PERKEMBANGAN ORGANISASI

DAN MANAJEMEN

OLEH :
AMY S. RAHAYU
 DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT THEORY

PERIOD 1 PRE-SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1880)

PERIOD 2 CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT (1880-1930)

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT CLASSICAL ORGANIZATIONAL

THEORY THEORY

PERIOD 3 BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT (1930-1950)

MANAGEMENT SCIENCE SYSTEM APPROACH

(OPERATIONS RESEARCH)

CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT
(1950 TO PRESENT)
SUMBER: McLAUGHLIN, 1994:15
THE MODEL FOR ORGANIZATION
PREVAILED THROUGH THE GREEK
& ROMAN EMPIRES, THE HOLY
ROMAN EMPIRES, THE FEUDAL
SYSTEM OF THE MEDIEVAL
PERIOD, THE RENAISSANCE, AND
UNTIL THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, ACTING AS A
CATALIST, MARKED THE START OF SERIOUS STUDY
OF MANAGEMENT AND ORANIZATION

A PIONEER ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858) A MANAGER OF

SEVERAL COTTON MILLS IN SCOTLAND, ARGUED THAT
IMPROVING THE CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYEES WOULD LEAD TO
INCREASED PRODUCTION AND PROFITS.
HE CALLED HIS WORKER ‘VITAL MACHINES’, AND SAID THAT A
MANAGER’S BEST INVESMENT WAS IN THE WORKERS.
HE REDUCED THE STANDARD WORKING DAY TO 10 ½ HOURS
AND REFUSED TO HIRE CHILDREN UNDER THE AGE OF TEN.
ANOTHER PIONEER WAS CHARLES
BABBAGE (1792-1871) AN ENGLISH
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS,
WHO STUDIED FACTORY
EFFICIENCY.
HE ADVOCATED DIVISION OF
LABOUR AND PROPOSED THAT
VARIOUS SKILLS SHOULD BE
ISOLATED AND THAT WORKERS
SHOULD ONLY DO THE JOBS THEY
WERE TRAINED IN. THE ASSEMBLY
LINE IS BASED ON MANY OF
BABBAGE’S IDEAS
 CLASSICAL
MANAGEMENT THEORY

MA AL ORY
N SC S IC THE
AG IE L AS ION
EM NTI C AT
EN FIC N IZ
TT GA
HE OR
ORY
ATTENTION WAS FOCUSED ON HOW RESOURCES COULD BE
EFFECTIVELY CONVERTED INTO FINISHED GOODS AND
SERVICES. MANAGERS WERE CONCERNED WITH EFFICIENCY
AND MAXIMIZATION OF OUTPUT

THE PIONEER :
• FREDERICK W. TAYLOR (1856-1915) AN AMERICAN
ENGINEER. STRESSED THAT THE CORE OF SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT WAS IN ATTITUDE AND NOT JUST IN
SPECIFIC TECHNIQUES.
TAYLOR BELIEVING THAT MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR
HAD A COMMON INTEREST IN INCREASING
PRODUCTIVITY.
HIS TWO BOOKS, ‘SHOP MANAGEMENT’ (1906) AND ‘THE
PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT’ (1911)
TAYLOR’S CONTRIBUTION :

THE FOUR MAIN PRINCIPLE

• ALL JOBS CAN BE OBSERVED AND
ANALYSED IN ORDER TO DETERMINE THE
BEST WAY OF ACOMPLISHING THEM
• THE BEST PERSON FOR THE JOB CAN BE
SCIENTIFICALLY SELECTED AND TRAINED
• YOU CAN ENSURE THAT THE ONE BEST
WAY IS FOLLOWED BY TRAINING PEOPLE
AND PAYING THEM ON AN INCENTIVE
BASIS, TYING WAGES TO PRODUCTION
• PUT A MANAGER IN CHARGE OF
PLANNING, PREPARING ANG INSPECTING
WORK. THE WORKER SIMPLY CARRIES
OUT THE MANAGER’S DIRECTIONS
THE PIONEER :
2. HENRY GANTT (1861-1919) HE WORKED WITH TAYLOR
BEFORE WORKING ALONE AS A CONSULTING INDUSTRIAL
ENGINEER, AND IS BEST KNOWN FOR DEVISING A
CHARTING SYSTEM FOR PRODUCTION SCHEDULING AND
CONTROL. THIS SYSTEM CALLED THE ‘GANTT CHART’ IS
STILL USE TODAY
3. FRANK AND LILIAN GILBRETH (1868-1924, 1878-1942),
MADE CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
THEORY IN AREAS OF FATIQUE AND MOTION STUDIES.

TAYLOR AND HIS FOLLOWERS CONCENTRATION FOR SHOP-

LEVEL (FIRST LINE LEVEL)
 CLASSICAL ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY FOCUSES ATTENTION
ON FINDING GUIDELINES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF COMPLEX
ORGANIZATIONS

THE PIONEER :
• HENRI FAYOL (1841-1925) A FRENCH INDUSTRIALIST. HE
ANALYSED MANAGEMENT FROM A TOP-LEVEL
PERSPECTIVE AND BELIEVED THAT SOUND MANAGERIAL
PRACTICE FELL INTO CERTAIN IDENTIFIABLE PATTERNS
TWO MAJOR CONTRIBUTION :
1. HE IDENTIFIED FIVE PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF
MANAGEMENT (THE FUNCTION OF MANAGER :POCCC)
2. HE ESTABLISHED A SET OF PRINCIPLES WHICH
MANAGER SHOULD APPLY AS THEY PERFORM THESE
FUNCTION
• MAX WEBER, CONSTRUCTED A MODEL OF ORGANIZATION
STRUCTURE THAT WOULD BE BOTH RATIONAL AND
EFFICIENT FOR LARGE ORGANIZATIONS. THE TERM HE
CHOSE FOR THIS MODEL WAS ‘BUREAUCRACY’
THE BASIS OF WEBER’S BUREAUCRACY WAS :
• AN ELABORATE DIVISION OF LABOUR
• SELECTION AND PROMOTION ON THE BASIS OF MERIT TO
MEET PRESCRIBED POSITION SPECIFICATIONS
• SET SALARIES AND BENEFITS
• A SET HIERARCHY OF JOBS AND OFFICES
• OBEDIENCE TO AUTHORITY VESTED IN SPECIFIC POSITION
• A CLEAR CHANNEL OF COMMAND
• FORMAL, IMPERSONAL RULES AND DISCIPLINE
(NEO-CLASSICAL MANAGEMNET THEORY)

BEHAVIOURAL MANAGEMENT THEORY DRAW ON THE

FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY
IN ORDER TO BETTER UNDERSTAND
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN A WORK
ENVIRONMENT

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
HUMAN RELATION APPROACH
APPROACH
THE PIONEER :
• ELTON MAYO (1880-1949) AN AUSTRALIAN BASED IN UNITED
STATE. MADE IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES ABOUT WORKERS’
BEHAVIOUR AT THE HAWTHORNE PLANT OF WESTERN
ELECTRIC.
HIS RESEARCH, FROM 1927 TO 1932, SHOWED THAT WHEN
SPECIAL ATTENTION IS GIVEN TO WORKERS BY
MANAGEMENT, PRODUCTIVITY IS LIKELY TO INCREASE,
REGARDLESS OF ANY CHANGES IN WORKING CONDITIONS.
THIS PHENOMENON LATER BECAME KNOWN AS THE
“HAWTHORNE EFFECT”
A RESULT OF MAYO’S FINDINGS WAS THAT MORE ATTETION
WAS DIRECTED TOWARDS TEACHING ‘PEOPLE-
MANAGEMENT’ SKILLLS, AS OPPOSED TO TECHNICAL
SKILLS
• DOUGLAS McGREGOR (1901-1964) A MANAGEMENT
WRITER AND THEORIEST, THE CLASSICALLY
STRUCTURED ORGANIZATIONS (WITH ITS
CENTRALIZED AUTHORITY, SPECIALIZED JOBS,
CLOSE SUPERVISION OF EMPLOYEES,ets) WAS A
REFLECTION OF CLASSICAL WRITER’S ASSUMPTIONS
ABOUT HUMAN NATURE. McGREGOR CALLED THESE
ASSUMPTIONS :

“THEORY X”

1. THE AVERAGE PERSON INHERENTLY DISLIKES WORK

AND WILL AVOID RESPONSIBILITY
2. MOST PEOPLE MUST BE CONTROLLED, DIRECTED
AND THREATENED WITHPUNISHMENT TO GET THEM
TO DO AN ADEQUATE JOB
3. THE AVERAGE PERSON PREFERS TO BE DIRECTED,
AND WANTS TO AVOID RESPONSIBILITY
“THEORY Y”
ASSUMPTION HAVE STRONG IMPLICATIONS FOR THE WAY
ORGANIZATION SHOULD BE STRUCTURED. THEY PROPOSE
DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY, LESS CLOSE AND MORE GENERAL
SUPERVISION, AND MORE INTERESTING JOBS

4. THE AVERAGE PERSON DOES NOT INHERENTLY DISLIKES

WORK
5. EXTERNAL CONTROL AND THE THREAT OF PUNISHMENT ARE
NOT THE ONLY MEANS FOR GETTING PEOPLE TO WORK
TOWARDS AN ORGANIZATION’S OBJECTIVE
6. PEOPLE ARE MOTIVATED BEST BY SATISFYING THEIR HIGHER
ORDER NEEDS FOR ACHIEVEMENT, ESTEEM AND SELF
REALIZATION
7. THE AVERAGE PERSON LEARNS, UNDER THE RIGHT CONDITION,
NOT ONLY TO ACCEPT BUT TO SEEK RESPONSIBILITIES
8. THE ABILITY TO USE IMAGINATION, INGENUITY AND CREATIVITY
IN SOLVING ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEMS IS WIDESPREAD IN
THE POPULATION.
SELF ACTUALIZATION NEEDS

ESTEEM NEEDS

SOCIAL NEEDS

SAFETY NEEDS

BASIC NEEDS

BY ABRAHAM MASLOW
 CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT THEORY ATTEMPTS TO
INTEGRATE VARIOUS EXISTING MANAGEMENT THEORIES IN
ORDER TO FIND THE BEST APPROACH FOR A PARTICULAR
SITUATION

MANAGER
SUBORDINATES
TASK
SITUATION
ORGANIZATION
ENVIRONMENT
TIMING
• MANAGEMENT SCIENCE OR OPERATION REASEARCH
• IT IS AN APPROACH OFTEN USED FOR PROBLEM SOLVING
• A TEAM OF SPECIALISTS ANALYSES A PROBLEM AND
PROPOSES A COURSE OF ACTION TO MANAGEMENT
• MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND COMPUTERS ARE
FREQUENTLY USED IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM
•THE RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS ARE USEFUL FOR
PLANNING AND CONTROLLING, BUT HAVE LIMITED
APPLICATION TO ISSUES DIRECTLY CONCERNING PEOPLE
 IN THE SYSTEM APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT, THE
ORGANIZATION IS SEEN AS A UNIFIED SYSTEM MADE
UP OF MANY INTERRELATED PARTS.

WHAT IS SYSTEM ?

INPUT PROCESSES OUTPUT OUTCOME

FEEDBACK
ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT