practically
embryonic state (2cm). Ex. Opossum, koala, wallaby,
wombat, kangaroo, and
Tasmanian Devil....
Placentals nourished in the uterus through a
Subclass: Eutheria specialized embryonic organ attached to the
uterus wall called the placenta allowing longer
gestation times.
4000+ species. whales, bats, elephants,
armadillos, dogs, sheep, cattle, and humans....
Order – Primates
Characteristics and origins Primate characteristics
233 living species placed in 13 families 1. Arborial
most have long arms, prehensile (grasping) tail and hands 2. Grasping hands
with fingernails 3. Finger nails & finger pads with ridges
stereoscopic vision with eyes in front of head 4. Binocular vision
brain adapted for learning 5. Diurnal
probably arose about 65 mya 6. Colour vision
early primates were more like rodents that lived in trees 7. Large brain
8. High degree of parental care
9. Long childhood
Prosimians Muzzel
Immobile upper lip
Developed sense of smell
Ears can orientate
Evolved from about 63 Ma Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta)
Old World Narrow nose
Monkeys Tail (when present) never
prehensile
Mostly diurnal Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)
New World Split from the old world
Monkeys monkeys about 40 Ma
Flat-nosed
More premolars
Howler monkey (Alouatta sp.)
Long tails, some prehensile
Apes (From left to right)
Gibbon (Hyolabates lar)
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Gorilla gorilla
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
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THE FROG ATLAS
FROG SKELETON
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47
48
FROG MUSCULAR SYSTEM
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FROG BODY ORGANS
50
Lesson 8: Sensory and Motor Mechanism
Concept 1: Comparing Animal Senses
a. Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system
b. Sensations are action potentials; That reach the brain via sensory neurons
c. Once the brain is aware of sensations; It interprets them, giving the perception of stimuli
Sensations and perceptions begin with sensory reception, the detection of stimuli by sensory receptors.
a. Exteroreceptors – detect stimuli coming from the outside of the body

b. Interoreceptors – detect internal stimuli
Sensory receptors perform four functions in this process:
a. Sensory Transduction is the conversion of stimulus energy into a change in the membrane
potential of a sensory receptor.
This change in the membrane potential is known as a receptor potential. Many sensory receptors are
extremely sensitive with the ability to detect the smallest physical unit of stimulus possible
b. Amplification – the strengthening of stimulus by cells in sensory pathways

c. Transmission – after energy in a stimulus has been transduced into a receptor potential.
Some sensory cells generate action potentials, which are transmitted to the CNS (Central Nervous System)
d. Integration of sensory information begins as soon as the information is received.
This occurs at all levels of the nervous system. Some receptor potentials are integrated
through summation. Another type of integration is sensory adaptation (a decrease in
responsiveness during continued stimulation)
Based on the energy they transduce, sensory receptors fall into five categories:
1. Mechanoreceptors sense physical deformation. It is caused

by stimuli such as pressure, stretch, motion and sound.
Nerves:
a. Meissner’s corpuscles – light touch
b. Merkel’s disks – light touch
c. Pacinian corpuscles – deep pressure
d. Ruffini’s corpuscles – deep pressure and stretch
e. Bare nerve endings – pain, heat, cold
The mammalian sense of touch relies on mechanoreceptors that are the dendrites of sensory neurons.
2. Chemoreceptors include
 General receptors that transmit information about the total solute concentration of a
solution.
 Specific receptors that respond to individual kinds of molecules.
Two of the most sensitive and specific chemoreceptors known are present in the antennae of
the male silkworm moth that can detect pheromones or sex attractants.
3. Electromagnetic receptors detect various forms of electromagnetic energy such as

visible light, electricity, and magnetism.
Some snakes have very sensitive infrared receptors that detect body
heat of prey against a colder background.
This rattlesnake and other pit vipers have a pair of infrared receptors, one between each
eye and nostril. The organs are sensitive enough to detect the infrared radiation emitted by
a warm mouse a meter away. The snake moves its head from side to side until the radiation
is detected equally by the two receptors, indicating that the mouse is straight ahead.
Many mammals appear to use the Earth’s magnetic field lines to orient
themselves as they migrate.
Such as these beluga whales, apparently sense Earth’s magnetic field and use the
information, along with other cues, for orientation.
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4. Thermoreceptors which respond to heat or cold. They help regulate body

temperature by signaling both surface and body core temperature.
5. Pain receptors, in humans are al also called nociceptors.
They are a class of naked dendrites in the epidermis.
They respond to excess heat, pressure, or specific classes of

chemicals released from damaged or inflamed tissues.
Sensing Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates
Most invertebrates have sensory organs called statocysts that contain

mechanoreceptors and function in their sense of equilibrium.
Many arthropods sense sounds with body hairs that vibrate or with localized
‘ears’ consisting of a tympanic membrane and receptor cells.
1. Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals in most terrestrial vertebrates, the sensory organs for hearing
and equilibrium are closely associated in the ear.
Vibrating objects create percussion waves in the air that cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
The three bones of the middle ear transmit the vibrations to the oval window on the cochlea.
These vibrations create pressure waves in the fluid in the cochlea that travel through
the vestibular canal and ultimately strike the round window
Human ears with stereo capability can hear a broad range of sound but other
animals have more complex and sensitive ears and can hear a wider or different range of
frequencies. This young antelope has large ears which it can move to focus sounds. Bats
depend on their antennae-like ears to determine distances using echolocation, i.e.
bouncing changing sounds off of objects
2. Smelling
The perceptions of gustation (taste) and olfaction (smell) are both dependent on chemoreceptors that
detect specific chemicals in the environment. Meanwhile, the taste receptors of insects are located within
sensory hairs called sensilla which are located on the feet and in mouthparts.
Human smell is one of our weakest senses, far surpassed by dogs who are 10, 000 times more sensitive
and bears whose ability to smell is 7 times more sensitive than dogs.
3. Tasting, receptor cells for taste in humans are modified epithelial cells organized into taste buds.
Five taste perceptions involve several signal transduction mechanisms
These are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (elicited by glutamate)
Olfactory receptor cells are neurons that line the upper portion of
the nasal cavity. When odorant molecules bind to specific receptors,
A signal transduction pathway is triggered, sending action

potentials to the brain
4. Vision
Many types of light detectors have evolved in the animal kingdom and may be homologous.
Many invertebrates have some sort of light-detecting organ. One of the simplest is
the eye cup of planarians which provides information about light intensity and
direction but does not form images
Compound eyes are found in insects and crustaceans

and consist of up to several thousand light detectors called
ommatidia.
Eyesight is probably the strongest human sense with full color stereoscopic
vision and a remarkable ability for edge detection. But other animals such as
eagles have 3.6 times the human visual acuity. Some insects have a compound
eye with a fisheye view (180 degrees) of the world that can see objects in focus
both near and far at the same time.
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The Vertebrate Visual System
The eyes of vertebrates are camera-like but they evolved independently and differ from the single-lens
eyes of invertebrates. The main parts of the vertebrate eye are
o Sclera, which includes the cornea

o Choroid, a pigmented layer
o Conjunctiva, covers the outer surface of sclera
o Iris, which regulates the pupil
o Lens, which focuses light on the retina
o Retina, contains photoreceptors, the human retina contains two types of photoreceptors
a. Rods are sensitive to light but do not distinguish colors
b. Cones distinguish colors but are not as sensitive
However, two senses that humans don't have are electroreception and magnetoreception
The Skeletal System - Animal skeletons’ three main functions

is in support, protection, and movement.
The various types of animal movements all result from

muscles working against some type of skeleton
The three main types of skeletons are hydrostatic skeletons,

exoskeletons, and endoskeletons
1. Hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held pressure in a closed body compartment. This is the main
type of skeleton in most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes and annelids.
Annelids use their hydrostatic skeleton for peristalsis which is a type of

movement on land produced by rhythmic waves of muscle contractions
2. Exoskeletons is a hard encasement deposited on the surface of an

animal. These are found in most molluscs and arthropods.
3. Endoskeleton consists of hard supporting elements such as bones,

buried within the soft tissue of an animal.
Endoskeletons are found in sponges, echinoderms, and chordates.
HUMAN SKELETON – 206 bones
AXIAL SKELETON (80) APPENDICULAR SKELETON (126)
Cranium (8)
Frontal (1) Occipital (1) Temporal (2) PECTORAL
Parietal (2) Sphenoid (2) 2 clavicle 2 scapula
GIRDLE (4)
SKULL (22) Facial (14)
(+6 associated bones) Nasal (2) Maxilla (2) Zygomatic (2) PELVIC
+ 1 hyoid Mandible (1) Palatine (2) Lacrimal (2) GIRDLE (2)
Inferior nasal concha (2) Vomer (1)
Humerus (2) Radius (2)
Auditory Ossicles (6) UPPER Ulna (2) Carpals (16)
6 bones, 1 hyoid Metacarpal (10)
LIMBS (60)
Phalanges (28)
Vertebrae (24)
VERTEBRAL
Cervical (7) Thoracic (12) Lumbar (5)
COLUMN (26)
1 sacrum + 1 coccyx Femur (2) Patella (2)
LOWER
Tibia (2) Fibula (2)
LIMBS (60)
Tarsal (14) Metacarpal (10)
Ribs (24) Phalanges (28)
THORACIC (26) True (14) False (6) Floating (4)
1 sternum
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The Adult Skull has 22 bones
Cranium = 8 bones: frontal, occipital, 2 temporals, 2 parietals,

sphenoid and ethmoid
Facial bones = 14 bones: nasals, maxillae, zygomatics, mandible,

lacrimals, palatines, inferior nasal conchae, vomer.
Skull forms a larger cranial cavity and also forms the nasal cavity, the orbits, paranasal sinuses
Mandible and auditory ossicles are the only movable skull bones
Cranial bones also: attach to membranes called meninges -stabilize positions of the brain, blood vessels
-outer surface provides large areas for muscle attachment that move the head or provide facial expressions
Adult Vertebral Column – 26 vertebrae
24 individual vertebrae: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar vertebrae
Sacrum and Coccyx are fused together.
The Bony
Thorax
Physical Support on Land
In addition to the skeleton, muscles and tendons help support

large land vertebrates.
Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting. The action of a

muscle is always to contract.
Production of Energy for Muscle
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a type of chemical energy

needed for sustained or repeated muscle contractions.
Muscle cells must have 3 ways to store or make ATP
1. Creatine phosphate – rapid production of energy

2. Aerobic respiration – uses body’s store of glucose
3. Lactic acid production – small amounts of ATP
Types of Muscle Tissue in Mammals

Muscle Group Major Location Major Function Mode of Control
Skeletal Muscle Attached to bones and skin Produces body movements and Voluntary
of the face facial expressions
Smooth Muscle Walls of hollow organs, Moves contents through organs; Involuntary
blood vessels, and iris vasoconstriction
Cardiac Muscle Wall of the heart Pumps blood through heart Involuntary
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Skeletal muscle are muscle fibers that respond to the neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine causes skeletal muscle to contract. Following contraction, muscles release the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase which breaks down acetylcholine and allows muscle to relax.
Smooth muscle; Peristalsis – rhythmic contraction that pushes substances through tubes of the body
Neurotransmitters for smooth muscle contraction includes Acetylcholine and

Norepinephrine that will cause or inhibit contractions depending on smooth muscle type.
Lesson 10: Animal Nutrition – The need to Feed!
Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the process of animal nutrition In general,
animals fall into three categories:
Herbivores eat mainly plants and algae while Carnivores eat other animals
Omnivores regularly consume animals as well as plants or algae, most animals are opportunistic feeders
Concept 1: An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic molecules, and essential nutrients
An animal’s diet provides:
1. Chemical energy, which is converted into ATP to power cellular processes
2. Organic building blocks, such as organic carbon and organic nitrogen, to synthesize
a variety of organic molecules
3. Essential nutrients, which are required by cells and must be obtained from dietary sources; there are
four classes of essential nutrients:
a. Essential amino acids
Animals require 20 amino acids and can synthesize about half from molecules in their diet. The remaining
amino acids, the essential amino acids, must be obtained from food in preassembled form
Meat, eggs, and cheese provide all the essential amino acids and are thus “complete” proteins
Most plant proteins are incomplete in amino acid composition. Individuals who eat only plant proteins
need to eat specific plant combinations to get all the essential amino acids
Some animals have adaptations that help them through periods when their bodies demand
extraordinary amounts of protein
b. Essential fatty acids
Animals can synthesize most of the fatty acids they need. The essential fatty acids must be obtained
from the diet and include certain unsaturated fatty acids (i.e., fatty acids with one or more double bonds)
Deficiencies in fatty acids are rare
c. Vitamins are organic molecule required in the diet in small amounts.
13 vitamins are essential for humans. Vitamins are grouped into categories: fat-soluble and water-soluble
d. Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts. Ingesting large
amounts of some minerals can upset homeostatic balance
Dietary Deficiencies
Malnourishment is the long-term absence from the diet of one or more essential nutrients. Deficiencies
in essential nutrients can cause deformities, disease, and death
“Golden Rice” is an engineered strain of rice w/beta-carotene, which is converted to vitamin A in the body
Undernutrition results when a diet does not provide enough chemical energy. An undernourished
individual will
o Use up stored fat and carbohydrates o Suffer protein deficiency of the brain
o Break down its own proteins o Die or suffer irreversible damage
o Lose muscle mass
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Assessing Nutritional Needs
Genetic defects that disrupt food uptake provide information about human nutrition
– For example, hemochromatosis causes iron buildup without excessive iron intake
Insights into human nutrition have come from epidemiology, the study of human health and disease
in populations.
Neural tube defects were found to be the result of a deficiency in folic acid in pregnant mothers
Concept 2: Four Main Stages of Food Processing
1. Ingestion is the act of eating.
Many aquatic animals are suspension feeders, which sift small food
particles from the water.
Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on their food source
Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host
Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food
2. Digestion is the process of breaking food down into

molecules small enough to absorb
Mechanical digestion, including chewing, increases the surface

area of food
Chemical digestion splits food into small molecules that can pass through membranes; these are used
to build larger molecules. In chemical digestion, the process of enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in
molecules with the addition of water
3. Absorption is uptake of nutrients by body cells

4. Elimination is the passage of undigested material out of the digestive system
Digestive Compartments – Most animals process food in specialized compartments
These compartments reduce the risk of an animal digesting its own cells and tissues.
In intracellular digestion, food particles are engulfed by phagocytosis
• Food vacuoles, containing food, fuse with lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes
Extracellular digestion is the breakdown of food particles outside of cells
• It occurs in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal’s body
• Animals with simple body plans have a gastrovascular cavity that functions in both
digestion and distribution of nutrients
More complex animals have a digestive tube with two openings, a mouth and an
anus. This digestive tube is called a complete digestive tract or an alimentary canal
• It can have specialized regions that carry out digestion and absorption in a stepwise fashion
Concept 3: Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive
system
The mammalian digestive system consists of an alimentary

canal and accessory glands that secrete digestive juices
through ducts
Mammalian accessory glands are the salivary glands, the

pancreas, the liver, and the gallbladder
Food is pushed along by peristalsis, rhythmic contractions

of muscles in the wall of the canal
Valves called sphincters regulate the movement of material

between compartments
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The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
The first stage of digestion is mechanical and takes place in the oral cavity
• Salivary glands deliver saliva to lubricate food
Teeth chew food into smaller particles that are exposed to salivary
amylase, initiating breakdown of glucose polymers.
Saliva also contains mucus, a viscous mixture of water, salts,

cells, and glycoproteins
• The tongue shapes food into a bolus and provides help with swallowing
• The throat, or pharynx, is the junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea
• The esophagus connects to the stomach
The esophagus conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis
• The trachea (windpipe) leads to the lungs
Swallowing causes the epiglottis to block entry to the trachea, and the bolus is guided by the larynx, the
upper part of the respiratory tract. Coughing occurs when the swallowing reflex fails and food or liquids
reach the windpipe
Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
• The stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice, which converts a meal to acid chyme
Gastric juice has a low pH of about 2, which kills bacteria

and denatures proteins. Gastric juice is made up of
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin
• Pepsin is a protease, or protein-digesting enzyme, that

cleaves proteins into smaller peptides
• Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions

separately into the lumen (cavity) of the stomach
Chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is activated to

pepsin when mixed with hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice
• Gastric ulcers, lesions in the lining, are caused mainly by the bacterium Heliobacter pylori
Stomach Dynamics
Coordinated contraction and relaxation of stomach muscle churn the stomach’s contents
Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the esophagus and regulate its entry into the small intestine
Digestion in the Small Intestine
The small intestine is the longest section of the alimentary canal. It is the major organ of digestion and
absorption
The first portion of the small intestine is the duodenum, where chyme from the stomach mixes with
digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself
Pancreas produces proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin that are activated in the lumen of the duodenum
• Its solution is alkaline and neutralizes the acidic chyme
In the small intestine, bile aids in digestion and absorption of fats.
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile also destroys nonfunctional red blood cells
• The epithelial lining of the duodenum produces several digestive enzymes
Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis moves the chyme and digestive juices along the small
intestine. Most digestion occurs in the duodenum; the jejunum and ileum function mainly in absorption
of nutrients and water.
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Absorption in the Small Intestine
The small intestine has a huge surface area, due to villi

and microvilli that are exposed to the intestinal lumen.
The enormous microvillar surface creates a brush border
that greatly increases the rate of nutrient absorption
• Transport across the epithelial cells can be

passive or active depending on the nutrient
Hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-rich blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver, then to the heart.
The liver regulates nutrient distribution, interconverts many organic molecules, and
detoxifies many organic molecules. Epithelial cells absorb fatty acids and
monoglycerides and recombine them into triglycerides.
These fats are coated with phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins to form water-
soluble chylomicrons
• Chylomicrons are transported into a lacteal, a lymphatic vessel in each villus
Lymphatic vessels deliver chylomicron-containing lymph to large veins that return blood
to the heart
Absorption in the Large Intestine
The colon of the large intestine is connected to the small intestine
The cecum aids in the fermentation of plant material and connects where the small
and large intestines meet. The human cecum has an extension called the appendix, which
plays a very minor role in immunity
A major function of the colon is to recover water that has entered the alimentary canal
The colon houses bacteria (e.g., Escherichia coli) which live on unabsorbed organic material;
some produce vitamins.
Feces, including undigested material and bacteria, become more solid as they move through
the colon. Feces are stored in the rectum until they can be eliminated through the anus
• Two sphincters between the rectum and anus control bowel movements
Concept 4: Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet
Digestive systems of vertebrates are variations on a common plan. However, there are intriguing
adaptations, often related to diet
a. Dental Adaptations
Dentition, an animal’s assortment of teeth, is one example of structural variation reflecting diet
• The success of mammals is due in part to their dentition, which is

specialized for different diets
• Nonmammalian vertebrates have less specialized teeth, though

exceptions exist. For example, the teeth of poisonous snakes are
modified as fangs for injecting venom
b. Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
Many carnivores have large, expandable stomachs.
Herbivores and omnivores generally have longer alimentary canals than

carnivores, reflecting the longer time needed to digest vegetation
c. Mutualistic Adaptations
Many herbivores have fermentation chambers, where mutualistic

microorganisms digest cellulose
The most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous diet have evolved in the animals called ruminants
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Concept 5: Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite
The intake of food and the use of nutrients varies with an animal’s diet and environment
a. Regulation of Digestion
Each step in the digestive system is activated as needed
The enteric division of the nervous system helps to regulate the digestive process
The endocrine system also regulates digestion through the release and transport
of hormones
b. Regulation of Energy Storage
The body stores energy-rich molecules that are not needed right away for metabolism
In humans, energy is stored first in the liver and muscle cells in the
polymer glycogen. Excess energy is stored in adipose tissue, the most
space-efficient storage tissue
Glucose Homeostasis - Oxidation of glucose generates ATP to fuel

cellular processes. The liver is the site for glucose homeostasis
The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate the breakdown of glycogen

into glucose
o A carbohydrate-rich meal raises insulin levels, which triggers the synthesis of glycogen
o Low blood sugar causes glucagon to stimulate the breakdown of glycogen and release glucose
c. Regulation of Appetite and Consumption
Overnourishment causes obesity, which results from excessive intake of food energy with the excess
stored as fat
Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer of the colon and breasts, heart attacks, and strokes.
Researchers have discovered several of the mechanisms that help regulate body weight
Hormones regulate long-term and short-term appetite by affecting a “satiety center” in the brain
Studies on mice revealed that the hormone leptin plays an important role in regulating obesity
• Leptin is produced by adipose tissue and can help to suppress appetite
The problem of maintaining weight partly stems from our evolutionary past, when fat
hoarding was a means of survival
Individuals who were more likely to eat fatty food and store energy as adipose tissue may have
been more likely to survive famines
Lesson 12: Circulation and Gas Exchange
Concept 1: General Properties of Circulatory Systems
A circulatory system has a circulatory fluid (1), a set of interconnecting

vessels (2), and a muscular pump, the heart (3)
The circulatory system connects the fluid that surrounds cells with
the organs that exchange gases, absorb nutrients, and dispose of wastes
Circulatory systems can be open or closed, and vary in the number

of circuits in the body
In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs, blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory
system. There is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid, and this general body fluid is called
hemolymph
In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid
• Closed systems are more efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells
• Annelids, cephalopods, and vertebrates have closed circulatory systems
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Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems
• Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system called the cardiovascular system
The 3 main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries. Blood flow is one way in these vessels
1. Arteries branch into arterioles and carry blood away from the heart to capillaries
2. Networks of capillaries called capillary beds are the sites of chemical exchange between the blood and
interstitial fluid
3. Venules converge into veins and return blood from capillaries to the heart
Arteries and veins are distinguished by the direction of blood flow, not by O2 content.
Vertebrate hearts contain two or more chambers. Blood enters through

an atrium and is pumped out through a ventricle
• Bony fishes, rays, and sharks have single circulation with a two-
chambered heart
In single circulation, blood leaving the heart passes through two

capillary beds before returning
• Amphibian, reptiles, and mammals have double circulation
Oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are pumped separately from the right and left sides of the heart
o In reptiles and mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the pulmonary circuit to pick up oxygen
through the lungs
o In amphibians, oxygen-poor blood flows through a pulmocutaneous circuit to pick up oxygen through
the lungs and skin
o Oxygen-rich blood delivers oxygen through the systemic circuit. Double circulation maintains higher
blood pressure in the organs than does single circulation
Mammals and birds have a four-chambered heart with

two atria and two ventricles
o The left side of the heart pumps and receives only

oxygen-rich blood, while the right side receives and
pumps only oxygen-poor blood.
o Mammals and birds are endotherms and require

more O2 than ectotherms
The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle
The contraction, or pumping, phase is called systole, while relaxation, or filling, phase is called diastole
The heart rate, also called the pulse, is the number of beats per minute
The stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped in a single contraction
The cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute and
depends on both the heart rate and stroke volume
Four valves prevent backflow of blood in the heart
• The atrioventricular (AV) valves separate each atrium and

ventricle
• The semilunar valves control blood flow to the aorta and the
pulmonary artery
The “lub-dub” sound of a heart beat is caused by the recoil of blood

against the AV valves (lub) then against the semilunar (dub) valves.
Backflow of blood through a defective valve causes a heart murmur
60
Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat
Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, they contract without any signal from the nervous system
The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract
Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
Changes in Blood Pressure during the Cardiac Cycle
Systolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole; it is

the highest pressure in the arteries
Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during diastole; it is lower than
systolic pressure
A pulse is the rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each heartbeat
Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and peripheral

resistance due to constriction of arterioles
• Vasoconstriction is the contraction of smooth muscle in arteriole

walls; it increases blood pressure
• Vasodilation is the relaxation of smooth muscles in the arterioles;

it causes blood pressure to fall
Blood pressure is generally measured for an artery in the arm at the same height as the heart
Blood pressure for a healthy 20 year old at rest is 120 mm Hg at systole and 70/80 mm Hg at diastole
Blood Composition and Function
1. Blood consists of several kinds of cells

suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma
Blood plasma is about 90% water
Among its solutes are inorganic salts in the

form of dissolved ions, sometimes called
electrolytes
Another important class of solutes is the

plasma proteins, which influence blood pH,
osmotic pressure, and viscosity
Various plasma proteins function in lipid

transport, immunity, and blood clotting
2. The cellular elements occupy about 45%

of the volume of blood
Suspended in blood plasma are two types of cells
1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen O2
They are by far the most numerous blood cells. In mammals, mature
erythrocytes lack nuclei and mitochondria
They contain hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein that transports O2.

Each molecule of hemoglobin binds up to four molecules of O2
2. White blood cells (leukocytes) function in defense by phagocytizing

bacteria and debris or by producing antibodies. They are found both in and
outside of the circulatory system. 5 major types:
monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes
Platelets, a third cellular element, are fragments of cells that are involved in blood clotting
Coagulation is the formation of a solid clot from liquid blood. A cascade of complex reactions converts
inactive fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot
• A blood clot formed within a blood vessel is called a thrombus and can block blood flow
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Concept 2: Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces
• Gas exchange supplies O2 for cellular respiration and disposes of CO2
Respiratory System
Function: to provide oxygen gas need for cellular respiration and remove carbon
dioxide from the body
Invertebrate Organs: gills and trachae
Main Vertebrate Organs: Nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,

bronchioles, lungs, gills, diaphragm
Respiration in animals. Whether they live in water or on land, all animals must respire.
– To respire means to take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.
Some animals rely of simple diffusion through their skin to respire.
While other have developed large complex organ systems for respiration.
Invertebrate respiration. Invertebrate respiratory organs have (3)
Large surface areas, are in contact with air or water, If require diffusion they must be moist.
Aquatic Invertebrates Terrestrial Invertebrates

Aquatic animals have naturally moist Terrestrial invertebrates have respiratory
respiratory surfaces, and some respire through surfaces covered with water or mucus. (This
diffusion through their skin. reduces water loss)
Example: jellyfish and anemones There are many different respiratory
Some larger aquatic animals like worms and specialized organs in terrestrial invertebrates.
annelids exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide
Spiders use parallel book lungs
through gills.
Gills are organs that have lots of blood Insects use openings called spiracles where
vessels that bring blood close to the surface for gas air enters the body and passes through a network
exchange. of tracheal tubes for gas exchange
Snails have a mantel cavity that is lined with
moist tissue and an extensive surface area of blood
vessels.
Vertebrate respiratory systems; Chordates have one of two basic structures for respiration:
Gills – for aquatic chordates, Example: tunicates, fish and amphibians
• Water flows through the mouth then over the gills where oxygen is removed
• Carbon dioxide and water are then pumped out through the operculum
Lungs - for terrestrial chordates, Examples: adult amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
• As you move from amphibians to mammals the surface area of the lungs increases
– Insures a greater amount of gas exchange (or a two way flow of air).
• Birds, by contrast have lungs and air sacs which have only a one-way flow of air.
– This allows for them to have constant contact with fresh air.
– This adaptation enables them to fly at high altitudes where there is less oxygen.
Human Respiratory System
Lungs are an infolding of the body surface
The circulatory system (open or closed) transports gases

between the lungs and the rest of the body
The size and complexity of lungs correlate with an animal’s

metabolic rate
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Oxygen-rich air Alveoli  Oxygen and

from environment Nasal Cavity  Pharynx  Trachea Bronchi  Carbon Dioxide
exchange at alveoli
Carbon dioxide- 
Nasal Cavity  Pharynx  Trachea Bronchi
rich air to the
environment
Movement of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide In and Out of
the Respiratory System
Mammalian Respiratory Systems
• A system of branching ducts conveys air to the lungs
• Air inhaled through the nostrils is warmed, humidified, and sampled for odors
• The pharynx directs air to the lungs and food to the stomach
• Swallowing tips the epiglottis over the glottis in the

pharynx to prevent food from entering the trachea
• Air passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,

and bronchioles to the alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. ;
Exhaled air passes over the vocal cords in the larynx to create
sounds
• Cilia and mucus line the epithelium of the air ducts and
move particles up to the pharynx. This “mucus escalator” cleans
the respiratory system and allows particles to be swallowed into
the esophagus
• Gas exchange takes place in alveoli, air sacs at the tips of bronchioles
• Oxygen diffuses through the moist film of the epithelium and into capillaries
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries across the epithelium and into the air space
Alveoli lack cilia and are susceptible to contamination. Secretions called surfactants coat its surface.
Preterm babies lack surfactant and are vulnerable to respiratory

distress syndrome; treatment is provided by artificial surfactants
How a Mammal Breathes
• Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure breathing,

which pulls air into the lungs
• Lung volume increases as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract
• The tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled with each breath
• The maximum tidal volume is the vital capacity
• After exhalation, a residual volume of air remains in the lungs
Concept 3: Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and
transport gases
The metabolic demands of many organisms require that the blood transport
large quantities of O2 and CO2
Respiratory pigments, proteins that transport O2, greatly increase the amount of O2 that blood can carry
• Arthropods and many molluscs have hemocyanin with copper as the oxygen-binding component
Most vertebrates and some invertebrates use hemoglobin. In vertebrates, it is contained w/in erythrocytes
A single hemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of O2, one molecule for each iron
containing heme group. The hemoglobin dissociation curve shows that a small change in the
partial pressure of oxygen can result in a large change in delivery of O2
CO2 produced during cellular respiration lowers blood pH and decreases the affinity of
hemoglobin for O2; this is called the Bohr shift
63
Scientific Name Common Name Local Name (s) Distribution/ Order

Endemic/Native to
Acerodon leucotis Palawan flying Palawan and Chiroptera
fox neighboring islands
Acrocephalus Streaked reed- China, Taiwan, and Passeriformes
sorghophilus warbler the Philippines
Actenoides hombroni Blue-capped Mindanao Coraciiformes
kingfisher
Alionycteris Mindanao
Philippines Chiroptera
paucidentata pygmy fruit bat
Anthracoceros marchei Palawan hornbill Palawan Archipelago Coraciiformes
Anas luzonica Philippine duck Philippines Anseriformes

Anonymomys Mindoro Philippines Rodentia
mindorensis climbing rat
Apomys gracilirostris Large Mindoro Mindoro Rodentia
forest mouse
Archboldomys Mt. Isarog Mt. Isarog, Camarines Rodentia
luzonensis shrew-mouse Sur
Barbourula Philippine flat- Busuanga, Culion, Anura
busuangensis headed frog and Palawan
Bubo philippensis Philippine eagle- Kuwago, Bukao, Philippines Strigiformes
owl Buho Filipino
Carcharodon carcharias Great White Global Lamniformes

Shark
Ceyx melanurus Philippine dwarf Eastern Philippines Coraciiformes
kingfisher
Cromileptes altivelis Pantherfish Lapu-lapu, South Asia, Southeast Perciformes

humpback Tabadlo, Asia, East Asia and
grouper Salingukod, Oceania
Labungan,
Senorita, Baraka
Crunomys melanius Mindanao shrew Camiguin, Leyte, and Rodentia
rat Mindanao
Cynocephalus volans Philippine flying Kagwang Bohol, Samar, Leyte, Dermoptera
lemur Mindanao and
neighboring islands
Ducula carola Spotted imperial Philippines Columbiformes
pigeon
Dugong dugon Dugong Baboy-dagat, Tropical waters of the Sirenia
Duyon, Dugong Indian and Western
Pacific Ocean
Gallicolumba platenae Mindoro Kulo-kulo Mindoro Columbiformes

bleeding-heart
Gekko gigante Gigante narrow- Gigante Islands Squamata
disked gecko
Megaptera novaengliae Humpback Balyena Global, stable Cetacea

whale presence in northern
Luzon
Megophrys stejnegeri Mindanao Basilan, Biliran, Anura
horned frog Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte,
Samar and Mindanao
Nisaetus philippensis Philippine Aguila azor Luzon Falconiformes

hawk-eagle Filipina
Physeter Sperm whale Global Cetacea
macrocephalus
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Scientific Name Common Name Local Name (s) Distribution/ Order

Endemic/Native to
Rhincodon typus Whale Shark Butanding, Tropical waters Orectolobiformes
Balilan, Taluki, worldwide; Donsol,
Tawiki Pasacao and Batangas
in the Philippines
Rusa marianna Philippine Deer Usa Native and Artiodactyla

threatened in the
Philippines,
introduced and
common in Guam
Turnix worcesteri Worcester’s Pugo Luzon Charadriiformes
buttonquail
Chelonia mydas Green turle Pawikan Global Testudines
Crocidura mindorus Mindoro shrew Mindoro Soricomorpha
Papilio chikae Luzon peacock Philippines Lepidoptera
swallowtail
Rusa alfredi Philippine Panay and Negros Artiodactyla
spotted deer, Island. Though
Visayan deer formerly found
throughout Visayas
Scientific Name Common name (s) Local name (s) Distribution/ Endemic to
Aceros waldeni Rufous-headed hornbill Kalaw Endemic to Panay, small
Visayan wrinkled hornbill concentration on the southwestern
Walden’s hornbill end of the province of Zamboanga
Writhed-boiled hornbill del Norte in Mindanao, may already
be extinct on Negros and Guimaras
Bubalus mindorensis Tamaraw, Mindoro dwarf Tamaraw 263 individuals in 2008. Being captive
buffalo, Tamarou bred. Endemic to Mindoro
Pithecophaga jefferyi Philippine Eagle Haribon 180 – 500 birds are believed to
survive. Currently being captive
bred. Endemic to Philippines
Pristis microdon Largetooth sawfish Endemic to the Western Pacific and
Freshwater sawfish the Indian Ocean
Leichhardt’s sawfish
Puntius amarus Pait Pait Lake Lanao
Puntius baoulan Baolan Baolan Lake Lanao
Puntius clemensi Bagangan Bagangan Lake Lanao
Puntius disa Disa Disa Lake Lanao
Puntius flavifuscus Katapa-tapa Katapa-tapa Lake Lanao
Spratellicypris palata Palata Palata Lake Lanao
Risiocnemis Palata Palata Cebu
seidenschwarzi
Siebenrockiella Philippine forest turtle Recently rediscovered
leytensis Philippine pond turtle Palawan
Palawan turtle
Leyte pond turtle
Sus cebifrons Visayan warty pig One subspecies believed to be
extinct. Surviving subspecies en
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Lesson 14: Regulation of Body Temperature and Fluids
Homeostasis is the maintenance of steady internal conditions despite

fluctuations in the external environment. Examples of homeostasis include
• Thermoregulation—the maintenance of internal temperature within narrow limits,
• Osmoregulation—the control of the gain and loss of water and solutes, and
• Excretion—the disposal of nitrogen-containing wastes.
Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis)
14.1 An animal’s regulation of body temperature helps maintain homeostasis
Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable
range and a form of homeostasis.
Ectothermic animals Endothermic animals

Gain most of their heat from external sources and Derive body heat mainly from their metabolism and
Include many fish, most amphibians, lizards, Include birds, mammals, a few reptiles and fish,
and most invertebrates. and many insects.
14.2 Heat is gained or lost in for ways (Heat exchange with the environment may occur by)
1. Conduction—the transfer of heat by direct contact,
2. Convection—the transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface,
3. Radiation—the emission of electromagnetic waves, or
4. Evaporation—loss of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as a gas.
14.3 Thermoregulation involves adaptations that balance heat gain and loss
Five general categories of adaptations help animals thermoregulate.
1. Increased metabolic heat production occurs when
o hormonal changes boost the metabolic rate in birds and mammals,
o birds and mammals shiver, honeybees cluster and shiver.
o organisms increase their physical activity
2. Insulation is provided by hair, feathers and fat layers.

3. Circulatory adaptations include
o increased or decreased blood flow to skin and
o countercurrent heat exchange, with warm and cold blood flowing
in opposite directions.
4. Evaporative cooling may involve sweating, panting, or spreading saliva on
body surfaces.
5. Behavioral responses are used by endotherms and ectotherms and include:
moving to the sun or shade, migrating, and bathing.
14.4 Animals balance the level of water and solutes through osmoregulation Heat dissipation via ear flapping
(convection) and via water spray
Osmoregulation is the homeostatic control of the uptake and loss of water and (evaporative cooling)
solutes such as salt and other ions.
 Osmosis is one process whereby animals regulate their uptake and loss of fluids.
Osmoconformers Osmoregulators
Have body fluids with a solute concentration Have body fluids whose solute concentrations differ
equal to that of seawater, from that of their environment,
Face no substantial challenges in water Must actively regulate water movement, and
balance, and Include many land animals,
Include many marine invertebrates. freshwater animals such as trout, and
marine vertebrates such as sharks.
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Freshwater fish Saltwater fish

Gain water by osmosis (mainly through gills), Lose water by osmosis from the gills and body
Lose salt by diffusion to the more dilute surface,
environment, Drink seawater, and
Take in salt through their gills and in food, and Use their gills and kidneys to excrete excess salt.
Excrete excess water in dilute urine.
Osmoregulation in a rainbow trout Osmoregulation in a bluefin tuna
Land animals face the risk of dehydration, lose water by evaporation and waste disposal, gain water by
drinking and eating, and conserve water by
o reproductive adaptations, o waterproof skin, and
o behavior adaptations, o efficient kidneys.
14.5 Evolution Connection: A variety of ways to dispose nitrogenous wastes has evolved in animals.
Metabolism produces toxic by-products.
Nitrogenous wastes are toxic breakdown products of proteins and nucleic acids. Animals dispose
of nitrogenous wastes in different ways.
Ammonia (NH3) Urea Uric acid

– poisonous, – produced in the vertebrate – excreted by some land
– too toxic to be stored in the liver by combining ammonia animals (insects, land snails,
body, and carbon dioxide, and many reptiles),
– soluble in water, and – less toxic, – relatively nontoxic,
– easily disposed of by aquatic – easier to store, and – largely insoluble in water,
animals. – highly soluble in water. – excreted as a semisolid
paste, conserving water, but
– more energy expensive to
produce.
14.6 The Urinary System plays several major roles in homeostasis
The urinary system forms and excretes urine and regulates water and solutes in body fluids.
In humans, the kidneys are the main processing centers of the urinary system.
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys, extract a fluid filtrate from the blood, and refine the
filtrate to produce urine.
Urine is
– drained from the kidneys by ureters,

– stored in the urinary bladder, and
– expelled through the urethra.
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14.7 Overview: The key processes of the Urinary System

a. Filtration - Blood pressure forces water and many small molecules through a capillary wall into
the start of the kidney tubule.
b. Reabsorption refines the filtrate,
Reclaims valuable solutes (such as glucose, salt, and amino acids) from the filtrate, and
Returns these to the blood.
c. Substances in the blood are transported into the filtrate by the process of secretion.
d. By excretion the final product, urine, is excreted via the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
14.8 Blood filtrate is refined to urine through reabsorption and secretion
Reabsorption in the proximal and distal tubules removes nutrients, salt, and water.
pH is regulated by reabsorption of HCO3– and secretion of H+.
• High NaCl concentration in the medulla promotes reabsorption of water.
14.9 Hormones regulate the urinary system
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates the amount of water excreted by the kidneys by
o signaling nephrons to reabsorb water from the filtrate, returning it to the blood, and
o Decreasing the amount of water excreted.
Diuretics inhibit the release of ADH (1) and include alcohol and caffeine. (2)
Kidney failure can result from hypertension, diabetes, and prolonged use of
common drugs, including alcohol.
• A dialysis machine removes wastes from the blood and maintains its solute
concentration.
Lesson 15: Immune System and Body Defense
Overview: Recognition and Response
o Pathogens, agents that cause disease, infect a wide range of animals,

including humans
o The immune system enables an animal to avoid or limit many
infections
o All animals have innate immunity, a defense that is active
immediately upon infection
o Vertebrates also have adaptive immunity
15.1 In Innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens
Innate immunity is found in all animals and plants
In vertebrates: serves as the foundation of adaptive immunity.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES Pathogens
(bacteria, fungi,
viruses)
INNATE IMMUNITY (all animals)
Recognition of traits shared by broad Barrier defenses:
ranges of pathogens, using a small set of Skin, mucous membranes, secretions
receptors Internal defenses:
Rapid response Phagocytic cells, Natural Killer cells
Antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY (vertebrates only)
Recognition of traits specific to particular Humoral response:
pathogens, using a vast array of receptors Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids
Slower response Cell-mediated response:
Cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells
Evasion of Innate Immunity by Pathogens
o Adaptations have evolved in some pathogens that enable them to avoid destruction by phagocytic cells
o Tuberculosis (TB) resists breakdown within lysosomes after being engulfed by a host cell
o Mechanisms like this make certain fungi and bacteria substantial pathogenic threats
Innate Immunity of Vertebrates - immune system of mammals is the best understood of the vertebrates
Innate defenses include barrier defenses, phagocytosis, and antimicrobial peptides
Additional defenses are unique to vertebrates: natural killer cells, interferons, and the inflammatory
response
Barrier Defenses in Humans
Barrier defenses include the skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
tracts. Mucus traps and allows for the removal of microbes
Many body fluids including saliva, mucus, and tears are hostile to many microbes. The low pH of skin
and the digestive system prevents growth of many bacteria
There are two main types of Phagocytic cells in mammals
o Neutrophils circulate in the blood and are attracted by signals from infected tissues
o Macrophages are found throughout the body
Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins
In mammals, pathogen recognition triggers release of peptides and proteins that attack pathogens or
impede their reproduction
 Interferons provide innate defense, interfering with viruses and helping activate macrophages
The complement system consists of about 30 proteins that are activated by substances on microbe surfaces
 Activation can lead to lysis of invading cells
The inflammatory response, such as pain and swelling, is brought about by molecules released upon
injury of infection
 Mast cells release histamine, which triggers blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable
 Activated macrophages and neutrophils release cytokines, signaling molecules that modulate the
immune response and promote blood flow to the site of injury or infection
Inflammation can be either local or systemic (throughout the body)
a. Fever is a systemic inflammatory response triggered by substances released by macrophages
b. Septic shock is a life-threatening condition caused by an overwhelming inflammatory response
c. Chronic inflammation can also threaten human health
15.2 In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition
The adaptive response relies on two types of lymphocytes, or white blood cells
Lymphocytes that mature in the thymus above the heart are called T cells, and those that mature in
bone marrow are called B cells
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List of Infectious Microorganisms (as of December 2019)
INFECTIONS MICROORGANISMS
African sleeping sickness (African
Trypanosoma brucei
trypanosomiasis)
AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus)
syndrome)
Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides
Botulism (and Infant botulism) Clostridium botulinum
Brazilian hemorrhagic fever Sabiá virus
Bubonic plague Yersinia Pestis
Chancroid Haemophilus ducreyi
Chickenpox Varicella zoster virus (VZV)
Chlamydia Chlamydia trachomatis
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Clostridium difficile colitis Clostridium difficile
Coccidioidomycosis Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii
Common cold (Acute viral
usually rhinoviruses and coronaviruses
rhinopharyngitis; Acute coryza)
Dengue viruses (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN-
Dengue fever
4) – Flaviviruses
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Dracunculiasis Dracunculus medinensis
Ebola hemorrhagic fever Ebolavirus (EBOV)
Food poisoning by Clostridium perfringens Clostridium perfringens
Gonorrhea Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Haemophilus influenzae infection Haemophilus influenzae
Enteroviruses, mainly Coxsackie A virus and
Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD)
Enterovirus 71 (EV71)
Hookworm infection Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus
Influenza (flu) Orthomyxoviridae family
Leishmaniasis Leishmania species
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis
Leptospirosis Leptospira species
Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes
Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis) Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia garinii, and Borrelia afzelii
Malaria Plasmodium species
Measles Measles virus
Meningococcal disease Neisseria meningitidis
Mumps Mumps virus
Murine typhus (Endemic typhus) Rickettsia typhi
Mycoplasma pneumonia Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Pediculosis capitis (Head lice) Pediculus humanus capitis
Pediculosis corporis (Body lice) Pediculus humanus corporis
Pertussis (Whooping cough) Bordetella pertussis
Plague Yersinia pestis
Pneumococcal infection Streptococcus pneumoniae
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Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) Pneumocystis jirovecii

Poliomyelitis Poliovirus
Q fever Coxiella burnetii
Rabies Rabies virus
Borrelia hermsii, Borrelia recurrentis, and other Borrelia
Relapsing fever
species
Salmonellosis Salmonella species
SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory
SARS coronavirus
Syndrome)
Scabies Sarcoptes scabiei
Scarlet fever Group A Streptococcus species
Schistosomiasis Schistosoma species
Shigellosis (Bacillary dysentery) Shigella species
Shingles (Herpes zoster) Varicella zoster virus (VZV)
Smallpox (Variola) Variola major or Variola minor
Syphilis Treponema pallidum
Tetanus (Lockjaw) Clostridium tetani
Yersiniosis Yersinia enterocolitica
Zeaspora Zeaspora fungus
Zika fever Zika virus
Mucorales order (Mucormycosis) and
Zygomycosis
Entomophthorales order (Entomophthoramycosis)
Prevalence of Leukocytes
The relative proportions of the different types of white blood cells are:
o Neutrophils (roughly 60 – 70%)

o Lymphocytes (roughly 20 – 30%)
o Monocytes (approximately 1 – 6%)
o Eosinophils (approximately 1 – 3%)
o Basophils (less than 1%)
Mnemonic: Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
71
Antigens are substances that can elicit a response from a B or T cell
 Recognition occurs when a B or T cell binds to an antigen, via an antigen receptor
The immune system produces millions of different antigen receptors but the receptors, on a single B
cell or T cell are all identical to one another
 The small accessible part of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor is called an epitope
ANTIGEN RECOGNITION
By B Cells and Antibodies By T Cells
Each B cell antigen receptor is a Y-shaped molecule Each T cell receptor consists of two different
with two identical heavy chains and two identical polypeptide chains (called α and β)
light chains  The tips of the chain form a variable (V)
 The constant (C) regions of the chains vary region; the rest is a constant (C) region
little among B cells, whereas the variable (V)  The V regions of the a and b chains together
regions differ greatly form an antigen-binding site
 Together, the V regions of the heavy and light
chains form an antigen-binding site
Binding of a B cell antigen receptor to an antigen is
an early step in B cell activation
 This gives rise to cells that secrete a soluble
form of the protein called an antibody or
immunoglobulin (Ig)
 Secreted antibodies are similar to B cell
receptors but are not membrane bound T cells bind only to antigen fragments displayed or
The antibodies, rather than B cells themselves, presented on a host cell
defend against pathogens MHC (major histocompatibility complex)
molecules are host proteins that display the antigen
fragments on the cell surface (pic below)
B Cell and T Cell Development – adaptive immune system has 4 major characteristics
1. Diversity of lymphocytes and receptors
2. Self-tolerance; lack of reactivity against an animal’s own molecules
3. Proliferation of B and T cells after activation
4. Immunological memory
15.3 Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells
B and T lymphocytes produce a humoral immune response and a cell-mediated immune response
In the humoral immune response, antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in the
blood and lymph
In the cell-mediated immune response specialized T cells destroy infected host cells
Helper T Cells: Cytotoxic T Cells:

A Response to Nearly All Antigens A Response to Infected Cells
A type of T cell called a helper T cell triggers both Cytotoxic T cells are the effector cells in the cell-
the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses mediated immune response
 An antigen must be displayed on the  Cytotoxic T cells recognize fragments of foreign
surface of an antigen-presenting cell and
proteins produced by infected cells and possess
bind specifically to the antigen receptor of a
T cell an accessory protein that binds to class I MHC
Antigen-presenting cells have class I and class II molecules
MHC molecules on their surfaces  The activated cytotoxic T cell secretes proteins
 Antigen-presenting cells are recognized that disrupt the membranes of target cells and
based on their class II MHC molecules trigger apoptosis
Antigen receptors on the surface of helper T cells
bind to the antigen and the class II MHC molecule
Signals are then exchanged between the two cells
 The helper T cell is activated, proliferates,
and forms a clone of helper T cells, which
then activate the appropriate B cells
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The killing action of cytotoxic T cells on an infected host cell
The central role of helper T cells in humoral and cell-

mediated immune responses
Summary of the Humoral and Cell-Mediated
Immune Responses
Both the humoral and cell-mediated responses can

include primary and secondary immune responses
 Memory cells enable the secondary response
Active and Passive Immunization
Active immunity occurs naturally when a

pathogen infects the body
Passive immunity provides immediate, short-term

protection
It is conferred naturally when antibodies cross the

placenta from mother to fetus or pass from mother to
infant in breast milk. Both active and passive
immunity can be induced artificially
Artificial Immunity
Active Artificial immunity is induced when Passive Artificial immunity can be conferred
antigens are introduced into the body in vaccines artificially by injecting antibodies into a
nonimmune person
In this process of immunization, inactivated Example: anti venom serum
bacterial toxins or weakened or killed pathogens
are introduced
In individuals with autoimmune diseases, the immune system
targets certain molecules of the body
 Autoimmune diseases include systemic lupus

erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, insulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus, and multiple sclerosis
Host Defenses
a. Resistance - ability to ward off disease. Varies among organisms and individuals within same species
b. Immunity – mechanisms used by the body as protection against microbes and other foreign agents;
self vs non-self
 Nonspecific immunity (innate, natural, inborn) – defenses against any pathogen
 Specific immunity – resistance to a specific pathogen
First line of defense – physical & chemical barriers
1. Mucus membranes – layers of mucosal cells that line body cavities that open to
the outside (digestive, genitourinary and respiratory tracts)
Mucus is produced by the mucosal cells
Contains antimicrobial substance such as lysozymes, lactoferrin (sequester iron)
Mucosal cells are rapidly dividing  flush out of body along with attached bacteria
2. Eyes - Blinking of eyelids, Tears containing lysozymes
73
3. Outer ear canal - Wax contains antibacterial components
4. Intact, unbroken skin (Broken skin = port of entry)
Almost all bacteria are incapable to penetrate, a few helminths (hookworm & schistosoma) may
Skin predominantly inhabited by Staphylococcus epidermidis. How?
o Dryness o Desquamation – sloughing of epithelium
o temperature o Perspiration (sweat contain lysozymes – attack

bacterial cell wall)
o Low pH (acidic) of skin;
o bacteriocidal secretion by the sebaceous glands
Exception: Staphylococcus aureus in moist area
5. Digestive Tract
Mouth and lower digestive tract – lots of bacteria (mostly anaerobes e.g. Bacteroides, anaerobic
streptococci [Streptococcus mutans in mouth] and Clostridium in colon ) How?
o Mucus o Defecation (feces contains up to 50% bacteria !)
o Saliva (contains lysozyme) o Mucus contain antibacterial agents, antibodies

and immune cells called phagocytes
o Bile (alkaline) in small intestine
o Stomach acids
6. Genitourinary Tract – urinary tract is sterile in a healthy person except the distal urethra. How?
o Urination
o Secretion (vaginal and seminal fluid)
o Low pH of vagina (presence of several Lactobacillus sp., Candida albicans)
7. Respiratory Tract
o Nose - nasal hair, mucus secretions (phagocytes and antibacterial enzymes), irregular chambers
o ciliated epithelium (nasal cavity, sinuses, bronchi and trachea)
o Cough reflexes
o Alveolar macrophages
8. Microbial Antagonism - Normal flora vs. invaders

o Compete for colonization sites
o Compete for nutrients
o Produce bacteriocins
Administration of broad spectrum antibiotics may kill only certain

members of the normal flora, leaving the others to overgrow  superinfection
e.g. yeast in vagina – yeast vaginitis; Clostridium difficile in colon – diarrhea and colitis
Types of Animal Defense
Anything that helps an organism survive in its environment is an adaptation. It also refers to the ability
of living things to adjust to different conditions within their environments.
a. Structural Adaptation involves some part of an animal’s body, such as the size or shape of the
teeth, the animal's body covering, or the way the animal moves.
Teeth - since different animals eat different things, they don't all have the same kind of teeth
Body coverings - Hair, scales, spines, and feathers grow from the skin. All of these parts help animals
survive in their environments.
Movement - animals find food by moving from place to place
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b. Protective Coloration
Coloration and Protective Resemblance allows an animal to blend into its environment.
Another word for this might be camouflage. Their camouflage makes it

hard for enemies to single out individuals.
c. Mimicry allows one animal to look, sound, or act like another

animal to fool predators into thinking it is poisonous or dangerous.
Coral snake (left) very poisonous & Milk snake (right)
d. Behavior adaptations include activities that help an animal survive. Behaviour adaptations can be
learned or instinctive. (a behaviour an animal is born with).
Social behaviour - some animals live by themselves, while other live in groups.
Behaviour for protection - An animal's behaviour sometimes helps to protect the animal. For instance the
opossum plays dead. A rabbit freezes when it thinks it has been seen.
e. Migration is the behavioural adaptation that involves an animal or group of animals moving from
one region to another and then back again.
Animals migrate for different reasons. The reasons are as follows.
o better climate o safe place to raise young

o better food o go back to the place they were born.
o safe place to live
f. Hibernation is a deep sleep in which an animal's body temperature drops to about the temperature
of the environment. Body activities, such as heartbeat and breathing are slowed causing the animal
to need very little food.
Animals that hibernate are bats, woodchucks, snakes, and bears.
During the hibernation the animals live off of the fat that is stored in their body.
Lesson 16: Regulation of Chemical and Nervous System
How do we maintain Homeostasis? : Regulation

Chemical Nervous
Hormones and Glands of Endocrine System Neurons and Neurotransmitters of
Nervous System
Slow-Snail Mail (travel via blood long distance)
Fast-E-mail (travel through wires 100m/s)
Long-lasting effects and hormones can remain Short-lived effects
active in blood from minutes to days
Endocrine System
Glands are organs that secrete chemicals. Glands of the endocrine system are ductless.
Secretion goes right into blood stream. Blood brings it to target,
Exocrine glands – secretions delivered to target through ducts
Gland that is Endocrine and Exocrine: Pancreas
It makes: digestive enzymes and hormones
Hormones
• Secreted by Endocrine Glands • Travel via blood to target
• Chemicals • Regulate processes at target
How do Hormones act on target?

One Messenger Model Two Messenger Model
Hormone crosses target cell membrane Hormone binds receptor on membrane
Binds cytoplasmic receptor protein Binding activates a second chemical in
Hormone-Receptor Complex interacts with DNA cytoplasm (ex. cAMP, cGMP, Calcium)
Effect produced 2nd Chemical leads to cell response
Ex. Steroids (Lipid-like) Protein Hormones
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Steroid Model 2nd Messenger Model
The Glands
1. Pituitary Gland – “master gland”, in head; which is regulated by the hypothalamus
2. Thyroid Gland – in neck; hormones include:

 Thyroxine (T3, T4) – has iodine, regulates cellular respiration, regulates carb and fat metabolism
 Calcitonin – regulates and lowers blood calcium levels
3. Parathyroid Glands – four glands embedded in thyroid gland
 Parathormone – regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism, increases blood
calcium levels by taking calcium out of bone
4. Adrenal Glands – on the surface of kidneys, has two layers
( inner medulla and outer cortex)
Hormones of Adrenal Medulla:
 Epinephrine (Adrenaline)and “Fight or Flight Response” – nervous system regulation

Increases heartbeat, blood pressure, respiration, clotting rate and glucose levels
 Norepinephrine – released in response to low blood pressure causes for an increase
Hormones of Adrenal Cortex (corticosteroids) :
 Cortisol (Glucocorticoid) – affects carb, protein and fat metabolism

 Aldosterone (Mineraolcorticoid) – affects sodium and potassium levels at kidney level
5. Pancreas
Islets of Langerhan cells: Alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin
 Glucagon – raises blood glucose levels (glycogen to glucose)

 Insulin – lowers blood glucose levels (glucose to glycogen)
6. Gonads
Ovaries – located in the female abdominal cavity
 Estrogen – stimulates female reproductive system, female

secondary sexual characteristics, regulates menstrual cycle
 Progesterone – regulates menstrual cycle
Testes – located in male scrotum
 Testosterone (an Androgen) – stimulates male reproductive system development, male secondary
sexual characteristics
7. Thymus is found in the upper chest, more important in early years than adulthood
 Thymosin – stimulate T cell development
8. Pineal Gland – at the base of brain
 Melatonin – involved in daily rhythms and biological clock,
much still unknown
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Digestive System Hormones
• Gastrin from Stomach • Secretin, CCK, GIP from Small Intestine
“Local Hormones”: Prostaglandins
– Don’t travel far from production site (unlike other hormones) - Wide range of functions
Problems
a. Diabetes: Excess glucose in blood.
Low Insulin (Hyposecretion) or too much glucagon (Hypersecretion)
Type 1= don’t make insulin (autoimmune against beta cells)

Type 2= Diet related sugar management problem, liver doesn’t respond to insulin)
Gestational= Pregnancy related
b. Hypoglycemia - Too low blood glucose; Too high insulin or too low glucagon
c. Gigantism - In kids, Normal proportions, Too much GH
d. Acromegaly - In adults, Too much GH, Large body parts
e. Dwarfism - In kids, Small but proportional body, Low GH
f. Hyperthyroidism - Too much thyroxine,
Hyper, eye bulging , may include Goiter condition
g. Hypothyroidism
In infant: becomes dwarf with disproportionate body and mental retardation (cretinism)
In adult: sluggish, heavy person
h. Cushing’s Disease – hypersecretion of aldosterone and cortisol

fat deposits, high blood glucose
i. Addison’s Disease – low amount of aldosterone and cortisol,
Glucose metabolism problems; sluggish, weak, weight loss; increased skin pigmentation
Basic Unit of Nervous Regulation: Neuron
Parts of Neuron
Dendrite Cell Body (Cyton) Axon
Branched, short Contains organelles of neuron Long, single fiber ( 1 cm to 1m)
Receives signals Does metabolic activities Carries electrical signals
Sends signals towards axon towards terminal branches.
Can be wrapped with 2 types of
glial cells:
Schwann cells that may
produce myelin (fatty insulating
material) on axons, PNS
Oligodendrocytes, CNS
Myelination progresses as we
grow into adult
Types of Neurons
Sensory Send messages from receptors to brain and spinal cord

(receptors, ex: eye, ear, skin)
Interneurons (associative neurons) Relays messages from one neuron to another, usually short
Motor Neuron Send messages from brain and spinal cord to effectors
(effectors, ex: muscles and glands)
The Message = Impulse
A neuron at rest: outside is positively charged, inside neuron is negatively charged

(-70 mV); Membrane is “Polarized”
Nerves are bundles of neurons
(they are different from one another)
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What starts an Impulse? Stimulus ex.: light, heat, sound, pain
An impulse will lead to a “Response”
What happens during an impulse?
Wave of depolarization and repolarization along neuron=Action

Potential
How do we get the depolarization?
Wave travels along membrane
Gates are voltage regulated
Na rushing through one gate will

move towards the right and open
downstream gates
What regulates the speed of the wave? Size of neuron and myelin presence
A large myelinated neuron impulse speed = 100 m/s
What happens when impulse reaches the knobs?
• Signal must cross Synapse!
• Change electrical signal to a chemical signal
• Neurotransmitter
• Diffuse across synapse
• Bind receptor on next dendrite-cause the generation of action potential
• Enzymes breakdown transmitters
Neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin and glutamic acid (MSG in foods)
Strength of Stimulus?
• Relate to frequency of action potentials • Different neurons have different thresholds
How is a response produced?
• Neuromuscular Junctions • Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine

bind to muscle cells
• Neurons end with Motor End Plates
• Muscle contracts
Drugs and Poisons
Interfere with Neuromuscular Junctions Interfere with synaptic transmission

Nerve gas, curare, botulin toxin, insecticides Uppers and Downers, caffeine
Nervous Regulation on different Organisms
Protists
No neurons, no nervous system, can respond to stimuli like chemicals, light, obstacles
They have “irritability” = whole organism response to stimuli
Hydra
Neurons, no brain, 2 way transmission along neuron not one way, nerve net
Whole body responses to stimuli
78
Worm Has Central Nervous System (“brain” – fused ganglia, 2 nerve cords
Has Peripheral Nervous System (branching sensory, motor and associative nerves off
of CNS)
Has one way transmission
Grasshopper Central and Peripheral Nervous System, brain, 2 ventral nerve cords that have ganglia
Sensory Receptors like antennae, eyes, tympana
Nervous Regulation in Humans
Central Nervous System: Brain, dorsal spinal nerve cord
Peripheral Nervous System: nerves to and from receptors and effectors
Brain is protected by cranium
Covered by Meninges Membranes and Bathed in Cerebrospinal Fluid

You might not realize it, but your brain is a code-cracking machine.
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in the rghit pcale. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit pobelrm.
S1M1L4RLY, Y0UR M1ND 15 R34D1NG 7H15 4U70M471C4LLY W17H0U7 3V3N 7H1NK1NG 4B0U7 17
6 Parts of Brain
 Cerebrum – largest part;
Divided down the middle into the right and left cerebral hemispheres (Right: Art/Music, Left:
Math/Analytical). The nerves that cross the hemispheres are the “corpus callosum”
Outer Gray Matter (Cerebral Cortex): Motor neuron cytons and interneurons, many unmyelinated cells
Processing area of brain; sensory, motor and associative functions (speech, thought, hearing, vision,
voluntary body movements, memory, smell); Many folds = increase surface area
Inner White Matter region: Mostly region of myelinated axons,
Communication of data between sides of cortex, communication from cortex region and
rest of body. Crossed “wires”: Left side of brain controls right side of body and vice versa
Memory is stored in hippocampus region, tiered circuits of impulses
Momentary Short-term Long-term

Lasts minutes Lasts several hours Stored in cortex
Naps boost memory (J. Sleep Research): As much as a 6 min. nap improves recall
• Brain extracts the gist of learned info

• Brain files info and combines info with previously learned info
• Brain adds meaning to info learned
 Cerebellum (outside – gray matter, inside – white matter) coordinates movement
 Medulla Oblongata – lowest brain part, outside is white matter, inside is gray, controls
involuntary activities
 Thalamus – relay center, pain
 Hypothalamus – controls body temperature, blood pressure, sleep, emotions; regulates pituitary
gland
 Pons – relay center
79 Brain Waves
Behaviors
1. Reflex – no thought, response is inborn, unlearned, protection or survival-related

2. Instinct – inborn, unlearned, sequence of reflexes with each one triggering the next reflex
3. Conditioned Reflex – learned behavior together with a reflex (Pavlov’s experiment)
4. Conditioned Response – associate one stimulus with another (child will associate fear with mice)
5. Habit – behavior requiring no thought, performed quickly, not inborn; desire, repetition, satisfaction
6. Imprinting – behavior patterns developed soon after birth, learned from what it thinks to be its parent
Spinal Cord extends from medulla down through the vertebral column
It is protected by the vertebral column.
- covered by the meninges and CSF - Connects peripheral nerve with brain
- Outer white matter, inner gray matter - Controls reflexes
 Simple Reflex Arc
Peripheral Nervous System – nerves not of brain and spinal cord
31 pairs of spinal nerves, 12 pairs of cranial nerves (serving eyes, ears, nose, mouth)
Two Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
- Somatic Nervous System – sensory and motor neurons dealing with activities that are voluntary
- Autonomic Nervous System – nerves that facilitate events that are not under voluntary control (gland
contraction) It has also two divisions:
Parasympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System

Causes impulses for Causes impulses for:
Slow heartbeat Speed up heart rate
Increase peristalsis of digestion Slows digestion peristalsis
Constrict urinary bladder and also bronchi Relax bladder and widen bronchi
Pupil constricted Dilate pupils
Problems
• Multiple Sclerosis, Schizophrenia, Dyslexia, Autism, ADHD

• Paralysis, Bipolar Syndrome, Alzheimer's Disease, Cerebral Palsy
• Parkinson's Disease, Muscular Dystrophy, Encephalitis, Meningitis
• Stroke / "Brain Attack" , Epilepsy and Seizures ,Brain Tumors
• Polio, Addiction/Anxiety/Depression, Pinched nerves
Headaches 
Receptor Organs: eye, ear, tongue, nose, skin
Lesson 17: Animal Reproduction
OVERVIEW: Each sea slug produces sperm and eggs; in a few weeks, new individuals will
hatch from fertilized eggs. Animal reproduction takes many forms
Concept 1: Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
Sexual reproduction is the creation of an offspring by fusion of a male

gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote
Asexual reproduction is creation of offspring without the fusion of egg and

sperm
80
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• Many invertebrates reproduce asexually by fission, separation of a parent into two or more individuals
of about the same size
• In budding, new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones
• Fragmentation is breaking of the body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults.
Fragmentation must be accompanied by regeneration, regrowth of lost body parts
• Parthenogenesis is the development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg
Reproduction
• Ovulation is the release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a female cycle

Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) mother and calf.
• Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles related to changing seasons
• Reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones and environmental cues
• Because seasonal temperature is often an important cue in reproduction, climate change

can decrease reproductive success
• Some organisms can reproduce sexually or asexually, depending on conditions
• Several genera of fishes, amphibians, and lizards reproduce only by a complex form of
parthenogenesis that involves the doubling of chromosomes after meiosis
• Asexual whiptail lizards are descended from a sexual species, and females still exhibit
mating behaviors
 Sexual behavior in parthenogenetic lizards.
Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction
For many animals, finding a partner for sexual reproduction may be challenging
One solution is hermaphroditism, in which each individual has male and female reproductive systems
• Two hermaphrodites can mate, and some hermaphrodites can self-fertilize
Individuals of some species undergo sex reversals
• Some species exhibit male to female reversal (for example, certain oysters), while others exhibit
female to male reversal (for example, a coral reef fish)
Concept 2: Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species
The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of egg and sperm, play an important part in sexual
reproduction
In external fertilization, eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external
environment. In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive
tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract
• Internal fertilization requires behavioral interactions and compatible copulatory organs
• All fertilization requires critical timing, often mediated by environmental cues, pheromones,
and/or courtship behavior
Ensuring the Survival of Offspring
• Internal fertilization is typically associated with production of fewer gametes but the
survival of a higher fraction of zygotes
• Internal fertilization is also often associated with mechanisms to provide protection of

embryos and parental care of young
• The embryos of some terrestrial animals develop in eggs with calcium- and protein-containing shells
and several internal membranes
• Some other animals retain the embryo, which develops inside the female. In many animals, parental
care helps ensure survival of offspring
81
Gamete Production and Delivery: To reproduce sexually, animals must produce gametes
In most species individuals have gonads, organs that produce gametes
Some simple systems do not have gonads, but gametes form from
undifferentiated tissue
More elaborate systems include sets of accessory tubes and glands that carry,
nourish, and protect gametes and developing embryos
Most insects have separate sexes with complex reproductive systems. In many
insects, the female has a spermatheca in which sperm is stored during copulation
A cloaca is a common opening between the external environment and the

digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems.
It is common in nonmammalian vertebrates;
mammals usually have a separate opening to the
digestive tract
Monogamy is relatively rare among animals
Males and/or females of some species have evolved mechanisms

to decrease the chance of their mate mating with another individual
Females can sometimes influence the relative reproductive success of their mates
Why is sperm usage biased when female fruit flies mate twice?
Human Female Reproductive Anatomy
• The female external reproductive structures include the clitoris and two sets of labia
• The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a system of ducts and chambers that carry gametes
and house the embryo and fetus
Ovaries – female gonads, lie in the abdominal cavity
Each ovary contains many follicles which consists of a partially

developed egg called an oocyte, surrounded by support cells
Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum (egg) by the

process of oogenesis
Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle, the cells of which
produce estradiol prior to ovulation
The remaining follicular tissue grows within the ovary, forming a

mass called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes
estradiol and progesterone that helps to maintain pregnancy
• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates
The egg cell travels from the ovary to the uterus via oviduct
(fallopian tube).
Cilia in the oviduct convey the egg to the uterus, also called the womb
The uterus lining, the endometrium, has many The uterus narrows at the cervix, then opens into
blood vessels. the vagina
The vagina is a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm during copulation and serves as
the birth canal.
The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva, which consists of the labia majora, labia minora, hymen,
and clitoris. The clitoris has a head called a glans covered by the prepuce
The vagina, labia minora, and clitoris are rich with blood vessels; the clitoris also has many nerve endings
The mammary glands are not part of the reproductive system but are important to mammalian
reproduction. Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk
82
Male Reproductive Anatomy
• The male’s external reproductive organs are the scrotum and penis
• Internal organs are the gonads, which produce sperm and hormones, and accessory glands
The male gonads, or testes, consist of highly coiled tubes

surrounded by connective tissue
• Sperm form in these seminiferous tubules
Leydig cells produce hormones and are scattered between

the tubules. Production of normal sperm cannot occur at the
body temperatures of most mammals
The testes of many mammals are held outside the abdominal

cavity in the scrotum, where the temperature is lower than in the
abdominal cavity
From the seminiferous tubules of a testis, sperm pass into the

coiled tubules of the epididymis
During ejaculation, sperm are propelled through the muscular

vas deferens and the ejaculatory duct, and then exit the penis
through the urethra
Accessory Glands; Semen is composed of sperm plus secretions from three sets of accessory glands
• The two seminal vesicles contribute about 60% of the total volume of semen
• The prostate gland secretes its products directly into the urethra through several small ducts
• The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear mucus before ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine
remaining in the urethra
The human penis is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue
• During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries, causing an erection
• The head of the penis has a thinner skin covering than the shaft, and is more sensitive to stimulation
Gametogenesis, the production of gametes, differs in male and female, reflecting the distinct structure
and function of their gametes
Sperm are small and motile and must pass from Eggs are larger, and carry out their function
male to female within the female
Spermatogenesis, the development of sperm is continuous and prolific (millions of sperm are produced
per day; each sperm takes about 7 weeks to develop
Oogenesis, the development of a mature egg, is a prolonged process
Immature eggs form in female embryo, but don’t complete their development until years or decades later
Spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis in three ways
1. All four products of meiosis develop into sperm while only one of the four becomes an egg
2. Spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood
3. Sperm are produced continuously without the prolonged interruptions in oogenesis
83
The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates mammalian reproduction
Human reproduction is coordinated by hormones from the hypothalamus,

anterior pituitary, and gonads
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted by the hypothalamus

and directs the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary
FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads and the production of sex hormones
Sex hormones serve many functions in addition to gamete production, including
sexual behavior and the development of primary and

secondary sex characteristics
Hormonal Control of the Female Reproductive Cycles
In females, the secretion of hormones and the

reproductive events they regulate are cyclic
• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium thickens

with blood vessels in preparation for embryo
implantation
If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the endometrium is shed in a process called
menstruation. Hormones closely link the two cycles of female reproduction
– Changes in the uterus define the menstrual cycle (also called the uterine cycle)
– Changes in the ovaries define the ovarian cycle
 The reproductive cycle of the human female
The Ovarian Cycle
The sequential release of GnRH then

FSH and LH stimulates follicle growth
Follicle growth and an increase in the

hormone estradiol characterize the
follicular phase of the ovarian cycle
The follicular phase ends at ovulation, and the

secondary oocyte is released
The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle - Hormones coordinate

the uterine cycle with the ovarian cycle
 Thickening of the endometrium during the

proliferative phase coordinates with the follicular
phase
 Secretion of nutrients during the secretory phase
coordinates with the luteal phase
• Shedding of the endometrium during the
menstrual flow phase coordinates with the growth of
new ovarian follicles
A new cycle begins if no embryo implants in the

endometrium
Cells of the uterine lining can sometimes migrate to

an abnormal, or ectopic, location
Swelling of these cells in response to hormone

stimulation results in a disorder called endometriosis
After about 500 cycles, human females undergo menopause, the cessation of ovulation and menstruation
• Menopause is very unusual among animals. Menopause might have evolved to allow a mother to
provide better care for her children and grandchildren
84
Menstrual Versus Estrous Cycles
Menstrual cycles are characteristic only of Estrous cycles are characteristic of most mammals
humans and some other primates
The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
bleeding called menstruation Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period
The length and frequency of estrus cycles vary
Sexual receptivity is not limited to a timeframe
from species to species
Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System
• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells, which nourish developing sperm
• LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete testosterone and other androgens, which
in turn promote spermatogenesis
• Testosterone regulates the production of GnRH, FSH, and LH through negative

feedback mechanisms
• Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which reduces FSH secretion from the
anterior pituitary
Human Sexual Response; Two reactions predominate in both sexes
Vasocongestion, the filling of tissue with blood and Myotonia, increased muscle tension
The sexual response cycle has four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
1. Excitement prepares the penis and vagina for coitus (sexual intercourse)
2. Direct stimulation of genitalia maintains the plateau phase and prepares the vagina for receipt of sperm
3. Orgasm is characterized by rhythmic contractions of reproductive structures
– In males, semen is first released into the urethra and then ejaculated from the urethra
– In females, the uterus and outer vagina contract
4. During the resolution phase, organs return to their normal state and muscles relax
Lesson 18: Animal Development
A human embryo at about 7 weeks after conception shows development of distinctive features
Development occurs at many points in the life cycle of an animal. This includes metamorphosis
and gamete production, as well as embryonic development
Fertilization and cleavage initiate embryonic development
Fertilization is the formation of a diploid zygote from a haploid egg and sperm
Molecules and events at the egg surface play a crucial role in each step of
fertilization
Sperm penetrate the protective layer around the egg
Receptors on the egg surface bind to molecules on the sperm surface
Changes at the egg surface prevent polyspermy, the entry of multiple sperm
nuclei into the egg
The acrosomal reaction is triggered when the sperm

meets the egg
The acrosome at the tip of the sperm releases hydrolytic

enzymes that digest material surrounding the egg
Gamete contact and/or fusion depolarizes the egg cell

membrane and sets up a fast block to polyspermy
 The acrosomal and cortical reactions during sea urchin

fertilization
85
List of Common Animals and their Scientific Names
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Aardvark Orycteropus afer Aardwolf Proteles cristata
African bush elephant Loxodonta africana Amazon river Inia geoffrensis

dolphin
American alligator Alligator American bison Bison bison
mississippiensis
American crow Corvus brachyrhynchos American flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber
American white Pelecanus Andean condor Vultur gryphus
pelican erythrorhynchos
Arabian camel Camelus dromedaries Asian elephant Elephas maximus
Atlantic salmon Salmo salar Bahaman raccoon Procyon lotor maynardi
Bald eagle Haliaeetus Banded pitviper Trimeresurus fasciatus
leucocephalus
Bee hummingbird Mellisuga helenae Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis
Black widow spider Latrodectus mactans Black wildebeest Connochaetes gnou
Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus Bobcat Lynx rufus
California condor Gymnogyps California sea lion Zalophus californianus
californianus
Capybara Hydrochoerus Caribou (reindeer) Rangifer tarandus
hydrochaeris
Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus Common bottlenose Tursiops truncates
dolphin
Common chimpanzee Pan troglodytes Cougar Puma concolor
Coyote Canis latrans Dingo Canis dingo
Eastern diamondback Crotalus adamanteus Elephant seal Mirounga angustirostris
rattlesnake
Elk Cervus Canadensis Emperor penguin Aptenodytes forsteri
Emu Dromaius European otter Lutra lutra
novaehollandiae
Four-horned antelope Tetracerus quadricornis Giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla
Giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis
Golden hamster Mesocricetus auratus Golden-capped fruit Acerodon jubatus
bat
Gray fox Urocyon Great spotted kiwi Apteryx haastii
cinereoargenteus
Great white shark Carcharodon carcharias Greater dwarf lemur Cheirogaleus major
Green anaconda Eunectes murinus Gray heron Ardea cinerea
Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis Guinea baboon Papio papio
Guinea pig Cavia cobaya Hedgehog Erinaceus europeaeus
Hippopotamus Hippopotamus Horse Equus caballus
amphibious
Iguana Iguana iguana Impala Aepyceros melampus
Jackal Canis aureus Jaguar Panthera onca
Kangaroo rat Dipodomys phillipsii Killer whale Orcinus orca
King cobra Ophiophagus Hannah Koala bear Phascolarctos cinereus
Komodo dragon Varanus komodoensis Leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea
Leopard Panthera pardus Lion Panthera leo
Marsh rabbit Sylvilagus palustris Mekong giant catfish Pangasianodon gigas
Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos Nine-banded Dasypus novemcinctus
armadillo
North American Castor Canadensis Northern cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis
beaver
Northern flying Glaucomys sabrinus Ocelot Felis pardalis
squirrel
Orangutan Pongo pygmaeus Ostrich Struthio camelus
Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus Polar bear Ursus maritimus
86
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Praying mantis Mantis religioso Red kangaroo Macropus rufus
Red panda Ailurus fulgens Snow leopard Panthera uncial
Snowy owl Bubo scandiacus Sparrow Prunella modularis
Sperm whale Physeter catodon Spider monkey Ateles geoffroyi
Spotted halibut Verasper variegatus Spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta
Spur-thighed tortoise Testudo graeca Tarantula Lycosa tarantula
Tasmanian devil Sarcophilus hariisi Tiger Panthera tigris
Tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvieri Turkey Meleagris gallopavo
Virginia opossum Didelphis virginiana Western gorilla Gorilla gorilla
White-backed vulture Gyps africanus Wildcat Felis silvestris
Wolf Canis lupus Wolverine Gulo gulo.
The Cortical Reaction; Fusion of egg and sperm also initiates the cortical reaction
Seconds after the sperm binds to the egg, vesicles just beneath the egg plasma membrane release their
contents and form a fertilization envelope
• The fertilization envelope acts as the slow block to polyspermy
• The cortical reaction requires a high concentration of Ca2+ ions in the egg
The reaction is triggered by a change in Ca2+ concentration. Ca2+ spread
across the egg correlates with the appearance of the fertilization envelope
Does the distribution of Ca2+ in an egg correlate with formation of the
fertilization envelope?
Egg Activation; The rise in Ca2+ in the cytosol increases the rates of cellular respiration and protein
synthesis by the egg cell
• With these rapid changes in metabolism, the egg is said to be activated
The proteins and mRNAs needed for activation are already present in the egg. The sperm nucleus
merges with the egg nucleus and cell division begins
Fertilization in mammals and other terrestrial animals is internal
Secretions in the mammalian female reproductive tract alter sperm motility and
structure. This is called capacitation and must occur before sperm are able to fertilize an egg
Sperm travel through an outer layer of cells to reach the zona pellucida, the extracellular
matrix of the egg
• When the sperm binds a receptor in the zona pellucida, it triggers a slow block to polyspermy
• No fast block to polyspermy has been identified in mammals
In mammals the first cell division occurs 12−36 hours after sperm binding
• The diploid nucleus forms after this first division of the zygote
Fertilization is followed by cleavage, a period of rapid cell division without growth Cleavage in
an
• Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large cell into many smaller cells called blastomeres
echinoderm
• The blastula is a ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel embryo.
In frogs and many other animals, the distribution of yolk (stored nutrients) is a key factor influencing
the pattern of cleavage
• The vegetal pole has more yolk; the animal pole has less yolk
The difference in yolk distribution results in animal and vegetal hemispheres
that differ in appearance
The first two cleavage furrows in the frog form four equally sized blastomeres
The third cleavage is asymmetric, forming unequally sized blastomeres
Holoblastic cleavage, complete division of the egg, occurs in species whose
eggs have little or moderate amounts of yolk, such as sea urchins and frogs
Meroblastic cleavage, incomplete division of the egg, occurs in species with yolk-rich eggs, such as
reptiles and birds
87
Concept 2: Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival
After cleavage, the rate of cell division slows and the normal cell cycle is restored
• Morphogenesis, the process by which cells occupy their appropriate locations, involves
– Gastrulation, the movement of cells from the blastula surface to the interior of the embryo
– Organogenesis, the formation of organs
Gastrulation rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-layered embryo, called a gastrula
The three layers produced by gastrulation are called embryonic germ layers
The ectoderm forms the outer layer
The endoderm lines the digestive tract
The mesoderm partly fills the space between the endoderm and ectoderm
Each germ layer contributes to specific structures in the adult animal
ECTODERM (outer layer) MESODERM (middle layer) ENDODERM (inner lsyer)
Epidermis of skin and its Dermis of skin Epithelial lining of
derivatives (including sweat Skeletal and muscular, -Digestive tract and associated
glands, hair follicles) circulatory and lymphatic, organs (liver, pancreas)
Nervous and sensory systems excretory and reproductive -Respiratory, excretory, and
Pituitary gland, adrenal systems (except germ cells) reproductive tracts and ducts
medulla Adrenal cortex Thymus, thyroid, and
Jaws and teeth parathyroid glands
Germ cells
Gastrulation Gastrulation begins at the vegetal pole of the blastula

in Sea Mesenchyme cells migrate into the blastocoel
Urchins
The vegetal plate forms from the remaining cells of the vegetal pole and buckles inward
through invagination
The newly formed cavity is called the archenteron
This opens through the blastopore, which will become the anus
Frogs Frog gastrulation begins when a group of cells on the dorsal side of the blastula begins
to invaginate
This forms a crease along the region where the gray crescent formed
The part above the crease is called the dorsal lip of the blastopore
Cells continue to move from the embryo surface into the embryo by involution
These cells become the endoderm and mesoderm
Cells on the embryo surface will form the ectoderm
Chicks Prior to gastrulation, the embryo is composed of an upper and lower layer, the epiblast
and hypoblast, respectively
During gastrulation, epiblast cells move toward the midline of the blastoderm and
then into the embryo toward the yolk
The midline thickens and is called the primitive streak
The hypoblast cells contribute to the sac that surrounds the yolk and a connection
between the yolk and the embryo, but do not contribute to the embryo itself
Different gastrulation of the aforementioned organisms’ embryo
88
Gastrulation in Humans; Human eggs have very little yolk

A blastocyst is the human equivalent of the blastula. The inner
cell mass is a cluster of cells at one end of the blastocyst
The trophoblast is the outer epithelial layer of the blastocyst and
does not contribute to the embryo, but instead initiates implantation
Following implantation, the trophoblast continues to expand and
a set of extraembryonic membranes is formed. These enclose
specialized structures outside of the embryo
Gastrulation involves the inward movement from the epiblast,
through a primitive streak, similar to the chick embryo
 4 stages of the embryological development of humans
Developmental Adaptations of Amniotes
The colonization of land by vertebrates was made possible only
after the evolution of
• The shelled egg of birds and other reptiles as well as monotremes (egg-laying mammals)
• The uterus of marsupial and eutherian mammals
In both adaptations, embryos are surrounded by fluid in a sac called the amnion. This protects the
embryo from desiccation and allows reproduction on dry land
Mammals and reptiles including birds are called amniotes for this reason
The four extraembryonic membranes that form around the embryo
1. chorion functions in gas exchange 4. allantois disposes of waste products and
2. amnion encloses the amniotic fluid contributes to gas exchange
3. yolk sac encloses the yolk
Organogenesis, various regions of the germ layers develop into rudimentary organs
Early in vertebrate organogenesis, the notochord forms from mesoderm, and the neural plate forms
from ectoderm
The neural plate soon curves inward, forming the neural tube. The neural tube will become the central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
Neural crest cells develop along the neural tube of vertebrates and form various parts of the embryo
(nerves, parts of teeth, skull bones, and so on)
Mesoderm lateral to the notochord forms blocks called somites
Lateral to the somites, the mesoderm splits to form the coelom (body cavity)
The mechanisms of organogenesis in invertebrates are
similar, but the body plan is very different
1
For example, the neural tube develops along the ventral
side of the embryo in invertebrates, rather than dorsally as
occurs in vertebrates
Mechanisms of Morphogenesis
Morphogenesis in animals but not plants involves
movement of cells
The Cytoskeleton in Morphogenesis
• Reorganization of the cytoskeleton is a major force in
changing cell shape during development, The cytoskeleton
also directs cell migration
2 Ex: in neurulation, microtubules oriented from

dorsal to ventral in a sheet of ectodermal cells help
lengthen the cells along that axis
The cytoskeleton promotes elongation of the
archenteron in the sea urchin embryo
This is convergent extension, the rearrangement
of cells of a tissue that cause it to become narrower
(converge) and longer (extend). Convergent
extension occurs in other developmental processes
(1)Neurulation in a frog embryo. 89

(2)Organogenesis in a chick
Convergent extension of a sheet of cells. ▲

Change in cell during morphogenesis 
Programmed cell death is also called apoptosis
At various times during development, individual cells, sets of cells, or
whole tissues stop developing and are engulfed by neighboring cells
For example, many more neurons are produced in developing embryos
than will be needed. Extra neurons are removed by apoptosis
Concept 3: Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals contribute to
cell fate specification
Determination is the term used to describe the process by which a cell or group of cells becomes
committed to a particular fate
Differentiation refers to the resulting specialization in structure and function
Cells in a multicellular organism share the same genome
• Differences in cell types are the result of the expression of different sets of genes
Fate maps are diagrams showing organs and other structures that arise from each region of an embryo
Classic studies using frogs indicated that cell lineage in germ layers is traceable to blastula cells
Axis Formation
A body plan with bilateral symmetry is found across a range of animals
This body plan exhibits asymmetry across the dorsal-ventral and anterior-
posterior axes. The right-left axis is largely symmetrical
The anterior-posterior axis of the frog embryo is determined during
oogenesis
The animal-vegetal asymmetry indicates where the anterior-posterior axis
forms (pic below: The body axes and their establishment in an amphibian.)
The dorsal-ventral axis is not determined until fertilization
Upon fusion of the egg and sperm, the egg surface rotates with respect to
the inner cytoplasm
This cortical rotation brings molecules from one area of the inner
cytoplasm of the animal hemisphere to interact with molecules in the
vegetal cortex
This leads to expression of dorsal- and ventral-specific gene expression
In chicks, gravity is involved in establishing the anterior-posterior axis
Later, pH differences between the two sides of the blastoderm establish
the dorsal-ventral axis
In mammals, experiments suggest that orientation of the egg and
sperm nuclei before fusion may help establish embryonic axes
Hans Spemann performed experiments to determine a cell’s developmental potential (range of structures
to which it can give rise)
Embryonic fates are affected by distribution of determinants and
the pattern of cleavage
The first two blastomeres of the frog embryo are totipotent (can
develop into all the possible cell types)
Inquiry: How does distribution of the gray crescent affect the
developmental potential of the first two daughter cells?
In mammals, embryonic cells remain totipotent until the 8-cell stage,
much longer than other organisms
Progressive restriction of developmental potential is a general feature of development in all animals
In general tissue-specific fates of cells are fixed by the late gastrula stage
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Cell Fate Determination and Pattern Formation by Inductive Signals

• As embryonic cells acquire distinct fates, they influence each other’s fates by
induction
Spemann and Mangold transplanted tissues between early gastrulas and found
that the transplanted dorsal lip triggered a second gastrulation in the host
The dorsal lip functions as an organizer of the embryo body plan, inducing
changes in surrounding tissues to form notochord, neural tube, and so on
Inquiry: Can the dorsal lip of the blastopore induce cells in another part of
the amphibian embryo to change their developmental fate?
Formation of the Vertebrate Limb
Inductive signals play a major role in pattern formation, development
of spatial organization
The molecular cues that control pattern formation are called positional
information
This information tells a cell where it is with respect to the body axes
It determines how the cell and its descendents respond to future
molecular signals
The wings and legs of chicks, like all vertebrate limbs, begin as bumps of tissue called limb buds
• The embryonic cells in a limb bud respond to positional information
indicating location along three axes
– Proximal-distal axis, Anterior-posterior axis, Dorsal-ventral axis
One limb bud–regulating region is the apical ectodermal ridge (AER)
The AER is thickened ectoderm at the bud’s tip
The second region is the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA)
The ZPA is mesodermal tissue under the ectoderm
where the posterior side of the bud is attached to the body
Tissue transplantation experiments support the
hypothesis that the ZPA produces an inductive signal that
conveys positional information indicating “posterior”
Inquiry: What role does the zone of polarizing activity
(ZPA) play in limb pattern formation in vertebrates?
Sonic hedgehog is an inductive signal for limb development
Hox genes also play roles during limb pattern formation
Cilia and Cell Fate
Ciliary function is essential for proper specification of cell fate in the human
embryo
Motile cilia play roles in left-right specification
Monocilia (nonmotile cilia) play roles in normal kidney
development
Situs inversus, a reversal of normal left-right asymmetry
in the chest and abdomen.
Lesson 19: Homeostasis
Physiology - Science of body functions, has Teleological vs Mechanistic views
Teleological – the why, explains purpose of a physiological process
Mechanistic – the how, explained in terms of cause and effect of physiological process
Example: shivering
Teleological - shivering elevates a low body temperature
Mechanistic - when body temperature drops below normal, a reflex pathway causes involuntary
oscillating skeletal muscle contractions which produce heat
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Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical  Cellular  Tissue  Organs  System Level  Organismic
Level
Chemical Level - atomic and molecular level
Cellular level - smallest living unit of the body
Tissue level - Group of cells and the materials surrounding them that
work together on one task
4 basic tissue types: epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nerve
Organ level - consists of two or more types of primary tissues that
function together to perform a particular function or functions.
Example: Stomach
• Inside of stomach lined with epithelial • Nervous tissue in stomach controls
tissue muscle contraction and gland secretion
• Wall of stomach contains smooth muscle • Connective tissue binds all the above
tissues together
System - collection of related organs with a common function, sometimes an organ is part of more than
one system
Organismic level - one living individual
Body Systems - Groups of organs that perform related functions and interact to accomplish a common
activity essential to survival of the whole body
• Do not act in isolation from one another. Human body has 11 systems
Homeostasis is defined as maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment

Does not mean that composition, temperature, and other characteristics are absolutely unchanging
• Homeostasis is essential for survival and function of all cells
• Each cell contributes to maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment
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Homeostasis- Sensing and responding to changes in surrounding environment

Control exchange of materials between cell and its surrounding environment
• Obtain nutrients and oxygen from surrounding environment
• Eliminate carbon dioxide and other wastes to surrounding environment
Perform chemical reactions that provide energy for the cell, Synthesize needed cellular components
Body cells are in contained in watery internal environment through which life-
sustaining exchanges are made
Extracellular fluid (ECF) - Fluid environment in which the
cells live (fluid out the cells)
Two components: Plasma and Interstitial fluid
Intracellular fluid (ICF) - Fluid contained within all body cells
Cells, the fundamental units of life, exchange nutrients and

wastes with their surroundings:
The intracellular fluid is “conditioned by”… the interstitial fluid, which is “conditioned by” …
the plasma, which is “conditioned by” … the organ systems it passes through.
Homeostasis involves dynamic mechanisms that detect and respond to deviations in physiological
variables from their “set point” values by initiating effector responses that restore the variables to the
optimal physiological range. Two systems that maintain homeostasis are:
Nervous system - Controls and coordinates bodily activities that require rapid responses
Detects and initiates reactions to changes in external environment
Endocrine system- Secreting glands of endocrine regulate activities that require duration rather than speed
Controls concentration of nutrients and, by adjusting kidney function, controls internal environment’s
volume and electrolyte composition
Factors homeostatically regulated include
o Concentration of nutrient molecules o Concentration of O2 = 100mmHg and
o Concentration of water, salt, and other CO2 = 40 mmHg
electrolytes o pH = 7.35
o Concentration of waste products o Blood volume 4-6 L and pressure 120/80
o Temperature = 37o C
Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by
External stimuli: heat, cold, lack of oxygen, pathogens, toxins
Internal stimuli: Body temperature, Blood pressure
Concentration of water, glucose, salts, oxygen, etc. ; Physical and psychological distresses
Disruptions can be mild to severe. If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result
Homeostatic Control Systems; In order to maintain homeostasis, control system must be able to
Detect deviations from normal in the internal environment that need to be held within narrow limits
Integrate this information with other relevant information
Make appropriate adjustments in order to restore factor to its desired value
Control systems are grouped into two classes
Intrinsic controls: Local controls that are inherent in an organ
Extrinsic controls: Regulatory mechanisms initiated outside an organ, accomplished by
nervous and endocrine systems
Feedforward - term used for responses made in anticipation of a change
Feedback - refers to responses made after change has been detected
• Types of feedback systems: Negative and Positive
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Negative feedback loop - original stimulus reversed, most feedback systems in the body are negative
used for conditions that need frequent adjustment; Negative feedback loop consists of:
Receptor - structures that monitor a controlled condition and detect changes (senses)
Control center - determines next action (brain)
Effector - receives directions from the control center (muscles)
• produces a response that restores the controlled condition
Blood glucose concentrations rise after a sugary meal (the stimulus), the hormone insulin
is released and it speeds up the transport of glucose out of the blood and into selected
tissues (the response), so blood glucose concentrations decrease (thus decreasing the original stimulus).
Homeostasis of Blood Pressure
Baroreceptors in walls of blood vessels detect an increase in BP
Brain receives input and signals blood vessels and heart
Blood vessels dilate, HR decreases
BP decreases
Positive feedback loop - original stimulus intensified, seen during
normal childbirth
Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to the brain
Brain induces release of hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream
Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully
More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc.
Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch
Glossary
Maintain – keep up. Constant – the same. Internal – inside the body.
Environment – surroundings of the body.
Feedback - a cycle in which the output of a system “feeds back” to modify or
reinforce the actions of the system in order to maintain homeostasis.
Negative feedback - a change causes system 1 to send a message to system 2
to restore homeostasis. When system 1 detects that system 2 has acted, it stops
signaling for action and system 2 stops (turned off).
Positive feedback - the original stimulus is promoted rather than stopped.
Positive feedback is rarely used to maintain homeostasis. Ex: childbirth
What is Homeostasis?
Body cells work best if they have the correct : Temperature, Water levels, Glucose concentration
Your body has mechanisms to keep the cells in a constant environment.
The maintenance of a constant environment in the body is called Homeostasis
Controlling body temperature - All mammals maintain a constant body temperature.
Human beings have a body temperature of about 37ºC.
E.g. If your body is in a hot environment your body temperature is 37º. If your body is in a cold
environment your body temperature is still 37ºC
Animals with a large surface area compared to their volume will lose heat faster than animals with a
small surface area. (Ex: Penguins huddling to keep warm)
What mechanisms are there to cool the body down?
1. Sweating - When your body is hot, sweat glands are stimulated to release sweat.
The liquid sweat turns into a gas (it evaporates). To do this, it needs heat. It gets that heat from
your skin. As your skin loses heat, it cools down.
2. Vasodilation - Your blood carries most of the heat energy around your body.
There are capillaries underneath your skin that can be filled with blood if you get too hot.
This brings the blood closer to the surface of the skin so more heat can be lost.
This is why you look red when you are hot!
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What mechanisms are there to warm the body up?

1. Vasoconstriction - This is the opposite of vasodilation.
The capillaries underneath your skin get constricted (shut off). This takes the
blood away from the surface of the skin so less heat can be lost.
 Piloerection - This is when the hairs on your skin “stand up” .
It is sometimes called “goose bumps” or “chicken skin”!
The hairs trap a layer of air next to the skin which is then warmed by the body heat. The air becomes an
insulating layer.
Controlling Glucose levels - Your cells also need an exact level of glucose in the blood.
Glucose moves into the cells for cellular respiration. Excess glucose gets turned into glycogen in the liver
This is regulated by 2 hormones (chemicals) from the pancreas called: Insulin and Glucagon
If there is too much glucose in the blood, Insulin converts some of it to glycogen the rest moves into the
cells for use in cellular respiration.
If there is not enough glucose in the blood, Glucagon converts some glycogen into glucose.
Some people do not produce enough insulin.
When they eat food, the glucose levels in their blood cannot be reduced. This condition is known as
DIABETES.
Diabetics sometimes have to inject insulin into their blood. They have to be careful of their diet.
Controlling water levels.

The control of water levels is carried out by the KIDNEYS. It is closely linked to the excretion of urea.
Urea is a waste product that is made when the LIVER breaks down proteins that are not needed by the
body. Urea contains the element Nitrogen.
The kidneys “clean” the blood of waste products and control how much water is kept in the body. The
waste products and water make up urine which is excreted via the ureter.
“Dirty” blood enters the kidney through the renal artery. Then, several things happen to clean the blood...
1. Filtration - Blood enters the tubule area in a capillary.
The capillary forms a small “knot” near the kidney tubule. The blood is filtered so all the small particles
go into the tubule. The capillary then carries on to run next to the tubule.
The kidney tubule now contains lots of blood components including: Glucose, Ions, Water and Urea
2. Reabsorb sugar
The body needs to have sugar in the blood for cells to use in respiration. So all the sugar is reabsorbed
back into the capillary.
3. Reabsorb water
Water and ions are the next to be absorbed. It depends on how much is needed by the body.
If you have too little water in your blood, you will produce very concentrated urine. ( little water in it)
If you have too much water in your blood, you will produce very dilute urine. (lots of water in it)
5. Excrete the waste - Everything that is left in the kidney tubule is waste: All the urea, Excess water
This waste is called urine. It is excreted via the ureter and is stored in the bladder.
The “clean” blood leaves the kidney in the renal vein.
95
Summary of urine production

• Urea is a waste product made in the LIVER
• Water content of the body is controlled in the KIDNEYS
• Urea, water and other waste makes up URINE.
• Urine travels down the URETER and is stored in the BLADDER
• Urine is excreted through the URETHRA.
Temperature regulation, glucose level control and water level control are all examples of NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS.
96
97
ROLES OF BODY SYSTEMS IN HOMEOSTASIS
A Quick Review! What are the following scientific studies focusing on:
1. Non-living materials 1. Physical Science
2. Insects 2. Entomology
3. Disease 3. Pathology
4. Body functions 4. Physiology
5. Tissues 5. Histology
6. Muscles 6. Myology
7. Reptiles 7. Herpetology
8. Single-celled organisms 8. Protozoology
9. Animal distribution 9. Zoogeography
10. Fossils 10. Paleontology
11. Coelenterates 11. Cindology
12. Blood 12. Hematology
13. Shells 13. Conchology
14. Birds 14. Ornithology
15. Heart 15. Cardiology
16. Butterfly 16. Lepidopterology
17. Bones 17. Oesteology
18. Animal development 18. Embryology
19. Forms and structure 19. Morphology
20. Classification of animals 20. Taxonomy
LESSON 1 QUIZ
1. What are the sciences under Concrete Science? 1. Physical, Biological
and Sociological
Science
2. In the 1200s, Albertus Magnu wrote these 2 books in which he discussed 2. De animalibus (26) and
some details of the animal reproduction. De vegetabilibus (7)
3. What is the title of the book published by Robert Hooke in 1665? 3. Micrographia
4. He first studied the circulation of blood. 4. William Harvey
5. This is the theory introduced by Jean de Baptiste Lamarck which states 5. Spontaneous
that life arose from non-living matter. Generation Theory
6. He challenged the idea of no. 5. 6. Francisco Redi
Who is the father of
7. Taxonomy 7. Carolus Linnaeus
8. Modern Entomology 8. Jan Swammerdam
What is the scientific study of
9. Cells 9. Cytology
10. Tissues 10. Histology
11. Muscles 11. Myology
12. Growth and Development 12. Embryology
13. Hormones 13. Endocrinology
14. Unknown species 14. Cryptozoology
15. Coelenterates 15. Cindology
16. Improvement of human race through laws of heredity 16. Euthenics
17. Nucleus 17. Karyology
What do you call the person who studies
18. Mites and ticks 18. Acarologist
19. Crustaceans 19. Crustaceologist or
Carcinologist
20. Whales 20. Cetologist
21. A term which describes the complex chemical processes in cells to 21. Metabolism
provide energy.
22. The transformation that takes place in post-embryonic stages 22. Metamorphosis
23. In plants, carbohydrates are stored as ______, while in animals, it is on 23. Starch, glycogen
a form of _______
24. It is the faithful transmission of traits. 24. Heredity
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25. Information is contained in ______ and is specifically encoded in the ___ 25. Genes, DNA
26. Enumerate the ancient civilizations and their significant contribution in 26. India – aspects of bird
the history of zoology life;
Ancient Mesopotamia
– first zoological
gardens
Egypt –
metamorphosis of
frogs and insects
Babylonians –
physiology and
anatomy of some
animals
27. Who are the three notable zoologists dedicated to ethology? 27. Desmond Morris,
Konrad Lorenz,
Richard Dawkins
28. _______ is the growth from within cells (in plants) while _______ is the 28. Intussusception,
external addition (in animals/non-living things) Accretion
29. The colourless material comprising the living part of a cell 29. Protoplasm
30. Enumerate the 10 characteristics of life. 30. Organized
protoplasm,
Cellular Organization,
Constant Energy
Requirements
, Ability to Grow,
Definite Size and
Form,
Ability to Reproduce,
Definite Life Span,
Response to Stimuli,
Ability to move
QUIZ ON GENETICS
a) A heterozygous green eyes and homozygous black hair man mate with a heterozygous green eyes
and heterozygous black woman.
Let: G – green eyes g – brown eyes B – black hair b – brown hair
1. What are the alleles of the parents? P1 : GgBB  GB, GB, gB, gB P2: GgBb  GB, Gb, gB, gb
2. What are the possible genotypes? GGBB – 2 GGBb -2 ggBB – 2 GgBB – 4 GgBb – 4 ggBb -2
3. What are resulting phenotypes? Green eyes Black Skin – 12 Brown eyes Black Skin – 4
4. How many are heterozygous black skin? 8
5. How many are homozygous brown eyes? 4
6. How many are heterozygous green eyes and black skin? 4
If two individuals with heterozygous green eyes and heterozygous black skin mate,
7. How many will have a homozygous green eyes and black skin? 1
8. How many will be a homozygous brown eyes and brown skin? 1
9. What are the resulting phenotypes? 9 green eyes and black skin 3 green eyes and brown skin
3 brown eyes and black skin 1 brown eyes and brown skin
b) A heterozygous curly, long haired and blue eyed Canadian is married to a heterozygous curly and
homozygous short haired and brown eyed Filipino.
10. What are the possible genotypes: 4 CCLlBb, 4 CCLlbb, 4 CCllBb, 4 CCllbb
8 CcLlBb, 8 CcLlbb, 8 CcllBb, 8, Ccllbb, 4 ccLlBb, 4 ccLlbb, 4 ccllBb, 4 ccllbb
11. What are the possible phenotypes?
12 curly short blue 12 curly short brown 12 curly long blue 12 curly long brown
4 straight short blue 4 straight short brown 4 straight long blue 4 straight long brown
12. How many individuals have a long straight hair? 8
13. How many are homozygous straight haired and brown eyes? 8
14. How any are trihybrid heterozygous alleles? 8
15. How many are heterozygous brown eyes? 0
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QUIZ # 3
1. These are genes that are located on the sex chromosomes 1. Sex-linked genes
2. Males have one copy of no. 1 thus they are referred to as 2. Hemizygous
3. This is a blood disorder where the blood does not clot properly 3. Hemophilia
4. Cite an example of a clotting factor or protein 4. Fibrinogen
(fibrin),
Prothrombin,
Thromboplastin
5. They are more likely to be color blind. 5. Males
6. When females are heterozygous for a sex-linked recessive disorder, 6. Carrier
this makes them a ______
7. It is caused by an abnormal genes for photoreceptors in the retina 7. Red-green
colorblindness
8. A human genetic disorder that is caused by the alleles on the 8. Autosomal
chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes genetic disorders
9. It is the most common genetic disorder among white people, how 9. Cystic Fibrosis,
about among black people? Sickle-cell
Anemia
10. When carriers have an advantage over people who are homozygous 10. Heterozygote
dominant, it is called as superiority
11. Give atleast two genetic disorders that are believed to be the result of 11. Diabetes
multiple genes. mellitus, heart
disease and
some personality
disorders like
Bipolar disorder
and
schizophrenia
12. Nondisjunction
12. The failure of a pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis 13. Trisomy
13. A zygote gets three copies of a chromosome 14. Translocation
14. When a piece of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another 15. Karyotype
15. It is the printed picture of all the human chromosomes 16. Edward
16. It is a disease/syndrome caused by Trisomy 18. How about Trisomy Syndrome,
13? Turner
Syndrome
17. This occurs when a man has XYY chromosome, a supermale 17. Jacob Syndrome
18. Cri du Chat Syndrome is caused by the deletion on a part of ____ 18. Chromosome 5
19. What are the two imaging techniques used to diagnose genetic 19. Ultrasonography
disorders? and Fetoscopy
20. It involves introduction of normal genes into the cells of people with 20. Gene therapy
defective alleles.
QUIZ # 4
1. He won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1902 for discovering glucose 1. Emil Fischer
and purines
2. These are DNA segment that carries hereditary information 2. Genes
3. These are key substances for all aspect of cell life 3. Proteins
4. The DNA is distributed inside the prokaryotic _______ 4. Nucleoid
5. Sequences of three bases are called 5. Codon
6. What is the percentage of Adenine present in the human DNA? 6. 30.4%
7. It is the repeated reading that is happening in the translation 7. Elongation
8. It is the start codon 8. AUG
9. They are small clover leaf-like shaped molecules that carries amino 9. Transfer RNA
acid from cytoplasm to ribosomes
10. The non-functional segments of DNA are snipped out of the chain by 10. Ligase
11. During transcription, _____ binds to DNA and separated the DNA 11. RNA
strands polymerase
12. They read codon one at a time and construct the proteins 12. Ribosomes
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES

As a former student, I have

Whatever may be your

Good luck to you. I hope this

-John V. Labrador 12 Neuron

1 INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL BIOLOGY II 1-5

3 SEX DETERMINATION, SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE & HUMAN GENETIC DISORDERS 8 - 14

4 DNA, RNA, and PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 14 - 19

--- RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY 19 - 21

5 EARTH HISTORY: GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 22 – 29

8 SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISM 51 - 55

12 CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE 59 - 63

--- PHILIPPINE ENDEMIC SPECIES 64 – 65

15 IMMUNE SYSTEM AND BODY DEFENSE 68 - 75

16 REGULATION OF CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS SYSTEM 75 - 80

Talkie Time (Zoological Term)

Pure Science Applied Science Natural Science

Botany – plants Zoology – animals Microbiology – microorganism

Historical Background of ZOOLOGY as a science

1. In ancient India, texts described some aspects of bird life, and in

2. Egypt, the metamorphosis of insects and frogs was described. Egyptians

3. and Babylonians also knew of anatomy and physiology in various forms.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (General Biology):

1. Greeks – 500 B.C.

- Student – Andreas Versalius – created a book in anatomy.

4. William Harvey – physiologist – studied the circulation of blood.

1. Aristotle 5. Desmond Morris (ethology)

Areas of Specialization: General Zoology

Related to Medical Science Highly Specialized Field

2. Non – Optical Instruments

3.3 Computer – data purposes.

3.4 Microscopes – produced greatly magnified images

1. Organized Protoplasm 6. Ability to Reproduce

Properties of Living Systems

PLANTS ANIMALS SIMILARITIES

• Chromosomes carry the hereditary information (genes)

Arrangement of nucleotides in DNA; DNA  RNA  Proteins

Chromosomes (and genes) occur in pairs - Homologous Chromosomes

Gregor Johann Mendel

Austrian Monk, born in what is now Czech Republic in 1822

Worked with pure lines of peas for eight years

Mendel looked at seven traits or characteristics of pea plants:

In 1866 he published Experiments in Plant Hybridization,

He tried to repeat his work in another plant, but didn’t

Work was largely ignored for 34 years, until 1900, when 3

Genetics terms you need to know:

a. Gene – a unit of heredity; a section of DNA sequence encoding a single protein

• A useful tool to do genetic crosses

• For a monohybrid cross, you need a square

• Looks like a window pane… We use the

Punnett square to predict the genotypes and

Using a Punnett Square (STEPS: )

5. determine the possible genotypes of the offspring by filling in the p-square

6. summarize results (genotypes & phenotypes of offspring)

Monohybrid cross: F2 generation

• If you let the F1 generation self-fertilize, the next

Secret of the Punnett Square (key!)

Shortcuts for Punnet Square:

If either parent is Genotypes:

Mendel’s Principles of Heredity apply universally to all organisms.

Human case: Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

o It is a lethal genetic disease affecting Caucasians.