LU 5 SEDIMENTARY AND IGNEOUS ROCKS

◊SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks form from pre-existing rock particles - igneous,

metamorphic or sedimentary.

• The parent rock undergoes weathering by chemical and/or physical

mechanisms into smaller particles.

• These particles are transported by ice, air or water to a region of lower

energy called a sedimentary basin.

• Deposition takes place as a result of a lowering of hydraulic energy,

organic biochemical activity or chemical changes (e.g., solubility).

• Once deposited, the sediments are lithified (turned into rock) through
compaction (decrease in rock volume due to weight of overlying
sediment) and cementation (chemical precipitation in pore spaces
between grains which "glues" the rock together.

• The primary mineralogical and textural characteristics of the rock can be

modified as the sediments are buried deeper in the earth's crust and
undergo an increase in both temperature and pressure. This low pressure,
low temperature change process is termed as diagenesis.

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 Compaction of sediments
◊ Sediments

Sediments are a collection of loosened particles of solid rock originating from

weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks

chemical precipitation

organic secretion or organic debris

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◊ Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Five Processes Common to the Formation of Many Sedimentary Rocks

Rx=Rocks

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1. Weathering

• The picture on the left below is of a coarse grained granite with pink
orthoclase feldspar that is almost pristine, with little weathering.
Notice the pink orthoclase, black amphibole, and clear glassy
quartz. All these are hard, durable minerals, bright and shiny. Note
especially the pinkness of the orthoclase.
• The picture in the middle is the same granite, but one that has begun
to weather; notice how the luster of the orthoclase has become dull,
and the color has begun to fade.
• The picture on the right has that the granite has crumbled into a pile
of decomposing igneous minerals, and their weathering products -
clay, and other new sedimentary minerals.
• Such weathered material, commonly found at the base of granite
slopes, will be picked up by rain, streams, and rivers and begin it
journey to be deposited to become a sedimentary rock.

2. Erosion (means to “pick up”) removal of material by water, wind or ice

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 W eathe rin g: de com p osition of roc ks

• T h ere is a distin ction be tw e en

w e ath e rin g and e rosion :
– W eathering c onv erts ex p osed
rock to soil in place
– E rosion tran sp orts dissolved
or fra gm e nted m a terial fro m
th e sou rc e a rea w h ere
w eath erin g is oc currin g to a
d ep ositional e nviron m en t
w here it c an form sed im ent.
• M ost of th e ea rth’s surfac e is
c o vered b y ex p osure of
se d im e n t or s ed im e n tary roc k,
b y a re a .
– B u t the sed im ent la yer is thin
in m ost plac es, w ith resp ect to
o v erall crustal thickn ess, so
sedim enta ry roc k is a m in or
v olu m e fraction of th e c ru st
(in part b y d efinition: onc e
b u ried to th e m -crust,
id
sedim ents get cook ed to
m etased im ents ). 4

3. Transportation - moving material from one location to another

There are a number of different ways in which sediments are moved from
one place to another. His is done by the different “transportation agents''.
Here's a list of some:
• Rivers
• Glaciers
• Wind
• Ocean Waves/Tides/Currents

Rivers: Once an element enters into streams and rivers it becomes part of
the hydrosphere.

• Load –

The rock particles and dissolved ions carried by the stream are the called
the stream's load.
Stream load is divided into three parts.

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o Bed Load –

Coarser and denser particles that remain on the bed of the stream most of
the time but move by a process of saltation (jumping) as a result of
collisions between particles, and turbulent eddies.
Sediment can move between bed load and suspended load as the velocity
of the stream changes.
o

o Suspended Load –
Particles that are carried along with the water in the main part of the
streams
The size of these particles depends on their density and the velocity of the
stream.
Higher velocity currents in the stream can carry larger and denser
particles.
o Dissolved Load –
Ions that have been introduced into the water by chemical weathering of
rocks
This load is invisible because the ions are dissolved in the water.
The dissolved load consists mainly of HCO3- (bicarbonate ions), Ca+2, SO4-2,
Cl-, Na+2, Mg+2, and K+.
These ions are eventually carried to the oceans and give the oceans their
salty character.

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 Streams that have a deep underground source generally have higher
dissolved load than those whose source is on the Earth's surface

All these modes can transport clastic particles of various sizes, and the size
each can transport depends on the force with which it flows.

Figure: This graph describes the relationship between stream flow velocity
and particle erosion, transport, and deposition.
The curved line labeled "erosion velocity" describes the velocity required to
entrain particles from the stream's bed and banks.
• The erosion velocity curve is drawn as a thick line because the erosion
particles tend to be influenced by a variety of factors that changes from
stream to stream.
• Also, note that the entrainment of silt and clay needs greater velocities
then larger sand particles.
• This situation occurs because silt and clay have the ability to form cohesive
bounds between particles. Because of the bonding, greater flow velocities
are required to break the bonds and move these particles.
• The graph also indicates that the transport of particles requires lower flow
velocities then erosion.
• This is especially true of silt and clay particles.
Finally, the line labeled "settling velocity" shows at what velocity certain
sized particles fall out of transport and are deposited.

http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visu
alizations/es1303/es1303page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization

http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visu
alizations/es0604/es0604page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization

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4. Deposition - cessation of transport and accumulation of sediments

Sediments Settling Down!

These pebbles were deposited in a stream that once flowed over this area in
Indiana, USA thousands of years ago.

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5. Lithification - process whereby loose material is converted into rock -
processes involved in lithification:

Stratification

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Main components of sedimentary rocks

It is essential to understand the four main components of sedimentary

rocks:

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• Grains or particles are deposited after transportation, or may be a
residuum after weathering
• Matrix is the finer (deposited) material between most of the grains
• Cements are minerals precipitated from waters in and passing through
the pores
• Porosity represents the “holes” in the rock: these may be primary,
having existed immediately after sedimentation, or secondary, having
been produced by mineral dissolution or fracturing during diagenesis.

a. Compaction - weight of overlying sediment compresses and reduces

pore space (opening between grains) in the sediments below

b. Desiccation - loss of water mainly from compression as pore space is

reduced - for clay-rich material compaction and desiccation are enough
to make it into a rock (claystone or shale)
c. Cementation - growth of minerals on grain surfaces, such that grains
become bound together as minerals fill the pore spaces between grains

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Compaction—the loss of porosity due to overburden pressure. With
compaction, sediments dewater and grains become more tightly packed.

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Mineralogy:

Because of their detrital nature, any mineral can occur in a sedimentary

rock.

• Clay minerals, the dominant mineral produced by chemical weathering

of rocks, is the most abundant mineral in mudrocks.
• Quartz, because it is stable under conditions present at the surface of the
Earth, and because it is also a product of chemical weathering, is the
most abundant mineral in sandstones and the second most abundant
mineral in mudrocks.
• Feldspar is the most common mineral in igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Although feldspar eventually breaks down to clay minerals and
quartz, it is still the third most abundant mineral in sedimentary rocks.
• Carbonate minerals, either precipitated directly or by organisms, make
up most biochemical and chemical sedimentary rocks, but carbonates are
also common in mudrocks and sandstones.

Principal Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks

Mineral Composition
Quartz SiO2
Plagioclase feldspar Composition varies between albite, NaAlSi3O8, and

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 anorthite, CaAl2Si2O8
K-feldspar (orthoclase or
KAlSi3O8
microcline)
Kaolinite (clay) Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Muscovite K,Al Mica KAl2(Al,Si3)O10 (OH)2
Biotite K (Mg,Fe) Mica K(Mg,Fe)3(Al,Fe,Si3)O10(OH)2
Goethite FeO(OH)
Hematite Fe2O3
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Anhydrite CaSO4
Calcite CaCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2

Mudrocks Sandstones
Mineral Composition % %
Clay minerals 60 5
Quartz 30 65
Feldspar 4 10 - 15
Carbonate minerals 3 <1
Organic matter, hematite, & others <3 <1

Minerals found in sedimentary rocks can be divided into 2 classes:

• Allogenic minerals - These are formed elsewhere and transported into the
area of deposition.

• Authigenic minerals - These are minerals that are formed at the site of
deposition, either by direct chemical precipitation or by later diagenetic
processes.
Classification:

There are two main types of sedimentary rocks as follows.

• Clastic -These are formed from lithified sediments.

• Chemical/Biochemical - These are formed from sediments precipitated

from water (usually seawater) through chemical or biochemical
processes

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 Crystallisation of dissolved minerals in a shallow part of the
Clastic Rocks:

We classify clastic sedimentary rocks on the basis of texture and

composition.

Texture is controlled by grain size, which is the basis of clastic sedimentary

rock classification.

The following table details the classification.

Clast Size Clast Name Rock Name

Greater than 2 mm Gravel Conglomerate or Breccia

1/16 to 2 mm Sand Sandstone

1/256 to 1/16 mm Silt Siltstone

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 Less than 1/256 mm Clay Mudstone or Shale

• Breccia applies to angular clasts; the clasts in a conglomerate are

rounded.
• Shale is used to describe rocks that cleave into sheet-like fragments;
mudstones break into irregular shapes.

Conglomerate. Sandstone

Siltstone Shale

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Chemical and Biochemical Rocks:

Chemical and biochemical rocks are classified by composition, rather than

grain size.

There are a number of chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks as

described below.

Carbonates:
• The most abundant carbonate rock is limestone, composed almost entirely
of CaCO3, usually as calcite.
• This can be formed directly from reef carbonates or as accumulations of
carbonate sands or muds produced by fossils (foraminifera) or direction
precipitation in warm shallow waters.

Limestone

Evaporites:
• Evaporates are formed when saline water evaporates.
• This requires an arid climate, little freshwater influx and limited connection
to open waters.

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• As water evaporates, the dissolved components increase in concentration.
When they become over saturated, they precipitate. The order of
precipitation moves from Calcite, to gypsum, to halite, to magnesium and
potassium chlorides and ends with sulfates.
• Freshwater evaporation can also produce evaporites if evaporation
proceeds for a long time with constant fresh influx, allowing salinity within
the lake to increase.

Gypsum Halite

Siliceous sediments:
• Diatoms and radiolaria produce shells or casts of silica (SiO2).
• These rain onto the ocean floor (or lake floor), producing siliceous oozes
that recrystallize into chert or flint, a rock consisting almost entirely of
microcrystalline silica, with further deposition and burial.
• Less recrystallized cherts contain opal (SiO2 * nH2O), a semi- precious
gemstone.
• Diatom accumulations can also produce diatomite, a sedimentary rock
used to make abrasives.

Iron oxides:
• Iron formations, sedimentary rocks containing more 15% iron in the form
of iron oxides and minor silicates, formed early in Earth's history.
• Important sources of iron ore, these are indicative of a reducing (low
oxygen) environment that allowed Fe2+ to occur in solution and be
transported great distances.
• What exactly caused them to precipitate is still not certain.

Peat, coal, oil and gas:

• Coal is the only rock here, but all forms of organic matter occurring in
sedimentary rock are important as fossil fuels.

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• The deposition of significant organic matter requires a reducing
environment since oxygen, if present, will oxidize the organic material,
producing water and carbon dioxide.

• Coal begins as peat. With burial, heat and time, it undergoes a series of
reactions, such as the release of methane (CH4), that increase the carbon
content of the residuum.

• Oil and gas are fluids formed by the diagenesis of organic material in the
pores of sedimentary rock.

• Deep burial alters organic matter found in shales to fluids that escape,
ascend and accumulate in porous reservoir rock (typically sandstone or
limestone).
• Oil-bearing deposits are marine in origin. The organic matter they derive
from is thought to consist largely of phytoplankton (small plants, including
diatoms) and bacteria.

Coal
Global abundance of sedimentary rocks:

Sedimentary rocks account for about 75% of the rocks at the earth's surface:

Average thickness of sedimentary rocks: continents: 1.8 km; oceans: 300 m.

The thickest accumulations are found in shallow marine settings, and in

mountain belts.

In mountain chains sedimentary rocks can gradually pass into metamorphic

rocks without an obvious interface.

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Abundance of Sedimentary Rocks

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Chemical Composition

Igneous Shale Sandstone Limestone Sedimentarya Sedimentaryb Sedimentaryc

Rocks
SiO2 59.14 58.10 78.33 5.19 58.49 59.7 46.20
TiO2 1.05 0.65 0.25 0.06 0.56 - 0.58
Al2O3 15.34 15.40 4.77 0.81 13.08 14.6 10.50
Fe2O3 3.08 4.02 1.07 0.54 3.41 3.5 3.32
FeO 3.80 2.45 0.30 - 2.01 2.6 1.95
MgO 3.49 2.44 1.16 7.89 2.51 2.6 2.87
CaO 5.08 3.11 5.50 42.57 5.45 4.8 14.00
Na2O 3.84 1.30 0.45 0.05 1.11 0.9 1.17
K2O 3.13 3.24 1.31 0.33 2.81 3.2 2.07
H2O 1.15 5.00 1.63 0.77 4.28 3.4 3.85
P2O3 0.30 0.17 0.08 0.04 0.15 - 0.13
CO2 0.10 2.63 5.03 41.54 4.93 4.7 12.10
SO3 - 0.64 0.07 0.05 0.52 - 0.50
BaO 0.06 0.05 0.05 - 0.05 - -
C - 0.80 - - 0.64 - 0.49
99.56 100.0 100.00 99.84 100.00 100.0 100.13
0
a = Clarke b = Garrel and Mackenzie (1971) c = Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969)

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 ◊SEDIMENTATION AND GEOCHEMICAL PROCESES

1. WEATHERING

Mineral Stability:

• Many minerals in igneous and metamorphic rocks formed at high

temperature (T) and pressure (P), in dry environments.
• When exposed to the atmosphere, and lower T and P, many minerals are
chemically unstable.
• They weather, producing sediments.

• In one of the first attempts to study how minerals respond to chemical

weathering, Goldich studied the weathering of gneissic rocks (metamorphic
rocks) in the United States in the 1930's, and established the Goldich
Stability Series (see below)

• This series is the same as the Bowens’s Reaction Series in igneous

petrology.
• The least stable minerals are those which form at the highest temperature
in a magmatic melt (e.g., olivine), whereas those minerals that crystallize
at lower temperatures (e.g. quartz) are generally more resistant to
weathering.

• Because these conditions differ from those under which most rocks form
minerals can be classified based on their stability under near surface
conditions.

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• Such a classification, with minerals listed in order of increasing stability is
as follows:

Stability Under Present Surface Conditions Mineral

Olivines*
Pyroxenes*
Unstable Ca-rich Plagiocalse*
Hornblende*
Andesine - Oligoclase*
Sphene
Epidote
Andalusite
Staurolite
Less Unstable
Kyanite
Sillimanite
Magnetite
Garnet
Muscovite*
Albite*
Orthoclase/Microcline*
Very Stable Clay Minerals
Quartz*
Tourmaline
Zircon

In this list, the igneous minerals have an asterisk (*).

Note that the order in which they occur is in the same order that occur in
Bowen's reaction series.

• Igneous minerals that crystallize at the highest temperatures are most out
of equilibrium at the Earth's surface, and are therefore the most unstable.

• Minerals that are very stable at the Earth's surface are minerals that either
form as a result of chemical weathering, or crystallize at the lowest
temperatures.

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• Part of the explanation of mineral resistance to weathering relates to the
cation bond strengths of the different elements with oxygen (e.g. in
silicate minerals).

• The sequence from weakest to strongest bonds is: K, Na, Ca, Mn, Fe2+,
Mg, Fe3+, Al, Ti, Si.

• The K-O bond is weaker than the Mg-O bond, yet orthoclase (K-feldspar) is
much more resistant to weathering than forsterite (Mg-rich olivine)...why?

• The explanation lies in the structure of the minerals:

• In olivines, the Si and O are arranged in isolated silica tetrahedra;

their -ve charges are balanced by Mg2+.

• When Mg2+ is removed in weathering, the mineral structure collapses.

• In contrast, the strong Si-O bonds in orthoclase (chains) prevent the

framework structure falling apart despite removal of the K+ ions during
weathering.

• The structure survives, and K-feldspar can become a detrital mineral in

sediments, especially in the feldspar-rich sandstones termed arkose.

Relative Mobilities

High mobility- ions easily removed

High immobility – relatively difficult to remove
Mobility is related to ionic potential
Ionic potential: Ratio of the valence or ionic charge (Z) to ionic radius (r)
Useful first approximation

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 Very mobile ions: Z/r <3
Immobile precipitates: Z/r 3-9.5
Ions forming soluble, complex anions Z/r > 9.5

IO NIC RADIUS AND IO NIC CH ARG E

(3.5/56)

However, controlled by major external factors: Leaching, pH, Eh etc.

Extent of weathering largely depends on the mobility of ions in the rock

• Relative mobility of common cations:
(Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+)>K+>Fe2+>Si4+>Ti4+ >Fe3+>Al3+)

Mineral Solubility:

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 Solubility, as measured in the laboratory, is the amount of mineral that
will dissolve in a fixed amount of water, at a certain temperature and
is a property unique to each mineral composition.

• Minerals differ in their tendency to dissolve in water.

• In a natural system, the solubility of any mineral is a function of the

composition of the liquid surrounding it. Only rarely will that liquid be pure
water.

• Solubility of Calcite:

The main minerals in carbonate rocks are:

• Calcite: CaCO3
• Mg-calcite: CaCO3, but with several mol% Mg
(Typically > 4 mol %)
• Aragonite: CaCO3
• Dolomite: Ca Mg (CO3)2

Calcite and aragonite are polymorphs — they have the same chemical
composition but a different crystal structure
(Calcite is trigonal whereas aragonite is orthorhombic).

The common carbonate minerals differ in their solubility.

• Calcite is less soluble (i.e. more stable) than aragonite in most fluids at
the earth's surface.

• The solubility of Mg-calcite (high magnesium calcite) varies with the

amount of Mg substitution for Ca in the calcite crystal lattice, but
Mg-calcite is commonly more soluble than aragonite.

(Mg-calcite commonly recrystallizes to calcite during diagenesis; aragonite,

being more soluble the calcite (especially in fresh water), may dissolve to
produce secondary porosity or may alter to calcite during diagenesis.)

Several factors influence the solubility of CaCO3:

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 • At higher latitudes and with increased water depth, the solubility
increases due to decreasing temperature, and in the case of water
depth, increasing pressure.
• It is much easier for CaCO3 to precipitate in warm surface water,
which is why most (but not all) marine carbonate sedimentation
takes place in subtropical and tropical waters.
• (Surface seawater is supersaturated with respect to both calcite
(~2.8X) and aragonite (~1.9X) in the tropics.)
• Cool water carbonates that forming in temperate and high latitudes do
exist, but are mainly accumulations of skeletal carbonate secreted by
several groups of organisms.
• Although supersaturated, surface seawaters in the tropics are not
perpetually crowded with growing crystals of CaCO3. The main reasons
are:
1. Kinetics: it is difficult for crystals of calcite or aragonite to nucleate in
seawater: the level of supersaturation may be too low.
2. The high amount of Mg in seawater, which decreases the stability and
inhibits growth of nucleating crystals.
o CO2
The main reaction for the precipitation of calcite or aragonite is:
Ca2+ + 2HCO3- = CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
• For saturated solutions, removing CO2 may induce precipitation.
• Reversing the reaction (adding CO2) may induce dissolution of existing
calcite or aragonite.

Methods to decrease CO2 and promote mineral precipitation:

1. Increase the temperature

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 Increasing the temperature decreases CaCO3 solubility. Degassing of CO2
may result because gases are less soluble in warm water than cold:
2HCO3- = CO32- + H2O + CO2
2. Agitation
Agitating the fluid may release CO2 that is in excess of that which would be in
equilibrium with atmospheric CO2.
• Wave action is important in this respect. This is similar to shaking a
pop bottle.
• Gas is injected under high pressure. Removing the cap allows CO2 to
escape as the fluid equilibrates with atmospheric CO2.
• Shaking (agitating) the bottle accelerates the loss of carbon dioxide.

3. Increasing the salinity

Carbon dioxide is less soluble in saline waters than fresh waters.
• Salinity normally increases by evaporation which not only leads to loss
of CO2, but also increases the amount of Ca2+ and CO32- left in the
fluid.
• This also increases the potential for mineral precipitation.

4. Biochemical activity
Carbonates are commonly produced directly or indirectly by the activities of
organism, especially microbes.
• For example, during photosynthesis CO2 is removed from the
environment to provide organic carbon (e.g. in algae), and the release
of oxygen:
106CO2 + 16NO3- + HPO42- + 122H2O + 18H+ + trace elements +
energy = C106H263O110N16P + 138O2

• The reverse of this reaction — the decay or organic matter — leads to

dissolution of the carbonate and production of porosity:
CH2O (organic matter) + O2 = CO2 + H2O, then
CO2 + H2O + CaCO3 = Ca2+ + 2HCO3-

• Most marine carbonate precipitation is probably due either directly or

indirectly to the activities of organisms.

• Silica Solubility:

Silica solubility in fluids increases with increasing pH, temperature and

pressure:

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Lowering the temperature of a fluid that has acquired silica by dissolution at
high temperature or abruptly lowering the pH of the fluid that has acquired
silica at high pH can both induce silica to precipitate.

GEOCHEMISTRY OF NATURAL AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

Once an element has entered into the hydrosphere it is becomes part of the
natural aqueous solutions.

• The composition of a natural aqueous solution is influenced by the

elements present and aquatic reactions taking place in the water.

Dissolved Load –

The dissolved load consists of

HCO3- (bicarbonate ions), Ca+2, SO4-2, Cl-, Na+2, Mg+2, and K+

Free cations Cu2+, Zn2+
Anion complexes H2AsO3-, Cr2O72-
Sorbed species Fe Mn oxyhydroxides
Clay minerals
Organic matter
As fine-size 9 (c. 3.9 µm) particulates

• The physio-chemical conditions of the aquatic system determine the

reactions and influence deposition and precipitation.

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 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

Physio-Chemical Conditions

There are certain primary parameters that are needed to specify the
physio-chemical conditions present in the water system.

We refer to these as Master Variables.

Some Master Variables that influence the physio-chemical conditions are

• Temperature
• Pressure
• pH: A measure of the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
The pH of a solution measures how acidic or alkaline it is.
pH values range from 0 to 14.
A neutral solution has a pH of 7.
A pH less than 7 indicates an acidic solution while a pH greater than
7 indicates an alkaline solution.

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 • Redox Potential

- measures ability of environment to supply/take up electrons

- potential is sum of all possible reactions
- overall Eh more important than individual reaction

Natural Parameters or Variables and Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

The oxidising power or the redox potential and acidity are the two most
important parameters in an aqueous system.
• Waters in different near-surface environments have their respective
Eh-pH ranges.
• These two parameters or variables and their ranges normally
encountered in various near-surface natural aquatic environments may be
conveniently represented using an Eh-pH diagram.
• A number of Eh-pH domains are seen for aqueous systems in
natural aquatic environments.

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The top part of the diagram represents oxidizing environments and the
bottom reducing environments.

The Eh-pH diagram also graphically shows the ranges of these two master
variables over which an aqueous species is stable. These are referred to a
stability fields.
The Eh-pH diagram below shows the various stability fields in the
manganese-water system.

Eh-pH DIAGRAMS

• Show both redox and acid-base reactions.

• Depict mineral stabilities and solubilities.
• Depict the predominant aqueous species.
• Important for understanding processes in environmental geochemistry,
exploration geochemistry, corrosion science, hydrometallurgy, and a
variety of other fields.

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The H2O - CO2 - CaCO3 System

Chemical Reaction:

Carbonic acid is formed when atmospheric CO2 is dissolved in water.

1) Gas dissolution

2) Carbonic acid formation

This equation indicates that one molecule of water reacts with one molecule
of carbon dioxide to make carbonic acid H2CO3.

3) Carbonic acid equilibrium

Carbonic acid is involved in another reaction, breaking down into hydrogen

ions and bicarbonate ions.

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Note: Carbonic acid H2CO3, Bicarbonate ions, HCO3-

Dissolution of calcium carbonate

Precipitation and Formation of Chemical Sedimentary Rock

Unlike most other sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks are not
made of pieces of sediment.

Instead, they have mineral crystals made from elements that are
dissolved in water.

• All sorts of things can dissolve into water. If you put a spoonful of salt into
water, the salt will eventually dissolve.
• The water in the oceans, lakes, and ground is often full of dissolved
elements.
• Seawater tastes salty mainly because there are salty minerals such as
halite dissolved in it.

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• Sometimes water becomes so full of dissolved elements that they will not
all fit. Some are not able to remain dissolved and form solid mineral
crystals. This usually happens when some of the water has evaporated
away, leaving less room for the dissolved elements.
• If enough water evaporates, they do not all fit and some form
crystals of minerals such as halite, gypsum, and calcite.
• In arid areas where it is hot and dry that water evaporates very quickly,
leaving behind the minerals that were once dissolved in it.

5. LITHIFICATION

Burial
(>P and >T) + Compaction (reduction of pore space)

Diagenesis
Definition: All physical and chemical processes affecting a sediment
after deposition before metamorphism

• As sediments are deposited, they build layers of material.

• These layers are buried by later sediments, which are buried by later
sediments, and so on and so on.
• As more and more sediments are deposited, the sediments near the
bottom get heated up and squeezed more and more.
• The sediments begin to undergo diagenesis, which is an umbrella term
for physical and chemical changes which turn sediment into
sedimentary rocks.

Physical Processes

• Physically, the primary change is compacting sediments and squeezing

out fluid in the pores between sediment grains; imagine squeezing water
out of a sponge.

Chemical Processes:

Cementation
• Development of new precipitates in pore spaces
• Carbonates (calcite) and silicates (quartz) most common
• May be in response to groundwater flow, increasing ionic concentration
in pore waters, and increased burial temperatures
• Overgrowths or microcrystalline cement when high pore-water
concentrations of hydrous silica
• Iron oxide (hematite, limonite) determined by oxidation state

Mineral Replacement - Authigenesis

• Dissolution of one mineral is replaced by another, simultaneously

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 • No volume change
• Carbonate replacement by quartz; chert by carbonates; feldspars and
quartz by carbonates; feldspars by clay minerals
Mineral Recrystallization
• Existing mineral retains original chemistry but increases in size
• Volume change
• Amorphous silica to coarse crystalline quartz; fine lime mud into
coarse sparry calcite

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 Diagenesis
• The process of modification of newly
deposited sediments into sedimentary
rocks is diagenesis or lithification.
– Processes include:
• physical compaction by the pressure of
overburden, accompanied by expulsion of
pore waters
• Growth of new diagenetic minerals and
continued growth of chemical sediments
from pore waters.
• Dissolution of soluble elements of clastic
rocks.
• Recrystallization and remineralization as
water chemistry, pressure, and temperature
evolve.
• At the high-T and P end, diagenesis merges
smoothly into the low-T and P end of
metamorphism. The distinction is arbitrary.
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