DigitalCommthry Compiled Kumarswamy

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Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics of a carrier is
varied in accordance with a modulating wave. In digital communications, the
modulating wave consists of binary data or an M-ary encoded version of it and the
carrier is sinusoidal wave.
Different Shift keying methods that are used in digital modulation techniques are
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îg shows different modulations

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In a binary ASK system symbol µ1¶ and µ0¶ are transmitted as

2 Eb
S 1(t ) Cos 2Of1t for symbol 1
Tb
S 2 (t ) 0 for symbol 0

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In a binary ^SK system symbol µ1¶ and µ0¶ are transmitted as

2 b
S 1(t ) os 2Of1t for symbol 1
b
2

S 2 (t ) b
os 2Of 2t for symbol 0
b
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In a binary PSK system the pair of signals S1(t) and S2(t) are used to represent
binary symbol µ1¶ and µ0¶ respectively.

2 b
S1 (t ) os 2Of c t --------- for Symbol µ1¶
b
2
2

S 2 (t ) b
os (2Of c t O ) b
os 2Of c t ------- for Symbol µ0¶

b
b

àierarchy of digital modulation technique
Digital Modulation Technique
Coherent Non - Coherent
Binary M - ary àybrid Binary M - ary

(m) = 2 (m) = 2
* ASK M-ary ASK M-ary APK * ASK M-ary ASK

* ^SK M-ary ^SK M-ary QAM * ^SK M-ary ^SK
* PSK M-ary PSK * DPSK M-ary DPSK
(QPSK)
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Non Return to
Zero Level Product
Encoder Modulator
Binary Binary PSK Signal
Data Sequence
2
1 (t ) Cos 2Of c t
Tb
îg(a) Block diagram of BPSK transmitter

T
x(t) b
x1 Decision Choose 1 if x1>0

0
dt Device
Choose 0 if x1<0
Correlator
1 (t ) Threshold Ȝ = 0
îg (b) Coherent binary PSK receiver
In a Coherent binary PSK system the pair of signals S1(t) and S2(t) are used to
represent binary symbol µ1¶ and µ0¶ respectively.
2

S1 (t ) b
os 2Of c t --------- for Symbol µ1¶
b
2
2

S 2 (t ) b
os (2Of c t O ) b
os 2Of c t ------- for Symbol µ0¶
b b
b1
b0
Where Eb= Average energy transmitted per bit b
2
In the case of PSK, there is only one basic function of Unit energy which is given
by
2
1 (t ) os 2Of c t 0 c t c b
b
Therefore the transmitted signals are given by
S1 (t ) Eb 1 (t ) 0 c t c Tb for Symbol 1
S 2 (t ) Eb 1 (t ) 0 c t c Tb for Symbol 0
A Coherent BPSK is characterized by having a signal space that is one

dimensional (N=1) with two message points (M=2)

b

S11 S (t ) (t ) dt
1 1 b
0
b

S 21 S 2 (t ) 1 (t ) dt b
0
The message point corresponding to S1(t) is located at S11 Eb and S2(t) is

located at S 21 b.
To generate a binary PSK signal we have to represent the input binary sequence in
polar form with symbol µ1¶ and µ0¶ represented by constant amplitude levels of
Eb l Eb respectively. This signal transmission encoding is performed by a NRZ
level encoder. The resulting binary wave [in polar form] and a sinusoidal carrier 1 (t )
nc
[whose frequency f c ] are applied to a product modulator. The desired BPSK wave
b
is obtained at the modulator output.
To detect the original binary sequence of 1¶s and 0¶s we apply the noisy PSK
signal x(t) to a Correlator, which is also supplied with a locally generated coherent
reference signal 1 (t ) as shown in fig (b). The correlator output x1 is compared with a
threshold of zero volt.
If x1 > 0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1.
If x1 < 0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 0.

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In BPSK system the basic function is given by
2
1 (t ) os 2Of c t 0 c t c b
b
The signals S1(t) and S2(t) are given by
S1 (t ) Eb 1 (t ) 0 c t c Tb for Symbol 1
S 2 (t ) Eb 1 (t ) 0 c t c Tb for Symbol 0
The signal space representation is as shown in fig (N=1 & M=2)
Region R2 Region R1
- Eb Eb
0
Message Point 2 Message Point 1
S2(t) Decision Boundary S1(t)
îg. Signal Space Representation of BPSK

The observation vector x1 is related to the received signal x(t) by

x1 x(t ) (t ) dt
0
1
If the observation element falls in the region R1, a decision will be made in favour
of symbol µ1¶. If it falls in region R2 a decision will be made in favour of symbol µ0¶.
The error is of two types
1) Pe(0/1) i.e. transmitted as µ1¶ but received as µ0¶ and
2) Pe(1/0) i.e. transmitted as µ0¶ but received as µ1¶.
st
Error of 1 kind is given by

1
( x1 ) 2
Pe (1 / 0) 2 2 dx1
2O 2 0
exp Assuming Gaussian Distribution
Where ȝ = mean value = Eb for the transmission of symbol µ0¶

0
2 = Variance = for additive white Gaussiance noise.
2
Threshold Value Ȝ = 0. [Indicates lower limit in integration]
Therefore the above equation becomes

1

( x1 b)
2

Pe 0 Pe (1 / 0)
O 0 0
exp

0
dx1

x1 b
Put Z
0

expi( Z )
1 2
Pe 0 Pe (1 / 0) dz
O ( b / 0 )
1 b
Pe (1 / 0) erfc
2 0
1 b
Similarly Pe (0 / 1) erfc
2 0
The total probability of error Pe Pe (1 / 0) Pe (0) Pe (0 / 1) Pe (1) assuming

probability of 1¶s and 0¶s are equal.
1
Pe [ Pe (1 / 0) Pe (0 / 1) ]
2
1 b
Pe erfc
2 0
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In a binary ^SK system symbol µ1¶ and µ0¶ are transmitted as
2 b
S 1(t ) os 2Of1t for symbol 1
b
2
S 2 (t ) b
os 2Of 2 t for symbol 0
!b
nc i
^requency f i for some fixed integer nc and i=1, 2
Tb
The basic functions are given by
2
1 (t ) "os 2Of1t and
#b
2
2 (t ) %os 2Of 2t for 0 c t c $b and Zero therwise
$b
Therefore ^SK is characterized by two dimensional signal space with two
message points i.e. N=2 and m=2.
The two message points are defined by the signal vector

E
0
S1 b and S2
0 Eb
Generation and Detection:-

fig a
fig b
fig: ^SK transmitter and receiver
A binary ^SK Transmitter is as shown in fig. (a). The incoming binary
data sequence is applied to on-off level encoder. The output of encoder is Eb volts for
symbol 1 and 0 volts for symbol µ0¶. When we have symbol 1 the upper channel is
switched on with oscillator frequency f1, for symbol µ0¶, because of inverter the lower
channel is switched on with oscillator frequency f2. These two frequencies are combined
using an adder circuit and then transmitted. The transmitted signal is nothing but
required B^SK signal.
The detector consists of two correlators. The incoming noisy B^SK signal x(t) is
common to both correlator. The Coherent reference signal 1 (t ) and 2 (t ) are supplied to
upper and lower correlators respectively.
The correlator outputs are then subtracted one from the other and resulting a
random vector µl¶ (l=x1 - x2). The output µl¶ is compared with threshold of zero volts.
If l > 0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1.
l < 0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 0.

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In binary ^SK system the basic functions are given by
2
1 (t ) 'os 2Of1t 0 c t c &b
&b
2
2 (t ) Cos 2Of 2 t 0 c t c Tb
Tb
The transmitted signals S1(t) and S2(t) are given by
S 1(t ) Eb 1 (t ) for symbol 1
S 2 (t ) b 2 (t ) for symbol 0
Therefore Binary ^SK system has 2 dimensional signal space with two messages
S1(t) and S2(t), [N=2 , m=2] they are represented as shown in fig.
îg. Signal Space diagram of Coherent binary ^SK system.
The two message points are defined by the signal vector

E
0
S1 b and S2
0 Eb
The observation vector x1 and x2 ( output of upper and lower correlator) are
related to input signal x(t) as
(
b
x1 x(t ) (t )dt
1 and
0
) b
x2 x (t ) 2 (t ) dt
0
0
Assuming zero mean additive white Gaussian noise with input PSD . with
2
0
variance .
2
The new observation vector µl¶ is the difference of two random variables x1 & x2.
l = x1 ± x2
When symbol µ1¶ was transmitted x1 and x2 has mean value of 0 and
Eb respectively.
Therefore the conditional mean of random variable µl¶ for symbol 1 was
transmitted is

l
x
x
E E 1 E 2
1 1 1
Eb 0
Eb

l
Similarly for µ0¶ transmission E Eb
0
The total variance of random variable µl¶ is given by
Var [l ] Var [ x1 ] Var [ x2 ]
0
The probability of error is given by
1

(l b)
2

Pe (1 / 0) Pe0 2 0 dl
2O 0 0
exp

* l Eb
Put
2 0
+
, 1
e0
O exp( z 2 )dz
Eb
2 0
1
Eb
erfc
2 2 0
- 1
Eb
Similarly e1 erfc
2 2 0
The total probability of error =

. 1 . .
[ e (1 / 0) e (0 / 1) ]
e
2
Assuming 1¶s & 0¶s with equal probabilities
1
Pe= [ Pe 0 Pe1 ]
2
/ 1
Eb
e erfc
2 2 0

/0''0'1:-
Binary ON-O^^ Product Binary ASK

Level Modulator
Data Sequence Signal
Encoder
2
1 (t ) Cos 2Of e t
Tb
îg (a) BASK transmitter
2
b
x(t) X dt Decision
Device
If x > Ȝ choose symbol 1
0
If x < Ȝ choose symbol 0

1 (t ) Threshold Ȝ
îg (b) Coherent binary ASK demodulator
In Coherent binary ASK system the basic function is given by
2
1 (t ) 1os 2Of e t 0 c t c 0b
0b
The transmitted signals S1(t) and S2(t) are given by
S1 (t ) E b 1 (t ) for Symbol 1
S 2 (t ) 0 for Symbol 0
The BASK system has one dimensional signal space with two messages (N=1, M=2)
Region E2 Region E1
Message
Point 2
Eb
1 (t )
0 Eb Message
2 Point 1
îg. (c) Signal Space representation of BASK signal
In transmitter the binary data sequence is given to an on-off encoder. Which

gives an output Eb volts for symbol 1 and 0 volt for symbol 0. The resulting binary
wave [in unipolar form] and sinusoidal carrier 1 (t ) are applied to a product modulator.
The desired BASK wave is obtained at the modulator output.
In demodulator, the received noisy BASK signal x(t) is apply to correlator with
coherent reference signal 1 (t ) as shown in fig. (b). The correlator output x is compared
with threshold Ȝ.
If x > Ȝ the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1.
If x < Ȝ the receiver decides in favour of symbol 0.
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In binary ASK system the basic function is given by
2
1 (t ) 4os 2Of c t 0 c t c 3b
3b
The transmitted signals are given by
S1 (t ) E b 1(t ) for Symbol 1
S 2 (t ) 0 for Sy5 bol 0
A2Tb
0
Eb 0 Eb1 2 A 2Tb
Therefore the average transmitted energy per bit Eb
2 2 4
The probability of error is given by

1
( x 0) 2
Pe 0
O 0
o dx
exp
b
2
Where µx¶ is the observed random vector. ȝ = 0, because the average value for symbol µ0¶
transmission is zero (0).
0
2 assuming additive white Gaussian noise with into PSD 0
2 2
Let
6 x
0
7
8 1
e0
O exp( z 2 )dz
Eb
2 0
1
Eb
erfc
2 2 0
9 1
Eb
similarly e1 erfc
2 2 0
1 : :
The total probability of error = [ e 0 e1 ]
2
; 1
Eb
e erfc
2 2 0
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îg(a). : Envelope detector for OOK BASK

Incoherent detection as used in analog communication does not require carrier for
reconstruction. The simplest form of incoherent detector is the envelope detector as
shown in figure(a). The output of envelope detector is the baseband signal. Once the
baseband signal is recovered, its samples are taken at regular intervals and compared with
threshold.
If Z(t) is greater than threshold ( V ) a decision will be made in favour of symbol µ1¶
If Z(t) the sampled value is less than threshold ( V ) a decision will be made in favour of
symbol µ0¶.
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îg(b) : Incoherent detection of ^SK
îg(b) shows the block diagram of incoherent type ^SK demodulator. The
detector consists of two band pass filters one tuned to each of the two frequencies used to
communicate µ0¶s and µ1¶s., The output of filter is envelope detected and then baseband
detected using an integrate and dump operation. The detector is simply evaluating which
of two possible sinusoids is stronger at the receiver. If we take the difference of the
outputs of the two envelope detectors the result is bipolar baseband.
The resulting envelope detector outputs are sampled at t = kTb and their values are
compared with the threshold and a decision will be made infavour of symbol 1 or 0.

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îg. (a) DPSK Transmitter

îg. (b) DPSK Receiver
A DPSK system may be viewed as the non coherent version of the PSK. It eliminates
the need for coherent reference signal at the receiver by combining two basic operations
at the transmitter
(1) Differential encoding of the input binary wave and
(2) Phase shift keying
àence the name differential phase shift keying [DPSK]. To send symbol µ0¶ we
phase advance the current signal waveform by 1800 and to send symbol 1 we leave the
phase of the current signal waveform unchanged.
The differential encoding process at the transmitter input starts with an arbitrary
first but, securing as reference and thereafter the differentially encoded sequence{dk} is
generated by using the logical equation.
d k d b d k 1 b k
k 1 k
Where bk is the input binary digit at time kTb and dk-1 is the previous value of the
differentially encoded digit. Table illustrate the logical operation involved in the
generation of DPSK signal.
Input Binary Sequence {bK} 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

Differentially Encoded 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
sequence {dK}
Transmitted Phase 0 0 Ȇ 0 0 Ȇ 0 0 0
Received Sequence 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
(Demodulated Sequence)
A DPSK demodulator is as shown in fig(b). The received signal is first passed

through a BP^ centered at carrier frequency fc to limit noise power. The filter output and
its delay version are applied to correlator the resulting output of correlator is proportional
to the cosine of the difference between the carrier phase angles in the two correlator
inputs. The correlator output is finally compared with threshold of µ0¶ volts .
If correlator output is +ve -- A decision is made in favour of symbol µ1¶
If correlator output is -ve --- A decision is made in favour of symbol µ0¶
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In case of QPSK the carrier is given by
2
s i (t ) =os[2Of c t (2i 1)O / 4] 0 c t c < i 1 to 4
<
2 2
s i (t ) =os[(2i 1)O / 4] cos( 2Of c t ) sin[(2i 1)O / 4] sin( 2Of c t ) 0 c t c < i 1 to 4
< <
îg. (c) QPSK Waveform

In QPSK system the information carried by the transmitted signal is contained in
the phase. The transmitted signals are given by
2E
O
S (t ) cos 2O f t for input i bit 10
1
T c 4
2E
3O
S (t ) cos 2O f t for input ibit 00
2
T c 4
2E
5O
3
T c 4
2E
7O
t
T c 4
Where the carrier frequency f > n7> for some fixed integer nc
E = the transmitted signal energy per symbol.
T = Symbol duration.
The basic functions (t ) an (t ) are given by
1 2
(t )
2
i
cos 2O f t 0 c t YT
1
T b
c
(t )
2
i
sin 2O f t 0 c t YT
2
T b
c
There are four message points and the associated signal vectors are defined by

O
cos 2i 1
4

Si i 1,2,3,4

O
sin 2i 1
4
The table shows the elements of signal vectors, namely Si1 & Si2
Table:-
Input dibit Phase of Coordinates of message

QPSK points
signal(radians) Si1 Si2
10 O E E
4 2 2
00 3O
4 2 2
01 5O E E
4 2 2
11 7O E E
4 2 2
Therefore a QPSK signal is characterized by having a two dimensional signal
constellation(i.e.N=2)and four message points(i.e. M=4) as illustrated in fig(d)
.îg (d) Signal-space diagram of coherent QPSK system.
5cc *
îg(a) shows a block diagram of a typical QPSK transmitter, the incoming binary
data sequence is first transformed into polar form by a NRZ level encoder. Thus the
symbols 1& 0 are represented by E b

an E b
respectively. This binary wave is
next divided by means of a demultiplexer [Serial to parallel conversion] into two separate
binary waves consisting of the odd and even numbered input bits. These two binary
waves are denoted by ao(t) and ae(t)
The two binary waves ao(t) and ae(t) are used to modulate a pair of quadrature
carriers or orthonormal basis functions (t ) l (t ) which are given by
1 2
2
1
(t )
T
cos 2 O f c
t
l
2
2
(t )
T
sin 2 O f c
t
The result is a pair of binary PSK signals, which may be detected independently due to
the orthogonality of 1
(t ) l (t ) .
2
înally the two binary PSK signals are added to produce the desired QPSK signal.
cc!*
The QPSK receiver consists of a pair of correlators with a common input and supplied
with a locally generated pair of coherent reference signals 1
(t ) l (t ) as shown in
2
fig(b).The correlator outputs x1 and x2 produced in response to the received signal x(t) are
each compared with a threshold value of zero.
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If x1 > 0 a decision is made in favour of symbol 1
x1 < 0 a decision is made in favour of symbol 0
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If x2 >0 a decision is made in favour of symbol 1 and
x2 <0 a decision is made in favour of symbol 0
înally these two binary sequences at the in phase and quadrature channel outputs are
combined in a multiplexer (Parallel to Serial) to reproduce the original binary sequence.

c *
A QPSK system is in fact equivalent to two coherent binary PSK systems
working in parallel and using carriers that are in-phase and quadrature.
The in-phase channel output x1 and the Q-channel output x2 may be viewed as the
individual outputs of the two coherent binary PSK systems. Thus the two binary PSK
systems may be characterized as follows.
-Y The signal energy per bit E

2
-Y The noise spectral density is 0
2
The average probability of bit error in each channel of the coherent QPSK system is

E
?1 1
erfc 2 E E
2 2
0

1
E
erfc
2 2 0
The bit errors in the I-channel and Q-channel of the QPSK system are statistically
independent . The I-channel makes a decision on one of the two bits constituting a
symbol (di bit) of the QPSK signal and the Q-channel takes care of the other bit.
Therefore, the average probability of a direct decision resulting from the
combined action of the two channels working together is
pc= probability of correct reception
p1= probability of error
P @ i1 P
1 2
2

1

1 erfc
2 2 o

1

1 erfc erfc
2

2 o 4 2 o
The average probability of symbol error for coherent QPSK is given by
P e
1 PA

1

erfc
2
erfc
2 o 4 2 o
In the region where E We may ignore the second term and so the
1
2 o
approximate formula for the average probability of symbol error for coherent QPSK
system is
E
P e
erfc
2 o

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In a continuous phase frequency shift keying [CP^SK] system the transmitted
signal is given by
2
E b cos 2O

i f t ' ( 0) for symbol 1
Tb
1
S (t )
2 Eb

cos 2O i f t ' ( 0) for symbol 0
Tb
2
Where Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit and Tb is bit duration the CPSK signal
S(t) is expressed in the conventional form of an angle modulated signal as
S (t )
2 b
cos 2Oi f c
t ( 0)
b
The phase ș(t) is a continuous function of time which is given by
Oh t
' (t ) ' ( 0) 0 ct c b
b
Bhe transmitte frequencies f 1

l f 2
are given by
h
f f
1 c
2 b
h
f f
2
2 c
b
f 1 / 2( f f )
c 1 2
h B (f f )
b 1 2
Where f the carrier frequency l

c
h the eviation ratio

The variation of phase ș(t) with time t follows a path consisting of sequence of straight
lines, the slope of which represent frequency change îg(a) shows the possible paths
starting from time t=0. This plot is known as ³"c ccU.
When h= ½ the frequency deviation equals half the bit rate. This is the minimum
frequency difference (deviation) that allows the two ^SK signals representing symbol µ1¶
& µ0¶. ôr this reason a CP^SK signal with a deviation ratio of one- half is commonly
referred to as ³"
%cU[MSK].
Deviation ratio h is measured with respect to the bit rate 1/Tb
at t =Tb
C
Oh for SyD bol 1
(Eb ) (0)
for SyD bol 0

Oh

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In terms of In phase and Quadrature Component
2 2
s (t ) b
Gos [ (t )] Gos (2Of c t ) b
Sin [ (t )] Sin ( 2Of c t )
Fb Fb
Y
with the deviation ratio h=1/2
O
(t ) ( 0) t 0 c t c Hb
2Hb
+ Sign corresponds to symbol 1

- Sign corresponds to symbol 0
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ôr the interval of Kb c t c Kb
consists of half cosine pulse
2
s1 (t ) b
Jos [ (t ) ]
Ib
2 O
b
Jos [ (0) ] Jos t
Ib 2Ib
2 O
b
Jos t Ib c t c Ib
Ib 2Ib
+ Sign corresponds to ș(0) =0
- Sign corresponds to ș(0) = ɩ
2 c!$c
ôr the interval of 0 c t c 2 Tb
consists of half sine pulse
2
s Q (t ) b
Sin [ (t ) ]
Kb
2 O
b
Sin [ (Kb ) ] Los t
Kb 2Kb
2 O
b
sin t 0 c t c 2Kb
Kb 2Kb
+ Sign corresponds to ș(Tb) =ɩ/2

- Sign corresponds to ș(Tb) = -ɩ/2
since the phase states ș(0) and ș(Tb) can each assume one of the two possible values,
any one of the four possibilities can arise
Basic functions are given by
2 O
1 (t ) Nos t Nos ( 2Of c t ) Mb c t c Mb

Mb 2Mb
2 O
2 (t ) Sin t Sin ( 2Of ct ) 0 c t c 2Ob

Ob 2Ob
we may express the MSK signal in the form
s (t ) s11 (t ) s22 (t ) 0 c t c Tb
The coefficients are given by
P b
s1

P s(t ) (t ) dt 1
b
b Ros i (0) Qb c t c Qb
and
2 S b
s2
0b
s(t ) (t ) dt 2
b Sin i (Tb ) 0 c t c 2Tb

The signal space diagram for MSK system is as shown in fig
^* signal space diagram for MSK system

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îg: sequence and waveforms for MSK signal
(a) input binary sequence (b) scaled time function s11 (t )
(c) scaled time function s 2 2 (t ) (d)obtained by adding (b) and (c)
In the case of AWGN channel, the received signal is given by

x(t) = s(t) + w(t)
where s(t) is the transmitted MSK signal and w(t) is the sample function of a white
Gaussian noise.
The projection of the received signal x(t) onto the reference signal 1 (t ) is
Tb
x1 x (t ) (t ) t
1
Tb
s1 U1 Tb c t c Tb
similarly the projection of the received signal x(t) onto the reference signal 2 (t ) is
2 V
b
x2 x(t ) (t ) dt
0
2
s2 w2 0 c t c 2Wb
^ O
If x2>0, the receiver chooses the estimate ' (Tb ) . If, on the other hand, x2<0, it
2
^
O
chooses the estimate ' (Tb ) .
2
To reconstruct the original binary sequence, we interleave the above two sets of
phase decisions,
^ ^ O
1 If we have the estimates ' (0) 0 and ' ( b ) , or alternatively if we have the
2
^ ^
O
estimates ' (0) O and ' ( b ) , the receiver makes a final decision in favor of
2
symbol 0.
^ ^ O
2 If we have the estimates ' (0) O and ' (Tb ) , or alternatively if we have
2
^ ^
O
the estimates (0) 0 and (Tb ) , the receiver makes a final decision in favor of
2
symbol 1.
5cc cc!

1'*
îg. (b) MSK Receiver
îg (a) shows the block diagram of typical MSK transmitter. and (b)receiver
Two input sinusoidal waves one of frequency nX for some fixed integer nc and
f c
4O b
1
the other of frequency are first applied to a modulator. This produces two phase
4O b
coherent sinusoidal waves at frequencies f1 and f2 which are related to the carrier
frequency fc and the bit rate Rb by
h h
f f f
2 Rb
or
1 c
2T b
C
h h 1
f f or f 2 Rb
for h
2 c
2T b
C 2
These two sinusoidal waves are separated from each other by two narrow band filters one
centered at f1 and the other at f2. The resulting filter outputs are next linearly combined to
produce the pair of basis functions 1
(t ) an 2
(t ) . înally 1
(t ) an 2
(t ) are
multiplied with two binary waves a1(t) and a2(t) both of which have a bit rate equal
1
to . These two binary waves are extracted from the incoming binary sequence.
2T b
îg (b) shows the block diagram of a typical MSK receiver. The received signal
x(t) is correlated with locally generated replicas of the coherent reference signals
1
(t ) an 2
(t ) . The integration in the Q ± channel is delayed by Tb seconds with
respect to the I - channel.

The resulting in-phase and quadrature channel correlator outputs x1 and x2 are
each compared with a threshold of zero. To estimate the phase ș(0) and ș(Tb). înally
these phase decisions are interleaved so as to reconstruct the original input binary
sequence with a minimum average probability of symbol error in an AGWN channel.
-;1)
Binary data has to be transmitted over a telephone link that has a usable bandwidth of
3000àz and a maximum achievable signal-to-noise power ratio of 6 dB at its output..
a.Y Determine the maximum signaling rate and probability of error if a coherent
ASK scheme is used for transmitting binary data through this channel.
b.Y If the data is maintained at 300 bits/sec, calculate the error probability.
'*
a)Y If we assume that an ASK signal requires a bandwidth of 3rb àz, then the
maximum signaling rate permissible is given by
Bandwidth =3 rb=3000 àz
rb=1000 bits/sec.
2
verage Signal Power 4
oise Power 2X 2 3000
2
verage Signal Power
4
oise Power 12,000X
2
48,000
X
Hence, 2
4Xrb 12 and
Pe
Q 12 Q 3.464 0.0003
b)Y If the bit rate is reduced to 300 bits/sec, then
A2
40
4Xrb
e 40 6.326 10 10
-;1+
Binary data is transmitted over an R^ band pass channel with a usable bandwidth of
10 Màz at a rate of (4.8) (106) bits/sec using an ASK signaling method. The carrier
amplitude at the receiver antenna is 1 mv and the noise power spectral density at the
receiver input is 10-15 watt/àz. înd the error probability of a coherent and non coherent
receiver..

'*
a)Y The bit error probability for the coherent demodulator is
A 2T
b
; A 1 mv, Tb 10 6 / 4.8
e
4X

15 Z Y
X / 2 10 att / z

e 26 2(10 7 ).
b) for non coherent ASK pe is given by
Pe 1
2
i
exp 2Ob /(16X ) ,
pe = 0.0008
-;1r
Binary data is transmitted at a rate of 106 bits/sec over a microwave link having a
bandwidth of 3 Màz. Assume that the noise power spectral density at the receiver
input is X / 2 10 10 watt / Hz. înd the average carrier power required at the receiver
input for coherent PSK and DPSK signaling schemes to maintain Pe 10-4.
'*
The probability of error for the PSK scheme is
e SK
2 S avTb / X c 10 4 ,
thus
2 S av Tb /X 3.75
( S av ) (3.75) 2 (10 10
) (10 6 ) 1.48m
For the D SK scheme
e D SK 1
2
exp i A T 2
b
/ 2X c10 4 ,
[ence,
S av Tb / X 8.517
S av D SK 2.3.3 m
This example illustrates that the DPSK signaling scheme requires about 1 dB more
power than the coherent PSK scheme when the error probability is of the order of
10-4.

Definition: Defines average probability of error that can occur in a Communication

system
^!
(1) Error function erf(u):
u
2
exp( z 2
erf (u ) )dz -------- ( A6.1)
O 0
(2) Complementary error function erfc(u):
\
2
erfc(u )
O
exp(
u
z 2 )z -------- ( A6.2)
Properties of Error function
1.Y erf(-u) = -erf(u) - Symmetry.

2.Y erf(u) approaches unity as u tends towards infinity.
]
2
O
exp(
0
z 2 )z 1 -------- ( A6.3)
3.Y ôr a Random variable X, with mean mx and variance ıx2, the probability
of X is defined by
(mm Y m c mm ) erf
2 -------- ( A6.4)
m
c* Relation: erfc(u) = 1 ± erf(u)
Tables are used to find these values.
$$ <cc: ( only for large values of u )
exp( u 2 )
erfc (u ) Y -------- ( A6.5)
O
24^!*
An alternate form of error function. It basically defines the area under the
Standardized Gaussian tail. ôr a standardized Gaussian random variable X of zero
mean and unit variance, the Q-function is defined by

1 x2
Q (v )
2O v exp 2 dx -------- ( A6.6)
Relations between Q-function and erfc function:
1 v
(i) (v ) erfc ------- ( A6.7a)

2 2
(ii) erfcu 2( 2u) ------ ( A6.7b)

!
1'c
Consider a binary communication system in which the two symbols binary1 and binary0
are represented by the signals s1(t) and s2(t) respectively. Let E1 and E2 represent the
energies of the signals s1(t) and s2(t) respectively.
Ob Ob
s s
2 2
1 1 (t ) dt and 2 2 (t ) dt ----- ( A6.8)
0 0
The Probability of error for Communication Systems can be defined as
1 Eb ( 1 ÷ )
e erfc
--------- ( A6.9)
2 2 0
Where Eb is the average energy per bit defined by
E1 E 2
Eb --------- ( A6.10)
2
and ȡ is the correlation coefficient
Ob
1
÷
b 0
s (t )s (t ) dt
1 2 ------ ( A6.11)
and (No/2) represent the noise power spectral density in W/àz.
c6)7*3 $ *
In this scheme the signals are represented as
S 1 (t ) 0 c t c Tb for Symbol 1
S 2 (t ) 0 0 c t c Tb for Symbol 0
Signal energies are E1 = a2 Tb and E2 = 0
Average energy per bit, Eb = a2 Tb/2.
Correlation coefficient = 0.
Probability of error,
1 Eb ( 1 ÷ )
erfc
2 0
e
2
1 2T
erfc b
e
2 40

c6+7* *
S 1 (t ) a 0 c t c Ob for Sy^ bol 1
S 2 (t ) a 0 c t c Ob for Sy_ bol 0

Signal energies are E1 = a2 Tb and E2 = a2 Tb
Average energy per bit, Eb = a2 Tb
Correlation coefficient = -1.
1 Eb (1 ÷ )
erfc
2 0
e
2
1 2
Tb
erfc
e
2 0

c6r7*1!"cc *
S 1 (t ) a/2 0 c t c Ob / 2 for Sy` bol 1
a/2 Ob / 2 Y t Y Ob
S 2 (t ) a/2 0 c t c Ob / 2 for Sya bol 0

a/2 Ob / 2 Y t Y Ob
Signal energies are E1 = a2 Tb/4 and E2 = a2 Tb/4

Average energy per bit, Eb = a2 Tb/4
Correlation coefficient = -1.
1 Eb (1 ÷ )
erfc
2 0
e
2
Reduces to
1 2T
erfc b
e
2 40

<$c*

1c=$c c>8c"cc " c"
"8c c$
c c# )9 ?/
"c c c
"cc8c
"c8c c$
c

'*
ôr probability of error equal to 10-6.

Eb/N0 = 3.3 (from table)
The probability of error is
Pe erfc b

2 0
If the signaling rate is doubled then Eb is reduced by a factor of 2 and correspondingly
Eb/N0 also reduces by 2. àence the new probability of error will become .
3
e 10

"$c ?

/-'/1/-*
ûndamental issues in digital communications are
1.Y Detection and

2.Y Estimation
cc!"c : It deals with the design and evaluation of decision ± making

processor that observes the received signal and guesses which particular symbol was
transmitted according to some set of rules.
"c : It deals with the design and evaluation of a processor that uses
information in the received signal to extract estimates of physical parameters or
waveforms of interest.
The results of detection and estimation are always subject to errors
1 c
!!c
Consider a source that emits one symbol every T seconds, with the symbols belonging to
an alphabet of M symbols which we denote as m1, m2, . . . . . . mM.
We assume that all M symbols of the alphabet are equally likely. Then
pi p (b i eb itted )
1
for all i
M
The output of the message source is presented to a vector transmitter producing vector of
real number

S i1

Si 2 Where the dimension N M.
.
Si i 1 , 2 , . ... . , °
.
.

S i
The modulator then constructs a distinct signal si(t) of duration T seconds. The signal
si(t) is necessarily of finite energy.
The Channel is assumed to have two characteristics:

Y Channel is linear, with a bandwidth that is large enough to accommodate
the transmission of the modulator output si(t) without distortion.
Y The transmitted signal si(t) is perturbed by an additive, zero-mean,
stationary, white, Gaussian noise process.
such a channel is referred as AWGN ( additive white Gaussian noise ) channel
514'1/--5-;/=/--3*
In case of Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure, any set of µM¶ energy signals

{Si(t)} can be represented by a linear combination of µN¶ orthonormal basis functions
where NM. That is we may represent the given set of real valued energy signals S1(t),
S2(t). . . . . . . SM(t) each of duration T seconds in the form
S1 (t ) S111 (t ) S12 2 (t ) . . . . . . . . S1 (t )

S 2 (t ) S 211 (t ) S 222 (t ) . . . . . . . . S 2 (t )
.
.
.
.
S M (t ) S M 11 (t ) S M 22 (t ) . . . . . . . . S M (t )

c 0ctcO
S i (t ) S i ( t )
1 i 1, 2 , 3 . . . . . . M ( 6 . 1 )
Where the Co-efficient of expansion are defined by

O
di 1, 2 ,3 . . . .. M
S i (t ) 0 i
S ( t ) ( t )dt
1, 2 ,3 . . .. . . ( 6 .2 )
The basic functions 1 (t ), 2 (t ) ......... (t ) are orthonormal by which

O
1 if i
i (t ) (t ) dt
0

0 if i (6 .3)
The co-efficient Sij may be viewed as the jth element of the N ± dimensional
Vector Si

S i1
S
i 2
¿

Therefore S i ¿ i = 1,2,3 . . . . . . M
¿

¿
S
i
Let S1 31 (t ) 42 (t ) S2 1 (t ) 22 (t )
Vector

3
1
S1 S2
4 2
5cc !c $ c

*
Using N orthonormal basis functions we can represent M signals as

S i (t ) S
1
i (t ) 0c t c O i 1, 2 , ..... , M (6.4)
Coefficients are given by
T
S i S (t )
i (t ) t i 1 , 2 , .. ... , °
0
1 , 2 , .. ... , (6.5)
Given the set of coefficients {sij}, j= 1, 2, «.N operating as input we may use the scheme
as shown in fig(a) to generate the signal si(t) i = 1 to M. It consists of a bank of N
multipliers, with each multiplier supplied with its own basic function, followed by a
summer.
fig(a)
conversely given a set of signals si(t) i = 1 to M operating as input we may use the
scheme shown in fig (b) to calculate the set of coefficients {sij}, j= 1, 2, «.N
fig(b)

S i1 The vector si is called 8c!
S
i2
.
Si i 1 , 2 , . ... . , °
.
.

S i
We may visualize signal vectors as a set of M points in an N dimensional Euclidean
space, which is also called $!c
The squared-length of any vector si is given by inner product or the dot product of si

2
Si ( S i , Si ) S
1
2
i
Where sij are the elements of si

Two vectors are "
"c c $ !:c
The energy of the signal is given by

O
S
2
i i (t ) dt
0
substituting the value si(t) from equation 6.1
O
i [ Si (t )] [ S ikk (t )] dt
1 k 1
0
interchanging the order of summation and integration
O
i S i S ik (t )k (t )dt
1 k 1 0
since (t ) forms an orthonormal set, the above equation reduce to
i S
1
2
i
this shows that the energy of the signal si(t) is equal to the squared-length of the signal
vector si
The ! c !c between the points represented by the signal vectors si and sk is

2
Si Sk (S
1
i S k ) 2

T

[ S (t )
0
i S k (t )]2 t

c$c
%
! c $

Received Signal X(t) is given by

X (t ) S i (t ) W (t ) 0ct cO
i 1,2,3. . . . . . ., M (6.6)
where W(t) is AWGN with Zero Mean and PSD N0/2

Output of each correlator is a random variable defined by
T
m m (t )
o
(t ) t
S i W 1,2,........ (6.7 )
The first Component Sij is deterministic quantity contributed by the transmitted signal
Si(t), it is defined by
O
S i S (t )i (t ) dt ( 6.8)
0
The second Component Wj is a random variable due to the presence of the noise at the
input, it is defined by
T
W W (t )
o
(t )t (6.9)
let m ¿ (t ) is a new random variable defined as

m ¿ (t ) m (t ) m
1
(t ) (6.10)
substituting the values of X(t) from 6.6 and Xj from 6.7 we get

X ' (t ) S i (t ) W (t ) (S
1
i W ) (t )

W (t ) W
1
(t )
W ' (t )
which depends only on noise W(t) at the front end of the receiver and not at all on the
transmitted signal si(t). Thus we may express the received random process as

X (t ) X (t ) X ' (t )
1

X (t ) W ' (t )
1

Now we may characterize the set of correlator output, {Xj}, j = 1 to N , since the received
random process X(t) is Gaussian , we deduce that each Xj is a Gaussian random variable.
àence, each Xj is characterized completely by its mean and variance.
Mean and variance:

The noise process W(t) has zero mean, hence the random variable Wj extracted from W(t)
also has zero mean. Thus the mean value of he jth correlator output depends only on Sij as
x [ X ] froe eqn 6.7

[S i W ]
S i [W ] but [W ] 0
S i
variance of Xj is given by
2x far[ X ]
[( X x ) 2 ] substituti ng x S i
[( X S i ) 2 ] fro equton 6.7
[W 2 ]
substituting the value of Wj from eqn 6.9

T T

2x E W (t ) (t ) t W (u ) (u ) u
0 0

T T
E (t ) (u )W (t )W (u ) t u
0 0
T T
2x
0 0
(t ) (u ) E [ W (t )W (u ) ] t u
T T
(t ) (u ) Rg (t , u ) t u (6.11)
0 0
where
Rh (t , u ) = E [ W (t )W (u ) ] autocorrelation function of the noise process W(t).Science the

noise is stationary, with psd N0/2 ,Rw(t,u) depends only on the time difference (t-u) and
expressed as
0
Ri (t , u ) (t u ) (6.12)
2
substituting this value in the equation 6.11 we get
T T
0
(t ) (u) (t
2
x u ) t u
2 0 0
T
0
2 0 2 (t ) t
Science the (t ) have unit energy, the above equation reduce to

0
2x for all
2
This shows that all the correlator outputs {Xj}, j = 1 to N have a variance equal to the psd
No/2 of the additive noise process W(t).
Science the (t ) forms an orthogonal set, then the Xj are mutually uncorrelated, as
shown by
Cov[ m m k ] E[( m mx )( m k mx k )]
E[( m S i )( m k Sik )]
E[W Wk ]

T T

E W (t ) (t )t W (u )k (u )u
0 0
T T
(t ) (u ) Rj (t, u)t u
0 0
k
T T
0
2 (t ) (u ) (t
0 0
k u )t u
T
0

2
0
(t )k (u )t
0 Mk
Since the Xj are Gaussian random variables, from the above equation it is implied that
they are also statistically independent.

cc!
%c
Assume that in each time slot of duration T seconds, one of the M possible signals S1(t),
S2(t). . . . . . . SM(t) is transmitted with equal probability of 1/M. Then for an AWGN
channel a possible realization of sample function x(t), of the received random process
X(t) is given by

x(t ) S i ( t ) w( t ) 0ct cO
i 1,2,3,......... ....., M
where w(t) is sample function of the white Gaussian noise process W(t), with zero mean
and PSD N0/2. The receiver has to observe the signal x(t) and make a ccc of
the transmitted signal si(t) or equivalently symbol mi
The transmitted signal si(t), i= 1to M , is applied to a bank
of correlators, with a common input and supplied with an appropriate set of N
orthonormal basic functions, the resulting correlator outputs define the signal vector '
knowing ' is as good as knowing the transmitted signal Si(t) itself, and vice versa. We
may represents si(t) by a point in a Euclidean space of dimensions N M. . Such a point
is referred as transmitted signal point or message point. The collection of M message
points in the N Euclidean space is called a !c
When the received signal x(t) is applied to the bank o N correlators , the output of the
correlator define a new vector < called observation vector. this vector < differs from the
signal vector si by a random noise vector
x Si w i 1,2,3,......... , M
The vectors < and are sampled values of the random vectors @and Arespectively. the
noise vector represents that portion of the noise w(t) which will interfere with the
detected process.
Based on the observation vector <, we represent the received signal s(t)by a point in the
same Euclidean space, we refer this point as c!c8c $. The relation between
them is as shown in the fig

^* Illustrating the effect of noise perturbation on location of the received signal point

In the detection problem , the observation vector x is given, we have to perform a
mapping from < to an estimate of the transmitted symbol, in away that would minimize
the average probability of symbol error in the decision. The < %c"
cc! provides solution to this problem.

-$ c B c!c8c
ÖY Probability of error depends on signal to noise ratio
ÖY As the SNR increases the probability of error decreases
ÖY An optimum transmitter and receiver is one which maximize the SNR and
minimize the probability of error.

c8c c!c8c

Y

YY

ôr an AWGN channel and for the case when the transmitted signals are equally likely,
the optimum receiver consists of two subsystems
1) .Receiver consists of a bank of M product-integrator or correlators
ĭ1(t) ,ĭ2(t) ««.ĭM(t) orthonormal function
The bank of correlator operate on the received signal x(t) to produce observation vector x

+7Implemented in the form of maximum likelihood detector that
operates on observation vector < to produce an estimate of the transmitted symbol
mi i = 1 to M, in a way that would minimize the average probability of symbol error.
The N elements of the observation vector < are first multiplied by the corresponding N
elements of each of the M signal vectors s1, s2« sM , and the resulting products are
successively summed in accumulator to form the corresponding set of
Inner products {(x, sk)} k= 1, 2 ..M. The inner products are corrected for the fact that the
transmitted signal energies may be unequal. înally,
the largest in the resulting set of numbers is selected and a corresponding decision on the
transmitted message made.
The optimum receiver is commonly referred as a ! c c!c8c

1^/;
Science each of t he orthonormal basic functions are ĭ1(t) ,ĭ2(t) ««.ĭM(t) is assumed
to be zero outside the interval 0 c t c T . we can design a linear filter with impulse
response hj(t), with the received signal x(t) the fitter output is given by the convolution
integral

y (t ) x( )h (t )d

Suppose the impulse response of the system is
" (t ) (O t )
Then the filter output is

y (t ) x( ) (O t )d

sampling this output at time t = T, we get
y (O ) x( )

( ) d
ĭj(t) is zero outside the interval 0 c t c T ,we get

O
Y y (O ) x( ) ( )d
Y 0
YYYYY
where xj is the j th correlator output produced by the received signal x(t).
A filter whose impulse response is time-reversed and delayed version of the input signal
(t ) is said to be matched to (t ) . correspondingly , the optimum receiver based on
this is referred as the !"c
c c!c8c .
ôr a matched filter operating in real time to be physically realizable, it must be causal.
ôr causal system
h (t ) 0 t Y0
causality condition is satisfied provided that the signal (t ) is zero outside the interval
0ct cO
1<:
$'!"c
c
Let
x(t) = input signal to the matched filter
h(t) = impulse response of the matched filter
w(t) =white noise with power spectral density No/2
(t ) = known signal
Input to the matched filter is given by
x (t ) (t ) k (t ) 0ct cT
science the filter is linear , the resulting output y(t) is given by
y (t ) 0 (t ) n(t )
where 0 (t ) and n(t) are produced by the signal and noise components of the input x(t).
The signal to noise ratio at the output of the matched filter at t = T is
2
0 (T )
( SR ) 0 (6.13)
E[ n 2 (t )]
aim is to find the condition which maximize the SNR

let
0 (t ) Ô 0 ( f )
h (t ) Ô (f)
are the ôurier transform pairs, hence the output signal 0 (t ) is given by
l
m ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2Oft )f
0 (t ) l
output at t = T is
n
o ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2OfT )f
2
2
0 (T ) n (6.14)
ôr the receiver input noise with psd No/2 the receiver output noise psd is given by
0 p 2
S ( f ) ( f ) (6.15)
2
and the noise power is given by

E[n 2 (t )] S ( f )f
q

0 r 2
2 q ( f ) f (6.16)
substituting the values of eqns 6.14 & 6.15 in 6.13 we get

2
H ( f )( f ) exp( 2OfO )df

( S) 0
(6.17)
0 2
2 H( f ) df

using Schwarz¶s inequality

2
2 2

X 1 ( f ) X 2 ( f )df c

X 1 ( f ) df X

2 ( f ) df (6.18)
*
Eqn 6.16 is equal when X1(f) = kX2 (f)
let X1(f) = à(f)
& X2(f) = ( f ) exp( 2OfT )
under equality condition
à(f) = K * ( f ) exp( 2OfO ) (6.19)
Thus substituting in 6.16 we get the value
s ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2OfT )f s ( f ) 2 f

2
2

c

( f )

f
substituting in eqn 6,17 and simplifying

2 2
( S ) 0 c
0
( f ) df
Using Rayleigh¶s energy theorem

2 2
(t ) dt

( f )

df , energy of the signal
2
( S) 0, max (6.20)
0
Under maximum SNR condition, the transfer function is given by ( k=1), eqn 6.19
H opt ( f ) * ( f ) exp( 2OfO )
The impulse response in time domain is given by

hopt (t ) (

f ) exp[ 2Of (T t )] exp( 2Oft ) f
(T t)
Thus the impulse response is folded and shifted version of the input signal (t )
1^/;
ĭ(t) = input signal

h(t) = impulse response
W(t) =white noise
The impulse response of the matched filter is time-reversed and delayed version of the
input signal

" (t ) (O t )
ôr causal system
h (t ) 0 t Y0
Matched filter properties
-0)
"c$c!
"c$
!"c
c ""c!"c
$c<!c$
c c
! $ $ "ccc $c! c

"c$
let 0 ( f ) denotes the ôurier transform of the filter output 0 (t ) , hence
0 ( f ) H opt ( f ) ( f ) sustitutin g fro 6.19

* ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2OfO )
2
( f ) exp(2 OfO ) (6.21)
-0+
"c$
1!"c ^c $ $ "
c 8c
"c
! c
!
"c$"!""c
c !"c
The autocorrelation function and energy spectral density of a signal forms the ôurier
transform pair, thus taking inverse ôurier transform for eqn 6.21
0 (t ) (t O )
Y
YYYYY
Y
0 (O ) (0) E
where E is energy of the signal
-0r

"c$'c
1!"c
c c$c "c
"c
cc "c$c $c! c
"c"cc"c
c $
SNR at the output of matched filter is eqn 6.13

2
0 (T )
( SR ) 0 (6.22)
E[ n 2 (t )]
output of matched filter is

0 (t ) H ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2Oft )df

signal power at t = T

2
2
0 (O ) H ( f )( f ) exp( 2OfO )df

noise psd at the output of receiver is
S ( f )
0 t(f )2
2
noise power is

0 2
S H( f )
2
[ n (t )] ( f ) df df

2
substituting the values in 6.22 we get

2
H ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2OfO )df

( S ) 0
(6.23)
0 2
2
H ( f ) df
using Schwarz¶s inequality

2
2 2

X 1 ( f ) X 2 ( f )df c

X 1 ( f ) df X

2 ( f ) df (6.24)
*
Eqn 6.24 is equal when X1(f) = kX2 (f)
let X1(f) = à(f)
& X2(f) = ( f ) exp( 2OfT )
under equality condition
à(f) = K * ( f ) exp( 2OfO ) (6.25)
Thus substituting in 6.24 we get the value

2
2 2
H ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2OfO )df c

H ( f ) df ( f )

df
substituting in eqn 6,23 and simplifying

2 2
( SR ) 0 c
0 ( f )

df
Using Rayleigh¶s energy theorem

2 2
(t ) dt

( f )

df , energy of the signal
2
( S) 0 , max (6.26)
0
-0C
"c1!"c ^c $c cc$ c !"! D

c$c! $"c!""$ !c"c c c $$c%c
"c$c! $ c!""8c"$c%8c$
c c .
In polar form the spectrum of the signal (t ) being matched may be expressed as
( f ) ( f ) exp i' ( f )
where ( f ) is magnitude spectrum and ' ( f ) is phase spectrum of the signal.

The filter is said to be spectral phase matched to the signal (t ) if the transfer function of
the filter is defined by
H( f ) H ( f ) exp i ' ( f ) 2OfO
The output of such a filter is

u
0¿ (t )

( f ) ( f ) exp( 2Oft )f

u

( f ) ( f ) exp[ 2Of (t T )]f
The product H ( f ) ( f ) is real and non negative.

The spectral phase matching ensures that all the spectral components of the output add
constructively at t = T , there by causing the output to attain its maximum value.
0' (t ) c 0' (O ) ( f ) H ( f ) df

ôr spectral amplitude matching
H( f ) ( f )
c )*
c "c
)67+67r67 C67""c
))
3c5 '!" - ": !c c
"c "

"c
c<$ c"cc
"c
!
îg-P1.1: Signals for the proble -1.
'*
Given set is not linearly independent because s4(t) = s1(t) + s3(t)
Step-1: Energy of the signal s1(t)
T
T
s1 (t ) t
2
E1
0
3
s1 (t ) 3
îrst basis function 1 (t ) for 0 c t c T
E1 T 3
Step-2: Coefficient s21
T
s 21 0
s 2 (t ) 1 (t ) t T
3
O
2O
s
2
Energy of s2(t) 2 2 (t ) dt
0
3
s2 (t ) s21 1 (t ) 3
Second Basis function 2 (t ) for T c t c 2T
E2 s 2 T 3 3
21
T
Step-3: Coefficient s31: s31 0
s3 (t ) 1 (t ) t 0
O
Coefficient s32 s32 0
s3 (t ) 2 (t ) dt O
3
Intermediate function
g3(t) = s3(t) - s31ĭ1(t) - s32 ĭ2(t)
g3(t) = 1 for 2T/3 < t < T/3
Third Basis function

g 3 (t ) 3
3 ( t ) for 2T c t cT
T T 3

2
g (t ) t
3
0
The corresponding orthonormal functions are shown in the figure-P1.2.
îg-P1.2: rthonoral functions for the Proble-1
Representation of the signals

S1 (t ) O 1 (t )
3
S 2 (t ) T 1 (t ) T 2 (t )
3 3
S 3 (t ) T 2 (t ) T 3 (t )
3 3
S 4 (t ) T 1 (t ) T 2 (t ) T 3 (t )
3 3 3
-;1 +*
c "c )67 +67 r67 " "c
+) 3c
5 '!" - ": !c c
"c "
"
c
c<$ c"cc
"c
!
îg-P2.1: Signals for the proble -2.
'*The basis functions are shown in fig-P2.2.
îg-P2.2: rthonoral functions for the Proble-2
Correspondingly the representation of the signals are:
S1 (t ) 2 1 (t )
S 2 (t ) 4 1 (t ) 4 2 (t )
S 3 (t ) 3 1 (t ) 3 2 (t ) 3 3 (t )
-;1 r*
Consider the signal s(t) in fig-P3.1

a)Y Determine the impulse
response of a filter matched
to this signal and sketch it as
a function of time.
b)Y Plot the matched filter output
as a function of time.
c)Y What is Peak value of the
output?
îg P3.1
'*
The impulse response of the matched filter is time-reversed and delayed version
of the input signal, h(t) = s(T-t) and the output of the filter, y(t) = x(t) * h(t).
Given s(t) = +1 for 0 < t < 0.5

-1 for 0.5 < t < 1.
(a)Y With T = 1, the impulse
response h(t) is
h(t) = -1 for 0 < t < 0.5

+1 for 0.5 < t < 1.
îg. P3.2
(b) The output of the filter y(t) is obtained by convolving the input s(t) and the
impulse response h(t). The corresponding output is shown in the fig. P3.3.
(c) The peak value of the output is 1.0 unit.
îg. P3.3
c c*
'$c!
!"c
c
"c')67"^ C)'%c!""c$

"c
c !"c "c')67$$c "c
c $

^C)

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c c

In a binary ASK system symbol µ1¶ and µ0¶ are transmitted as

In a binary ^SK system symbol µ1¶ and µ0¶ are transmitted as

Digital Modulation Technique

Coherent Non - Coherent

Binary M - ary àybrid Binary M - ary

* ASK M-ary ASK M-ary APK * ASK M-ary ASK

"c c '*

^ig(a) Block diagram of BPSK transmitter

^ig (b) Coherent binary PSK receiver

A Coherent BPSK is characterized by having a signal space that is one

The signal space representation is as shown in fig (N=1 & M=2)

^ig. Signal Space Representation of BPSK

Where ȝ = mean value = Eb for the transmission of symbol µ0¶

Therefore the above equation becomes

The total probability of error Pe Pe (1 / 0) Pe (0) Pe (0 / 1) Pe (1) assuming

"c c ^'

Generation and Detection:-

fig: ^SK transmitter and receiver

A binary ^SK Transmitter is as shown in fig. (a). The incoming binary

The two message points are defined by the signal vector

The probability of error is given by

The total probability of error =

Binary ON-O^^ Product Binary ASK

^ig (a) BASK transmitter

If x < Ȝ choose symbol 0

In transmitter the binary data sequence is given to an on-off encoder. Which

S 2 (t ) 0 for Sy5 bol 0

/!"c c cc!*

^ig(a). : Envelope detector for OOK BASK

^ig(b) : Incoherent detection of ^SK

Input Binary Sequence {bK} 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

A DPSK demodulator is as shown in fig(b). The received signal is first passed

- 23/ '4' /^0/5

Input dibit Phase of Coordinates of message

.^ig (d) Signal-space diagram of coherent QPSK system.

symbols 1& 0 are represented by E b

-Y The signal energy per bit E

-Y The noise spectral density is  0

The phase ș(t) is a continuous function of time which is given by

Bhe transmitte frequencies f 1

Where f the carrier frequency l

h the eviation ratio

+ Sign corresponds to symbol 1

+ Sign corresponds to ș(Tb) =ɩ/2

Basic functions are given by

1 (t ) Nos t  Nos ( 2Of c t )  Mb c t c Mb

2 (t ) Sin t  Sin ( 2Of ct ) 0 c t c 2Ob

we may express the MSK signal in the form

The coefficients are given by

 b Sin i (Tb ) 0 c t c 2Tb

^* signal space diagram for MSK system

(c) scaled time function s 2 2 (t ) (d)obtained by adding (b) and (c)

In the case of AWGN channel, the received signal is given by

5cc   cc!

respect to the I - channel.

b)Y If the bit rate is reduced to 300 bits/sec, then

b) for non coherent ASK pe is given by

The probability of error for the PSK scheme is

Definition: Defines average probability of error that can occur in a Communication

Properties of Error function

1.Y erf(-u) = -erf(u) - Symmetry.

$$ <cc: ( only for large values of u )

c c

"c c '*

"c c ^'

/!"c c cc!*

-23/'4'/^0/5

-Y The noise spectral density is 0

1 (t ) Nos t Nos ( 2Of c t ) Mb c t c Mb

2 (t ) Sin t Sin ( 2Of ct ) 0 c t c 2Ob

b Sin i (Tb ) 0 c t c 2Tb

^* signal space diagram for MSK system

5cc cc!

$$ <cc: ( only for large values of u )

(i) (v ) erfc ------- ( A6.7a)

(ii) erfcu 2( 2u) ------ ( A6.7b)

c6)73 $

S 2 (t ) a 0 c t c Ob for Sy_ bol 0

S 2 (t ) a/2 0 c t c Ob / 2 for Sya bol 0

cc!"c : It deals with the design and evaluation of decision ± making

514'1/--5-;/=/--3*

S1 (t ) S111 (t ) S12 2 (t ) . . . . . . . . S1 (t )

The basic functions 1 (t ), 2 (t ) ......... (t ) are orthonormal by which

Let S1 31 (t ) 42 (t ) S2 1 (t ) 22 (t )

5cc !c $ c

x [ X ] froe eqn 6.7

H ( f )( f ) exp( 2OfO )df

à(f) = K * ( f ) exp( 2OfO ) (6.19)

s ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2OfT )f s ( f ) 2 f

H opt ( f ) * ( f ) exp( 2OfO )

0 ( f ) H opt ( f ) ( f ) sustitutin g fro 6.19

0 (t ) H ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2Oft )df

H ( f ) ( f ) exp( 2OfO )df

à(f) = K * ( f ) exp( 2OfO ) (6.25)

"c1!"c ^c $c cc$ c !"! D

where ( f ) is magnitude spectrum and ' ( f ) is phase spectrum of the signal.

H( f ) H ( f ) exp i ' ( f ) 2OfO

The product H ( f ) ( f ) is real and non negative.