OPTICAL FIBRE

COMMUNICATION
OCT/NOV 2004 (Regular/Supplementary)

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OCT/NOV 2004 (Regular/Supplementary)
 PART-A

1. What is the difference between Meridinal ray and Skew ray? Explain.

2. Define Total Internal Reflection? What is its significance?

3. What are the two important characteristics of the fibre that determine fibre
information carrying capacity? Explain them,

4. What are SE LED and EE LED? Draw their schematic sketches. Explain them.

5. What is a fibre pigtail? Explain its need.

6. Name the different types of optical fibre connectors and splicing techniques.

7. Explain the duplex operation of optical WDM.

8. Enumerate the potential applications of optical fibre communication systems.

9. Write notes on 1) LOS

2) OTH systems

10. Explain the need of microwave repeaters.

PART-B

11. Broadly compare the characteristics of MMSIF and MMGIF. Explain the construction
and advantages of MMGIF.

Or

12. Derive the equations in cylindrical coordinates for multimode step index glass fibres,
starting from Maxwell’s equations.

13. Write technical notes on

1) Attenuation

2) Scattering in glass fibres

Or

14. a) List the requirements of the ideal optical detector,

 b) With a neat sketch explain the detection principle of a PIN photo detector.

15. Explain in detail the need for optical splicing. Explain the principles of different
splicing units.

Or

16. Show that power coupling efficiency of source to glass fibre can be improved by
using lensing schemes. Derive supporting equations.

17. a) Compare plastic fibres with glass fibres.

b) Explain the various modulation formats for optical communication.

Or

18. Derive an expression for the rms pulse broadening in multimode fiber due to
intermodal dispersion

19. a) Explain the basic principles of a typical microwave link.

b) Explain the significance of C band or X band microwave frequencies for

microwave communication.

Or

20. a) Draw the neat block schematics of microwave terminal transmitter and receiver and
explain their basic principle of operation,

b) Explain the construction of a microwave link.

Q). what is meant by fiber pigtail? What is the need for it?

A) A fiber pigtail is a single short ,usually unbuffered , optical fiber that has an optical
connector on one end and a length of exposed fiber on the other end .the end of the
fiber is stripped and fusion spliced to a single fiber of a multi fiber trunk to break out
the multi fiber cable into its component fibers for connection to the end equipments .
Pigtails can have female connectors and be mounted in a patch panel, often in pairs
although single fiber solutions exist , to allow them to be connected to end ports or
other fibers runs with patch fibers .alternatively they can have male connectors and
plug directly to the trans-receiver

(Q): Explain in detail the need for optical splicing? Explain the principles of different
optical splicing units?

ANSWER

The continuous of an optical fiber along a communication link is determined by three

factors

(1). the continuous length of fiber that can be produced by prevalent manufacturing
method

(2). the length of the cable that can be produced and installed as a continuous section
along the link

(3). the cable length between the repeaters

This uninterrupted length of optical fiber along a link therefore is not more than
10km.Thus for establishing long haul transmission links, optical fibers are required to be
connected. The fiber to fiber connection may be achieved by two ways.

(1) Splices which are permanent joint between two fibers

(2)Connectors which are demountable joints

 The major consideration in making these connections is the optical loss associated with
them .The loss mechanisms associated with fiber to fiber connections may be grouped into
two categories

(1)Losses due to extrinsic parameters

(2)Losses due to intrinsic parameters

FIBER SPLICES

A fiber splice is a permanent joint formed between two optical fibers .Splicing is
required

(a) When the length of the system span is more than the manufactured cable length

(b) When the cable is broken and needs to be repaired

The primary objective of splicing is to establish transmission continuity in the fiber

optic link. This can be done in two ways, namely through

(a) Fusion splices

(b) Mechanical splices

In order to achieve a low loss splice, it is essential for the fiber ends to be smooth, flat
and perpendicular to the core axes. This is normally achieved using a cleaving tool. This
technique is called scribe and break or score and break. It involves scoring the fiber under
tension with a cleaving tool .This generates a crack in the fiber surface that propagates in the
transverse direction and a flat fiber end is produced.
FUSION SPLICES

A good quality permanent joint may be obtained by fusion or welding the prepared
fiber ends. A widely used heating source for fusion is the electric arc. The prepared fiber ends
are placed in a precision alignment jig. The alignment is done with the help of an inspection
microscope. After the initial setting, a short arc discharge is applied to fire polish the fiber
ends. This removes any defects due to imperfect cleaving. In the final step, the two ends are
pressed together and fused with a stronger arc, thus producing a fusion splice. A possible
drawback of such a splicing mechanism is that the heat produced by the welding arc may
weaken the fiber in the vicinity of the splice.

MECHANICAL SPLICES

There are several mechanical techniques of splicing fibers. These normally use
appropriate fixtures for aligning the fibers and holding them together. A popular technique,
known as the snug tube splice, uses a glass or ceramic capillary with an inner diameter just
large to accommodate the optical fibers. The prepared fiber ends are gently inserted into the
capillary and a transparent adhesive is injected through a transverse hole. The adhesive
ensures both mechanical bonding and index matching. A stable low loss splice may be
obtained in this way but it posses stringent limits on the capillary diameters.
 A slightly different technique uses an oversized metallic capillary of square
cross section. The capillary is first filled with transparent adhesive, after which the prepared
fiber ends are inserted into it. The two fiber ends are forced against one of the four inner
corners of the capillary.

Other techniques of mechanical splicing normally employ v-grooves for securing optical
fibers. The simplest technique uses an open v-groove, into which the prepared fiber ends are
placed. The splice is accomplished with the aid of epoxy resin .it is also possible to obtain a
suitable groove by placing two precision pins close to each other. The fibers may be placed in
the cusp and the transparent adhesive ensures bonding as well as index matching and a flat
spring on the top applies pressure ensuring that fibers remain in their positions. Such a
groove is called spring groove.
 There is yet another technique that utilizes the v- groove principle to realize what is
known as an elastomeric splice. In this method, the prepared fiber ends are sandwiched
between two elastomeric internal parts, one of which contains a v-groove. An outer sleeve
holds these two parts compressed so that the fibers are held tightly in alignment. Index
matching gel is employed to improve its performance. Originally this technique was
developed for coupling multimode fibers, but it can also be used for single mode fibers as
well as fibers with different code diameters.
 Splicing with most of these techniques if properly carried out, results in splice loss of about
0.1dB for multimode fibers. Some of these can also be used for splicing single mode fibers.

MULTIPLE SPLICES

For ribbon cables containing linear arrays of fibers, the following technique has been used. In
this method, the fiber ends are individually prepared, and then placed in a grooved substrate.
Adhesive is then used for bonding an index matching. A cover plate retains the fibers in their
position and also maintains mechanical stability.

By, Shruti Rajan Babu (#39)

Q).What are SE LED and EE LED? Draw their schematic sketches and explain them?

Barrus etched-well surface emitting LED

The Barrus etched-well LED emits light in all directions. The etched well helps to
concentrate the emitted light into a small area, also domed lenses can be placed over emitting
surface to direct light to smaller area .This LED is efficient than standard surface emitter
and they allow more power to couple in to optical fiber but they are more difficult and
expensive to manipulate.
Edge-emitting LED

These LED’s emits more directional light pattern than the surface emitting LED. The
construction is similar to that of planar and barrus diodes expect that the emitting surface is a
strip rather than a confined circular area. The light emitted from the active strip and from an
elliptical beam pattern surface emitting LED’s are commonly used than edge-emitters
because they emit more light. The typical emitting region for EE-LED is 8-10µm thick and
150µm wide. This LED is suitable to enhance optical coupling 50µm core fiber EE-LED is
more expensive than S-LED.

2 A) List the requirement of an ideal optical detector?

1 .High fidelity
 To reproduce the received signal waveform with fidelity, for analogy transmission
the response of the photo-detector must be linear with regard to the optical signal
over a wide range.

2. Large electrical response to the received optical signal

The photo-detector should produce a maximum electrical signal for a given amount
of optical power; i.e. the quantum efficiency should be high.

3. Short response time to obtain a suitable bandwidth

Present systems extend into the hundreds of megahertz. However, it is apparent that
future systems (single-mode fiber) will operate it in the gigahertz range, and possibly
above.

4. A minimum noise introduced by the detector

Dark currents, leakage currents and shunt conductance must be low. Also the gain
mechanism within either the detector or associated circuitry must be of low noise.

5. Stability of performance characteristics

Ideally, the performance characteristics of the detector should be independent of

changes in ambient conditions. However, the detector currently favoured (photo
diodes) have characteristics (sensitivity, noise, internal gain) which vary with
temperature, and therefore compensation for temperature effects is often necessary.

6. Small size

The physical size of the detector must be small for efficient coupling to the fiber and
to allow easy packaging with the following electronics.

7. Low bias voltages

Ideally the detector should not require excessive bias voltages or currents.

8. High reliability
 The detector must be capable of continuous stable operation at room temperature for
many years.

9. Low cost

Economic considerations often of prime importance in any large scale

communication system application.

10. High Sensitivity at operating wavelengths.

B) With neat sketches explain the detection principle of a p-i-n photo-detector?

In order to allow low operation at longer wave lengths where the light penetrates
more deeply into the semiconductor material a wider depletion region is necessary. To
achieve this n-type material is doped so lightly so that it can be considered intrinsic, and to
make a low resistance contact highly doped n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p-i-n
(PIN) structure, where absorption takes place in the depletion region.

Three main factors that determine speed of response are:

1) Drift time of carriers through the depletion layer- tdrift=w/vd

2) Diffusion time of carriers generated outside the depletion region-tdiff=d2/2Dc

3) Time constant incurred by the capacitance of the photo-diode with its load-Cj=ɛsA/w
 By Sruthi Loy (#33)

Q). Define total internal reflection. What is its significance?

When a ray of light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer
medium the angle of transmission will be greater than the angle of incidence so that the
refracted ray bends away from the normal. When the angle of incidence is increased the
angle of refraction also increases. For a particular value of angle of incidence the angle of
refraction is 90° then the transmitted ray will be parallel to the boundary. This value of
angle of incidence for which the angle of transmission is 90° is termed as the critical
angle θc. When the angle of incidence is further increased beyond θc the value of refracted
angle increases beyond 90° and hence the refracted ray comes back into the original
medium then the ray is said to be totally internally reflected.

Conditions for total internal reflection:

1. Light must travel from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer medium
 2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than critical angle of the
denser medium.

The transmission of optical energy through an optical fiber is achieved by using the principle
of total internal reflection, the condition is given by sinθc = n2/n1 where n1 = core refractive
index & n2 = cladding refractive index. When the angle of incidence is greater than critical
angle the ray undergoes total internal reflection. Hence by using total internal reflection
optical energy can be transmitted within an optical fiber without loss of information.

Q) Derive equations in cylindrical coordinates for a multimode step index glass fiber
starting from Maxwell’s equations.

The dielectric cylinder which models the step index optical fiber can act as a
waveguide. The mechanism is that a total internal reflection at the cylindrical

boundary with the cladding results in a standing wave across the core and a decaying
field in the cladding; this entire field pattern propagates along the fiber. The standing
wave developed in the core is not sinusoidal but has the form of an oscillatory Bessel
function due to the circular geometry of the fiber. Because of the curvature of the
boundary transverse modes of the cylindrical fiber are mixed into a set of hybrid
modes that have components of electric and magnetic fields in the axial direction. For
the analysis of the optical waveguide we have to consider Maxwell’s equations which
give relationship between electric and magnetic field. Maxwell’s equations can be
written as:

Δ X E = - ∂B /∂t
 Δ. D = 0

Δ X H = ∂D /∂t

Δ. B = 0

B = μH & D = εE

Δ x (Δ x E) = Δ X (- ∂B /∂t) = Δ x (- μ ∂H /∂t) = - μ ∂ /∂t (Δ x H)

= - μ ∂ /∂t ( ∂D /∂t ) = - μ ∂ / ∂t ( ε ∂E /∂t ) = - μ ε ∂2E / ∂t2

Δ x ( Δ x E ) = - μ ε ∂2E / ∂t2

We know that Δ x ( Δ x E ) = Δ ( Δ.E ) – Δ2 E

From Maxwell’s equations we have,

Δ x (Δ x E) = Δ (Δ.E) – Δ2 E = - Δ2 E

Δ2 E = μ ε ∂2E / ∂t2

Again we have, Δ2 H = μ ε ∂2 / ∂t2

The actual step index fiber has a core radius of a 1 and a refractive index μ1 and its cladding
has a finite outer radius a2 and refractive index μ2 with another medium air or some protective
material beyond the cladding.

We assume a solution of the equation in the form:

Hz = gf1 (r) f2 (θ) f3 (z) f4 (t)

Where g = a constant

The time and z dependent form is like f3 (z) f4 (t) = e j (ωt – βz)

The wave is sinusoidal in time and travels along the z – direction. So f 2 (θ) will be a
periodic function of the form f2 (θ) =

Now we get

∂2 f1 (r) / ∂r2 + 1/r ∂ / ∂r f1 (r) + ( p2 – ν2/r ) f1 = 0

 The equation is differential equation for Bessel function. Similar equation can also be
obtained for Ez. Inside the core the solutions are Bessel functions of the first kind of
order n. then Ez and H z are expressed by the relations for r<a1

Ez = C Jn (ur) e jωt – βz

Hz = C Jn (ur) e jωt – βz

For the region outside the core we should imply the modified Bessel’s functions of the
second kind Kn (Wr)

Ez = A Kn (Wr) e iνθ e jωt – βz

Hz = G Kn (Wr) e iνθ e jωt – βz

These are spiralling waves along the axis but their transverse non – uniformity
gradually dies out with radial distance away from the core cladding interface. It is
–Wr
evident from the definition of the modified Bessel function that Kn (Wr) tends to e
when Wr tends to infinity. Moreover Kn(Wr) must be zero for very high value of r so
W>0. This indicates that β≥K2 and it gives a cut – off condition.

The cut – off condition indicates that it is the point at which a mode is not confined to
the core region. Similarily a second condition on β can be deduced from the behaviour of
Jn(ur). The condition is K1≥β.

In above calculation we have excluded one solution. The solution is C1 Yn(ur). But
C1 is taken as zero to exclude Yn (ur). This is because Yn(ur) tends to infinity as r
tends to zero. This simply indicates that the field strength is infinite on the axis of the
fiber core.

By Shamy Alphons Tom (#31)

Q) What are the two important characteristics of fiber that determine fiber information
carrying capacity? Explain them.
A) The two important characteristics of fiber that determine the information capacity of an
optical waveguide is usually specified by the bandwidth-distance product in MHz.km and
pulse dispersion. For a step index fiber the various distortion effects tend to limit the
bandwidth-distance product to about 20MHz.km. In graded-index fibers the radial refractive-
index profile can be carefully selected so that the pulse broadening is minimized at a specific
operating wavelength. This had led to bandwidth-distance products as high as 2.5GHz.km.
The information-carrying capacity can be determined by examining the deformation of short
light pulses propagating along the fiber.

Q) Write technical notes on:-

I. Attenuation

II. Scattering in glass fibers

A) I) Attenuation:- As light travels along a fiber, its power decreases exponentially with
distance. It helps in determining the maximum transmission distance between a transmitter
and the receiver or an in-line amplifier. The basic attenuation mechanism in a fiber are
absorption, scattering and radiative losses of the optical energy. If P(0) is the optical power in
a fiber at the origin, then the power P(z) at a distance z further down the fiber is

P(z) = P(0)e-αpz

αp = 1/zln[P(0)/P(z)]

is the fibre attenuation coefficient. The common procedure is to express the attenuation
coefficient in units of decibels per kilometer, denoted by dB/km.

α(dB/km) = 10/zlog[P(0)/P(z)] = 4.343αp(km-1)

ii) Scattering in glass fibers:- scattering losses in glass arises from the microscopic variations
in the material density, from compositional fluctuations and from structural inhomogenities
or defects occurring during fiber manufacture. Glass is composed of randomly connected
network of molecules in which the molecular density is either higher or lower than the
average density in the glass. For single component glass the scattering loss at a wavelength λ
resulting from density fluctuations can be approximated by

αscat = 8π3/3λ4n8p2kBTfβT
The defects that causes scattering may be in the form of trapped gas bubbles, unreacted
starting materials, and crystallized regions in the glass. The losses of multimode fibers are
generally higher than those of single mode fibers.

By, Sharon Varghese (#32)

Q.Name the different types of optical fiber connectors and splicing techniques?

Ans:a)Butt joint connectors-It employ a metal,ceramic or moulded plastic ferrule for each
fiber and a precision sleeve in to which the ferrule fit.The fiber is epoxied in to a precision
hole which has been drilled in to the ferrule.Two types of butt joint connectors are straight
sleeve and tapered sleeve mechanisms.

Expanded beam connectors-it employs lenses on the ends of the fibers.These lenses
either collimate the light emerging from the transmitting fiber ,or focus the expanded beam
on to the core of the receiving fiber

Splicing technique includes fusion splice,the V groove mechanical splice , and the elastic
tube splice.Fusion splices are made by thermally bonding together prepared fiber ends.The
fiber ends are first prealigned and butted together.The butt joint is then heated with an electric
arc or a laser pulse.

In the V groove splicing technique,the prepared fiber ends are first butted together in a V
shaped groove.They are then bonded together with an adhesive

In the elastic tube splicing method,the fiber is inserted in a tube made of elastic
material.When fibre is inserted,the hole diameter expands so that the elastic material exerts a
symmetrical force on the fiber.It allows an accurate and automatic alignment of the axes of
two fibers to be joined.

Q.Show that the power coupling efficiency of source to glass fiber can be improved by using
lensing schemes.Giving equations

Ans: The optical power launching analysis is based on centering a flat fiber end face directly
over the light source as close to it as possible.If the source emitting area is larger than the
fiber core area,then the resulting optical power coupled in to the fiber is the maximum that
can be achieved.However if the emitting area of the source is smaller than the core area,a
miniature lens is placed between the source and the fiber to improve the power coupling
efficiency.

The function of microlens is to magnify the emitting area of the source to match exactly the
core area of the fiber end face.If the emitting area is increased by a magnification factor
M,the solid angle within which optical power is coupled to the fiber from the LED is
increased by the same factor.
Several lensing schemes are rounded end fiber,a small glass sphere in contact with with both
the fiber and the source,a large spherical lens used to image the source on the core area of the
fiber end,a cylindrical lens generally formed from a short section of fiber,a system
consisting of a spherical surfaced LED and a spherical ended fiber ,and a taper ended fiber.

For Nonimaging microsphere,Placing the LED close to the lens surface results in a
magnification M of the emitting area.This is given by the ratio of the cross sectional area of
the lens to that of the emitting area. 2

M = π R2 πr2 = R r

2
With the lens the optic power PL = Ps R r sin2θ
Where Ps is the total output power from the LED without lens

The theoretical coupling efficiency that can be achieved is based on the energy and radiance
conservation principle.This efficiency is usually determined by the size of the fiber.For a
fiber of radius a and numerical aperture NA,the maximum coupling efficiency is

By, Sibin Koshy (#35)

Q) Explain the duplex operation of critical WDM .

Ans)

There are more sophisticated systems which make a fuller utilization of the
transmission capacity of an optical fiber . In standard point-to-point links a single-fiber line
has one optical source at its transmitting end and one photodetector at the receiving end .
Signals from different light sources require separate and uniquely assigned optical fibres .
Since an optical source has a narrow spectral width , this type of transmission makes use of a
very narrow portion of the transmission bandwidth capability of a fiber

We also see that many additional spectral operating regions are possible . Ideally, a
dramatic increase in the information capacity of a fiber can thus be achieved by the
simultaneous transmission of optical signals over the same fiber from many different light
sources having properly spaced peak emission wavelengths . By operating each source at a
different peak wavelength, the integrity of the independent messages from each source is
maintained for subsequent conversion to electric signals at the receiving end . This is the
basis of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM). Conceptually , the WDM scheme is the
same as frequency division multiplexing(FDM) used in microwave radio and satellite
systems . Various WDM techniques have been examined for optical fiber networks .

Two different WDM setups have been shown . In the first one , a unidirectional WDM
device is used to combine different signal carrier wavelengths onto a single fibre at one end
and to separate them into their corresponding detectors at the other end . A bidirectional
WDM scheme is shown in the second figure. This involves sending information in one
direction at a wavelength λ1 and simultaneously in the opposite direction at a wavelength λ2 .

Let us first examine the system requirements of the WDM technique. The three basic
performance criteria are insertion loss , channel width , and cross talk . Insertion loss defines
the amount of power loss that arises in the fiber optic line from the addition of a WDM
coupling device . This includes losers occurring at the connection points of the WDM
element to the fiber line and any intrinsic losses within the multiplexing element itself. In
practice , designers can tolerate insertion losses of a few decibels at each end .

Channel width is the wavelength range that is allocated to a particular optical source. If
laser diodes are used , channel widths of several tens of nanometers are required to ensure
that no interchannel interference results from source instability(for example, drift of peak
operating output wavelength with temperature changes). For LED sources, channel widths
that are 10 to 20 times larger are required because of the wider spectral output width of these
sources .

Cross talk refers to the amount of signal coupling from one channel to another. The
tolerable interchannel cross-talk levels can vary widely depending on the application.
However, in general, a -10 dB level is not sufficient whereas a -30 dB level is.

In implementing a unidirectional WDM system , a multiplexer is needed at the

transmitting end to combine optical signals from several light sources onto a single optical
fiber .

17)a) Compare plastic fibres with glass fibres .

Ans)

Plastic fibres Glass fibres

. made of plastic . made from extremely fine fibres of glass

. used in sensing . used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer

products

. PMMA is the core and fluorinated polymers . made up of glass cladding and glass core
make up the cladding

. more tough material . less tough material

. greater optical signal attenuation in plastic . less optical signal attenuation in glass fibres
fibres

. more durability . less durable

. mechanically more flexible . mechanically less flexible

. high numerical apertures and acceptance . there exists a limit as to the maximum
angles can be accomodated numerical aperture and acceptance angle that
can be accomodated

. examples of plastic fibre constructions are : . examples of glass fibre constructions are:

1) A polystyrene core and a methyl
methacrylate cladding to give an NA of
0.60
2) A polymethyl methacrylate core and a
cladding made of its copolymer to give
an NA of 0.50
. permits the use of inexpensive large-area
light-emitting diodes which in conjunction with
the less expensive plastic fibres , make an
economically attractive system
1) Halide glass fibres – fluoride glasses are
used which have extremely low
transmission losses
2) Active glass fibres – rare earth elements
are used which give the resulting
material new optical and magnetic
properties
. no such provision provided

. cost is low . relatively expensive

b) Explain the various modulation formats for optical communication.

Ans)

There are three fundamental ways by which information can be sent in a coherent
optical transmission system. These are phase shift keying (PSK) , frequency shift
keying(FSK) , or amplitude shift keying(ASK) . In binary digital systems a common ASK
technique is on-off keying (OOK). To recover the information at the receiver, one can use
either homodyne or heterodyne optical detection techniques together with either synchronous
or asynchronous electrical detection. The particular choice of modulation and demodulation
methods determines the fundamental receiver sensitivity.

Generally one characterizes the performance of a digital communication system in

terms of the bit error rate (BER). The BER depends on the signal-to-noise ratio(S/N) and the
probability density function (PDF) at the receiver output (at the input to the comparator).
Since for high local-oscillator powers the PDF is Gaussian for both heterodyne and
homodyne techniques, the BER depends only on the signal-to-noise ratio. Thus one can
describe receiver sensitivity in terms of the S/N available at the receiver output, which is
directly proportional to the received optical signal power. Traditionally the receiver
sensitivity for various coherent optical detection techniques has been described in terms of
the average number of photons required to achieve a 10-9 BER.

Direct detection OOK :

To make a comparison between various detection techniques, let us first look at a

direct- detection OOK system. Suppose we send an OOK sequence of 1 and 0 pulses which
occur with equal probability. Since the OOK data stream is on only half of the time on the
average, the required number of photons per bit of information is half the number required
per pulse. Thus if N and 0 electron-hole pairs are created during 1 and 0 pulses ,
respectively , then the average number of photons per bit NP for unity quantum
efficiency(η=1) is

NP N + (0)

or , N=2NP . The chance of making an error is

Pr (0) = e-2Np

The above equation implies that about 10 photons per bit are required to get a BER of 10-9 for
a direct-detection OOK system.

In practice this fundamental quantum limit is very difficult to achieve for direct-
detection receivers. The amplification electronics that follow the photo detector add both
thermal noise and shot noise, so that the required power level lies between 13 and 20 dB
above the quantum limit.

OOK Homodyne System :

As has already been mentioned, either homodyne or heterotype type receivers can
be used with OOK modulation. Let us first look at the homodyne case. When a 0 pulse of
duration T is received, the average number N0 of electron-hole pairs created is simply the
number generated by the local oscillator; that is

N0 =A2LO T

For a pulse , the average number of electron-hole pairs , N1 , is

N1=(ALO+AS)2=( A2LO + 2ALOAS)T

Where the approximation arises from the condition

A2LO > A2S

Since the local oscillator output power is much higher than the received signal level , the
voltage V seen by the decoder in the receiver during a pulse is

V = N1 – N0 = 2ALOAST

And the associated rms noise n is

n = N10.5 = N00.5

Thus we have BER as

BER = (1-erf ( = (erfc (

Where ,

V = 2nAST0.5
 x=20.5

erfc(x) = I – erf(x) is the complimentary error function

In the ideal case when the quantum efficiency is unity, 10-9 BER is achieved with an average
received optical energy of 36 photons per pulse . again , if we assume an OOK sequence of 1
and 0 pulses which occur with equal probability , then the average number of received
photons per bit of information , NP , IS 18(half the number required per pulse)

Thus for OOK homodyne detection the BER is given by

BER = erfc(ηNP)0.5

To simplify this we note that a useful approximation to erfc(x0.5) for x>=5 is

erfc(x0.5)=e-x/(πx)0.5

so that

BER = e-ηNp/(πηNP)0.5

For ηNP >= 5 in OOK homodyne detection.

PSK Homodyne System :

Homodyne detection of PSK modulation gives the best theoretical receiver

sensitivity, but it is also the most difficult method to implement. The figure given below
shows the fundamental setup for a homodyne receiver. The incoming optical signal is first
combined with a strong optical wave being emitted from the local oscillator. This is done
using either a fiber directional coupler and a partially reflecting plate called a beam splitter.
When a beam splitter is used, transparency comes into play since the incoming signal is
weaker than the local-oscillator output.
Heterodyne Detection Schemes :

The analysis for heterodyne receivers is more complicated than in the

homodyne case , because the photo detector output appears at an intermediate frequency ωIF .

An attractive feature of heterodyne receivers is that they employ either

synchronous or asynchronous detection. The following figure shows the general receiver
configuration. Let us look at this for PSK. In synchronous PSK detection one uses a carrier-
recovery circuit, which is usually a microwave phase-locked loop(PLL), to generate a local
phase reference . The intermediate-frequency carrier is recovered by mixing the output of the
PLL with the intermediate-frequency signal. One then uses a low pass filter to recover the
baseband signal . The BER for synchronous heterodyne PSK is given by

BER = erfc (ηNP)0.5

By, Sijo Cyriac (#36)

Q. Enumerate the potential applications of optical fibre communication systems.

 The small size and large information-carrying capacity of optic fibers is much high as
compared to copper twisted-pair cables in telephone systems. Continuous passive
links more than 100 km long have been produced. With repeaters, messages over
thousands of kilometres of fiber can be sent. Because of low losses, separation
between repeaters in a fiber system is greater than in a coaxial link.

 Because repeaters can be spaced very far apart in fiber systems, underwater fiber links
have been designed to span the oceans. The low weight of fiber cables as compared to
coaxial lines gives them distinct advantages of submerged cable applications because
of the relative ease of transporting ad laying fibers.
  Optic fiber communications are compatible with electrified railways because they are
not affected by EMI. Similarly fibers can be placed near high-voltage power lines
without adverse effects whereas wire systems would be noisy. Optic cables can be
suspended directly from power line towers or poles if clearance space permits and if
the load can be tolerated. Alternatively, the fiber can be embedded in a wire cable.

 Military applications of fiber optics include communications, command and control

links on ships and aircrafts, data links for satellite earth stations and transmissions
lines for tactical command post communication

Q. Derive an expression for the rms pulse broadening in multimode fiber due to
intermodal dispersion

Considering a perfect step index fiber, a useful quantity regard to intermodal dispersion on an
optical fiber link is the rms pulse broadening resulting from this dispersion mechanism along
the fiber. When the optical output to the fiber is a pulse pi (t) of unit area as illustrated

--------------- (1)

It may be noted that pi(t) has constant amplitude of , over the range

≤ pi (t) ≤

The rms pulse broadening at the fiber output due to intermodal dispersion for the multimode
step index fiber σs (i.e. standard deviation) may be given in terms of the variance σs2.

σs2 = M2 – M12

Where M1 is the first temporal moment which is equivalent to the mean value of the pulse
and M2 the second temporal moment is equivalent to the mean square value of the pulse.
Hence

M1 = ----------- (2)

And

M2 = ----------- (3)
The mean value M1 for the unit input pulse of the figure is zero, and assuming that is
maintained for the output pulse, then from eqs. (2) and (3).

σ s2 = M2 = -----------(4)

Integrating over the limits of the input pulse and substituting for Pi (t) in (3) over this range
gives:

σ s2 = t2dt ----------------(5)

= ( )2 ---------------------- (6)

Hence substituting for gives:

σ s=

By Sreejith.R (#37)

1. Explain the propagation of the skew rays and meridional rays through an optical
fibre
 What are the characteristics of MMSIF and MMGIF? Explain the construction
and advantages of MMGIF?

MULTI MODE STEP INDEX FIBRE (MMSIF)

MULTIMODE GRADED INDEX FIBRES (MMGIF)
By Sanjay Mohan(#30)