Motivation is the set of reasons that determines one to engage in a

particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but,
theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as
well. human motivation. According to various theories, motivation may
be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize
pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a
desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to
less-apparent reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.

In Other Words

The Willingness to exert high levels of effort toward Organizational

goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need”.

Basic Characteristics of Motivation

 Effort. This refers to the strength of a person's work-related

behavior.
 Persistence. This refers to the persistence that individual’s exhibit
in applying effort to their work tasks.
 Direction. This refers to the quality of a person's work related
behavior.
 Goals. This refers to the ends towards which employees direct their
effort.

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The Incentive Theory of Motivation

A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an

action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again.
This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies
show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would
be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward
combination can cause the action to become habit. Motivation comes
from two things: you, and other people. There is extrinsic motivation,
which comes from others, and intrinsic motivation, which comes from
within you.

Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards

are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards
are internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or a feeling of
accomplishment.

Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one

based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation
refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done.
For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping
others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.

2
Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: Stems from the direct relationship between the

worker and the task and it is usually self-applied.

• Intrinsic motivation occurs when people engage in an activity, such

as a hobby, without obvious external incentives.

In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite

altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a
common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or 'giving
back'. In work environments, money may provide a more powerful
extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable
workplace.

In terms of sports, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from

inside the performer. That is, the athlete competes for the love of the
sport.

Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation: Stems from the work environment external to the
task and it is usually applied by someone other than the person being
motivated.

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the

most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also
common extrinsic motivations.

In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him
or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is
often extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat
others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can

lead to over justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic
motivation.

3
Self-control
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of
emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a
more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests),
yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School
of Management Professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides
an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to
pursue a particular goal.

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Rule #1 Set a major goal, but follows a path. The path has mini
goals that go in many directions. When you learn to succeed at mini
goals, you will be motivated to challenge grand goals.

Rule #2 Finish what you start. A half finished project is of no use

to anyone. Quitting is a habit. Develop the habit of finishing self-
motivated projects.

Rule # 3 Socialize with others of similar interest. Mutual

support is motivating. We will develop the attitudes of our five best
friends. If they are losers, we will be a loser. If they are winners, we will
be a winner. To be a cowboy we must associate with cowboys

Rule #4 learns how to learn. Dependency on others for knowledge

supports the habit of procrastination. Man has the ability to learn without

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instructors. In fact, when we learn the art of self-education we will find, if
not create, opportunity to find success beyond our wildest dreams.

Rule #5 Harmonize natural talent with interest that

motivates. Natural talent creates motivation, motivation creates
persistence and persistence gets the job done.

Rule #6 Increase knowledge of subjects that inspires. The

more we know about a subject, the more we want to learn about it. A self-
propelled upward spiral develops.

Rule #7 Take risk. Failure and bouncing back are elements of

motivation. Failure is a learning tool. No one has ever succeeded at
anything worthwhile without a string of failures.

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7
We collect Primary data by questionnaires by observing human behavior
interest. We collect Secondary data from Internet, Newspaper, and
Books.

We conduct a survey to get or find the Motivation position in firms & and
employee conflicts against employer, or management.
We extracted from possessive survey is that the majority of people
demotivated because of lack of reward system and other opportunities.
We tried to find out the de motivation factor, what is the reason.
We find that employee want reward system, they want to completely full
fill their needs,Our survey result shows that we can easily solve this
problem due to follow of some special technique to managing human
behavior.

Employee Motivation Survey Design

An employee motivation survey is your first step towards employee
retention. Infosurv begins the process by designing a customized
employee motivation survey for your organization,.

Employee Motivation, including:

 Overall satisfaction
 Corporate culture
 Supervisor relations
 Training
 Pay and benefits
 Work environment
 Communications

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Our standard employee motivation surveys are comprehensively designed
to identify and isolate key independent and dependent variables.

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Supervisor relations Overall satisfaction
Pay & benefits Likelihood to recommend
Work environment Likelihood to stay
Corporate communications Employee loyalty

Our research shows that employee attitudes are a better predictor of

future employee behavior than past behavior. Our employee motivation
surveys are specifically designed to accurately measure attitudes that
affect real business metrics, like employee retention rates and turnover.

Employee Satisfaction Surveys Are Essential For Retention

An employee satisfaction survey is an invaluable tool that can measure
and analyze the satisfaction of employees.

Research shows that employee turnover costs companies big money

every year - as much as 25 - 200% of an employee's annual
compensation. By understanding the concerns of your employees through
tools such as employee satisfaction surveys, companies are better able to
implement policies and procedures that can improve retention. Long-
term, employee surveys:
Increase the sense of commitment and loyalty of your employees
Save company money due to fewer turnovers
Increase employee morale
Gain employee trust

In addition to the above, research has shown that employee satisfaction

has a direct relationship to business revenue and customer loyalty.
Satisfied employees perform better at their jobs. Employees with poor
attitudes can have a negative affect on their co-workers and their
customers.

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Employee satisfaction surveys are inexpensive, yet will generate results
that are worth many times your small investment. If you choose to do
your employee satisfaction survey online, you'll receive real-time results
in as little a few minutes upon implementation. Employee satisfaction
surveys can assess just about anything that relates to the work
environment, including:

 Overall satisfaction
 Management/employee relations
 Corporate culture
 Career development
 Compensation
 Benefits
 Recognition and rewards
 Working conditions
 Training
 Staffing levels
 Safety concerns
 Policies and procedures

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Need Theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by
Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation,[2]
which he subsequently extended to include his observations of humans'
innate curiosity.

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Maslow’s Theory

SELF
SELF
ACTUALIZATION
ACTUALIZATION

SELF
SELF ESTEEM
ESTEEM
SOCIAL
SOCIAL
SECURITY
SECURITY
SAFETY
SAFETY
PHSIOLOGICAL
PHSIOLOGICAL

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Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal
requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with
the exception of sex), the human body simply cannot continue to
function.

Physiological needs include:

• Breathing
• Homeostasis
• Water
• Sleep
• Food
• Excretion
• Sex

Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs
take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with
people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and
inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar
rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such
things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for
protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts,
insurance policies, and the like.

For the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well
satisfied in the "First World." The obvious exceptions, of course, are
people outside the mainstream — the poor and the disadvantaged. If
frustration has not led to apathy and weakness, such people still struggle
to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarily
concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and
seeking justice from the dominant societal groups.

Safety and Security needs include:

• Personal security
• Financial security
• Health and well-being
• Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

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Social needs
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of
human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy
involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:

• Friendship
• Intimacy
• Having a supportive and communicative family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it

comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious
groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in
numbers"), or small social connections (family members, intimate
partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be
loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these
elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety,
and Clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the
physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer
pressure; an anorexic, for example, ignores the need to eat and the
security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

Esteem

All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect,

and to respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the
normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to
engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities
that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-
valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result
in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem
need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again
depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many people with low
self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply
by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept
themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can
also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

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Aesthetic needs

The motivation to realize one's own maximum potential and possibilities

is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other
motives being its various forms. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the need
for self-actualization is the final need that manifests when lower level
needs have been satisfied.

Self-Transcendence

Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the
hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-
transcendence"[Transcenders] may be said to be much more often aware
of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level
of Being… to have unitive consciousness and “plateau experience”
(serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) …
and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with
illuminations or insights. Analysis of reality or cognitions which changed
their view of the world and of themselves, perhaps occasionally, perhaps
as a usual thing."

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Five simple strategies to motivate your listeners.
One of the most important elements of leadership is the ability to motivate
people. Without motivation, even the most skilled team of seasoned
professionals is unlikely to achieve great things. A highly motivated group of
talented people, on the other hand, can move mountains.

While it’s true that motivating people involves more than just changing the
way you speak, there are some simple guidelines you can follow to help build
team motivation with only your words and your voice:

• Be enthusiastic. Enthusiasm is contagious! Before you present your

ideas, think about the aspects of the subject that you find most interesting,
and don’t be afraid to let that interest come through in your voice.
• Use quotes, stories and anecdotes. Along with their obvious
entertainment value, quotes and stories can lend authority to your topic
and provide concrete examples that people can relate to.
• Speak with confidence. Deliver your message loud and clear.
Maintain eye contact with your listeners. Don’t mumble or slouch.
• Say you and we, not I and me. Instead of telling people what you
want them to do, present ways for them to work together to achieve their
goals. Involve listeners in the success of the group.
• Keep it simple. People aren’t motivated by what you say; they’re
motivated by what they understand. The best way to ensure audience
understanding is to break down complex ideas into simple components.

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Frederick Herzberg has tried to modify Maslow’s need Hierarchy theory.
His theory is also known as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory.

He devised his theory on the question: “What do people want from their
jobs?” He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they
felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he
received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.

He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and

the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their non-
presence leads to De-motivation. In similar manner there are certain
factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence
has motivational impact.

HYGIENE FACTORS
 Conditions
 Pay
 Status
 Security
 Company policies

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Growth/Advancement
 Interest in the job

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Two Factor Theory
(Also known as Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory) was
developed by Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist who found that job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction acted independently of each other.
Two Factor Theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace
that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause
dissatisfaction

Two Factor Theory Fundamentals

Anna Lustig attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health
are related to Maslow's theory of motivation. His findings have had a
considerable theoretical, as well as a practical, influence on attitudes
toward administration]. According to Herzberg, individuals are not
content with the satisfaction of lower-order needs at work, for example,
those associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working
conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher-level
psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. So far, this
appears to parallel Maslow's theory of a need hierarchy. However,
Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by proposing a two-factor
model of motivation, based on the notion that the presence of one set of
job characteristics or incentives lead to worker satisfaction at work,
while another and separate set of job characteristics lead to
dissatisfaction at work. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a
continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are
independent phenomena. This theory suggests that to improve job
attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to
both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction
leads to an decrease in unpleasurable dissatisfaction.

The two-factor, or motivation-hygiene theory, developed from data

collected by Herzberg from interviews with a large number of engineers
and accountants in the Pittsburgh area. From analyzing these interviews,
he found that job characteristics related to what an individual does — that
is, to the nature of the work she performs — apparently have the capacity
to gratify such needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth,
and self-realization, thus making her happy and satisfied. However, the
absence of such gratifying job characteristics does not appear to lead to
unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from
unfavorable assessments of such job-related factors as company policies,
supervision, technical problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job,

18
and working conditions. Thus, if management wishes to increase
satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work
itself — the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming
responsibility, and for achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand,
management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the
job environment— policies, procedures, supervision, and working
conditions If management is equally concerned with both (as is usually
the case), then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.

The theory was based around interviews with 203 American accountants
& engineers in Pittsburgh, chosen because of their professions' growing
importance in the business world. The subjects were asked to relate times
when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present job or any
previous job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of
events giving rise to that positive or negative feeling.

Here is the description of this interview analysis:

Briefly, we asked our respondents to describe periods in their lives when

they were exceedingly happy and unhappy with their jobs. Each
respondent gave as many "sequences of events" as he could which met
certain criteria including a marked change in feeling, a beginning and an
end, and contained some substantive description other than feelings and
interpretations....

The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that
led to satisfaction (achievement, intrinsic interest in the work,
responsibility, and advancement) are mostly unipolar; that is, they
contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, the dis-satisfiers
(company policy and administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal
relationships, working conditions, and salary) contribute very little to job
satisfaction.

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Two Factor Theory distinguishes between:

• Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility)

which give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of
the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth.

• Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe

benefits) which do not give positive satisfaction, although
dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are extrinsic to the
work itself, and include aspects such as company policies,
supervisory practices, or wages/salary.

Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not

dissatisfied. Motivation factors are needed in order to motivate an
employee to higher performance, Herzberg also further classified our
actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a
work related action because you have to then that is classed as
movement, but if you perform a work related action because you want to
then that is classed as motivation.

Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and
others have presented considerable empirical evidence to confirm the
motivation-hygiene theory. Their work, however, has been criticized on
methodological grounds. Nevertheless, Herzberg and his associates have
rendered a valuable service to science and to management through their
efforts to apply scientific methods to understanding complex motivational
problems at work and have stimulated others to continue the search.

Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the

ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Physiological and
safety, the lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, while
love and self esteem needs are placed in the relatedness category. The
growth category contains our self-actualization and self-esteem needs.

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Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation created and
developed by Douglas McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of
Management in the 1960s that have been used in human resource
management, organizational behavior, organizational communication and
organizational development. They describe two very different attitudes
toward workforce motivation. McGregor felt that companies followed
either one or the other approach. He also thought that the key to
connecting self-actualization with work is determined by the managerial
trust of subordinates.

Theory X
Under the assumptions of theory X:
Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions
are issued.
Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors
and display little ambition.

In this theory, which many managers practice, management assumes employees are
inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. They inherently dislike work.
Because of this, workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of
controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at
each and every level. According to this theory, employees will show little ambition
without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they

21
can. According to Michael J. Papa, if the organizational goals are to be met, theory X
managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employee's compliance.
Beliefs of this theory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive
atmosphere. The Theory X manager tends to believe that everything must end in
blaming someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are only out for
themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employee's interest in
the job is money. They will blame the person first in most situations, without
questioning whether it may be the system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the
blame. A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to
work, that they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job to
structure the work and energize the employee. One major flaw of this management
style is it is much more likely to cause Diseconomies of Scale in large businesses.

Theory Y
In contrast under the Assumptions of Theory Y:
 Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.
 People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are
committed to those goals.
 Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and
exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving the
problems of the organization.
 That the way the things are organized, the average human being’s
brainpower is only partly used.

In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious, self-motivated, and

exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical
work duties. According to Papa, to them work is as natural as play. They possess the
ability for creative problem solving, but their talents are underused in most
organizations. Given the proper conditions, theory Y managers believe that employees
will learn to seek out and accept responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-
direction in accomplishing objectives to which they are committed. A Theory Y
manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at
work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation.
Many people interpret Theory Y as a positive set of beliefs about workers. A close
reading of The Human Side of Enterprise reveals that McGregor simply argues for
managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that this
creates. He thinks that Theory Y managers are more likely than Theory X managers to
develop the climate of trust with an employee that is required for human resource
development. It's here through human resource development that is a crucial aspect of
any organization. This would include managers communicating openly with
subordinates, minimizing the difference between superior-subordinate relationships,
creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop and use their
abilities. This climate would include the sharing of decision making so that
subordinates have say in decisions that influence them.

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Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes
have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a
reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features:
proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a
situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end
state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to
learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be
moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most
people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which
assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people
want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed.
Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal
should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic
example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade.
Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.

Douglas Vermeeren, has done extensive research into why many people
fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating
factors. Vermeeren states that unless an individual can clearly identify
their motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why
they wish to attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it.

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Expectancy theory is about choice. It explains the processes that an individual
undergoes to make choices. In organizational behavior study, expectancy theory is a
motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management.

Expectancy theory predicts that employees in an organization will be motivated when

they believe that:

 putting in more effort will yield better job performance

 better job performance will lead to organizational rewards, such as an increase
in salary or benefits
 These predicted organizational rewards are valued by the employee in
question.

"This theory emphasizes the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to
performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and
wanted by the recipients."

- Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of rewards with employee's wants. -

Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards and organizational
goals

Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among
alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Together
with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Vroom suggested that the relationship
between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first
imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based
on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.

Victor H. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are
valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important
behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-
performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O
expectancy).

E>P expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the
required performance level.

P>O expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will
lead to certain outcomes.

24
Vroom’s model is based on three concepts:
1. Valence - Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. For
the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not
attaining it.
2. Instrumentality – Means of the first level outcome in obtaining the desired
second level outcome; the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to
the second level outcome.
3. Expectancy - Probability or strength of belief that a particular action will lead
to a particular first level outcome.

Vroom says the product of these variables is the motivation.

25
In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use systems that
tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the
rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the
effort-performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their
capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better
performance.

26
Equity Theory attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of
fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Equity theory
is considered as one of the justice theories, It was first developed in 1962 by John
Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that
employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the
outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of
others (Adams, 1965). The belief is that people value fair treatment in which causes
them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their
co-workers and the organization. The structure of equity in the workplace is based on
the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are the contributions made by the employee for
the organization; this includes the work done by the employees and the behavior
brought by the employee as well as their skills and other useful experiences the
employee may contribute for the good of the company.

Definition of Equity

An individual will consider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the ratio of his
inputs to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him. Thus, all else being
equal, it would be acceptable for a more senior colleague to receive higher
compensation, since the value of his experience (an input) is higher. The way people
base their experience with satisfaction for their job is the make comparisons with
themselves to the people they work with. If an employee notices that another person is
getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when both have
done the same amount and quality of work, it would persuade the employee to be
dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction would result in the employee feeling
underappreciated and perhaps worthless. This is in direct contrast with the idea of
equity theory, the idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related with the
quality and quantity of the employees contributions (inputs). If both employees were
perhaps rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the organization
is fair, observant, and appreciative.

This can be illustrated by the following equation:

Inputs and outcomes

Inputs

Inputs are defined as each participant’s contributions to the relational exchange and
are viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs. The inputs that a participant
contributes to a relationship can be either assets – entitling him/her to rewards – or
liabilities - entitling him/her to costs. The entitlement to rewards or costs ascribed to
each input vary depending on the relational setting. In industrial settings, assets such
as capital and manual labor are seen as "relevant inputs" – inputs that legitimately
entitle the contributor to rewards. In social settings, assets such as physical beauty and
kindness are generally seen as assets entitling the possessor to social rewards.

27
Individual traits such as boorishness and cruelty are seen as liabilities entitling the
possessor to costs (Walster, Traupmann & Walster, 1978). Inputs typically include
any of the following:

• Time
• Effort
• Loyalty
• Hard Work
• Commitment
• Ability
• Adaptability
• Flexibility
• Tolerance
• Determination
• Enthusiasm
• Personal sacrifice
• Trust in superiors
• Support from co-workers and colleagues
• Skill

Outcomes

Outputs are defined as the positive and negative consequences that an individual
perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with
another. When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the employee should have
much satisfaction with their job. Outputs can be both tangible and intangible (Walster,
Traupmann & Walster, 1978). Typical outcomes include any of the following:

• Job Security
• Esteem
• Salary
• Employee benefit
• Expenses
• Recognition
• Reputation
• Responsibility
• Sense of achievement
• Praise
• Thanks
• Stimuli

Propositions

Equity Theory consists of four propositions:

1. Individuals seek to maximize their outcomes (where outcomes are defined as

rewards minus costs)
2. Groups can maximize collective rewards by developing accepted systems for
equitably apportioning rewards and costs among members. Systems of equity
will evolve within groups, and members will attempt to induce other members

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 to accept and adhere to these systems. The only way groups can induce
members to equitably behave is by making it more profitable to behave
equitably than inequitably. Thus, groups will generally reward members who
treat others equitably and generally punish (increase the cost for) members
who treat others inequitably.
3. When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable relationships,
they become distressed. The more inequitable the relationship, the more
distress individuals feel. According to equity theory, both the person who gets
“too much” and the person who gets “too little” feel distressed. The person
who gets too much may feel guilt or shame. The person who gets too little
may feel angry or humiliated.
4. Individuals who perceive that they are in an inequitable relationship attempt to
eliminate their distress by restoring equity. The greater the inequity, the more
distress people feel and the more they try to restore equity. (Walster,
Traupmann and Walster, 1978)

Equity Theory in Business

Equity Theory has been widely applied to business settings by Industrial
Psychologists to describe the relationship between an employee's motivation and his
or her perception of equitable or inequitable treatment. In a business setting, the
relevant dyadic relationship is that between employee and employer. As in marriage
and other contractual dyadic relationships, Equity Theory assumes that employees
seek to maintain an equitable ratio between the inputs they bring to the relationship
and the outcomes they receive from it (Adams, 1965). Equity Theory in business,
however, introduces the concept of social comparison, whereby employees evaluate
their own input/output ratios based on their comparison with the input/outcome ratios
of other employees (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). Inputs in this context include the
employee’s time, expertise, qualifications, experience, intangible personal qualities
such as drive and ambition, and interpersonal skills. Outcomes include monetary
compensation, perquisites (“perks”), benefits, and flexible work arrangements.
Employees who perceive inequity will seek to reduce it, either by distorting inputs
and/or outcomes in their own minds ("cognitive distortion"), directly altering inputs
and/or outcomes, or leaving the organization (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). Thus, the
theory has wide-reaching implications for employee morale, efficiency, productivity,
and turnover.

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Reinforcer: Any stimulus that, when contingent on a response, serves to increase the
rate of responding

Reinforcement theory: The main idea that reinforcers can control behavior. The
definition has two main components: Contingency, where the occurrence of the
reinforcer depends on the occurrence of the learner's response, and Rate of
Responding, where the reinforcer serves to increase the learner's rate of responding.

Schedules of Reinforcement
When the desired behavior is gained as a result of reinforcement, reinforcing again
and again becomes too time-consuming. An abrupt stoppage of the reinforcement
would cause the performance of the desired behavior to weaken. Therefore, a gradual
thinning of reinforcement is necessary. Schedules of reinforcement are the rules for
how a reinforcer is presented following a behavior. They can be defined in terms of
time (interval) or number of responses (ratio).

Fixed interval

Reinforces behaviors at a specific time (ex. Every 5 minutes). One reinforcer would
be delivered if at least one correct response was made during the time interval. The
reinforced can become aware of the time length and, knowing he has to perform just
once, will wait for the time limit to run out before beginning his next task.

Example: Rewarded at the end of every class period for good behavior

Fixed ratio

Reinforces behaviors after a specific number of responses (ex. Every 5th response).
The key here is to seek the right amount of work given the reward schedule. Normally
a ratio schedule produces consistent work.

Example: Rewarded for every homework assignment turned in

Variable interval

Reinforces behaviors at various time intervals randomly. The student's behavioral

performance is is higher and steadier because he cannot determine the next time
interval that will be used to make the reinforcement available.

Example: Rewarded at different times of the day for good behavior

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Variable ratio

Reinforces behaviors after various numbers of responses randomly. It is done in such

a manner that the reinforcer is not predictable, so the student maintains or even
increases the pace of his output.

Example: Rewarded for some homework assignments turned in

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32
We would like to conclude on a special note regarding very keen and
sharp completive environment in which Motivation is placed in Pakistan.
We conclude that employee motivation is a most sensitive factor in
management, employee wants satisfaction, and reward opportunity, but
major problem is that there is a conflict between employer & employee

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 Mobile Networking in Pakistan now should move to improving the
top priority of market.

 The Mobile card networking in Pakistan should work on improving

its image and create market loyalty.

 The Mobile card Networking can create a mental association with

people.

 The Mobile card networking in Pakistan, The quality and service

providing of the fast delivery process, security and reliability
should be improved.

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Www.yahoo.com

Www.wiki-answer.org

35
Q11) Personal Information

Name: ____________

Sex: ______________

Age: _____________

Qualification: ____________

HAVE A NICE DAY

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