8/28/2009

Comparison of Aquatic & Terrestrial Conditions

Environmental Aquatic Terrestrial

Condition
Oxygen Low & variable; Nearly constant;
0-12 mg/L 300 mg/L
Pressure Variable; Nearly constant
changes every 10 meters
Temperature Variable Variable
Chemistry Variable Constant
Density High; Low;
800 x air, no significant energy cost
significant energy cost to breathe to breathe
Viscosity High; Low; no significant
significant energy cost to swim limitation to movement

Interactions with Chemical, Physical,

& Biological Factors

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Growth Rate

 The velocity at which an organism or population of

organisms gains weight (mass) over a given time period.
 Individual organism = g/day
 Population = kg/ha/day, kg/m3/day, lb/acre/day

Energy Needs

 Energy available for growth =

gross assimilated energy – energy for maintenance

 Maintenance includes:
 Muscular activity
 Respiration
 Digestion
 Reproduction
 Excretion

Calculating Growth Rate

 Growth rate = (final weight – initial weight) / days passed

 Growth is not linear or constant over time.

 Relative growth is a measure of the growth rate per unit of weight & is
reported as a percent increase in body weight.
 Relative growth = (weight gain/initial weight) x 100
Or
((final weight – initial weight)/initial weight) x 100

 Absolute growth rate is a measure of the time required to grow a given

unit of weight.
 Absolute growth rate = weight gain / growing period
Or
(final weight – initial weight)/# days

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Example

 A fish is stocked at 100 g and grows to 160 g in 30 days.

 Relative growth = (60 g / 100 g) x 100 = 60% increase

in body weight

 Absolute growth = 60 g / 30 days = 2 g/day growth

Absolute or Relative

 Culturists are mainly interested in absolute growth rate

because:
 They want to produce the greatest amount of edible
product; in the shortest time per unit of water area.
 The faster the absolute growth, the shorter the time needed
to reach harvestable size.
 Stocking a large fish will allow the fish to grow at a fast
absolute growth rate immediately after stocking & reach
market size in a shorter period of time.

Factors Affecting Growth Rate

 Water quality
 Water temperature
 Age
 Health
 Genetics
 Size
 Stocking density

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Metabolic Rate versus Growth

 The smaller the fish, the higher its basic metabolic rate.
 Thus, more food per unit of body weight is needed for
small fish to reach & maintain maximum growth capacity
than for larger fish.
 The smaller the fish, the higher the daily feed allotment
based on percentage of the fish’s body weight to maintain
maximum growth.

Examples of Feeding Rates

 Fry: fed 8 – 10% of body weight per day

 Fingerlings (1 – 100 g): fed 5% of body weight per day

 Stockers (100 -500 g): fed 3% body weight per day

 Food-size (>500 g): fed 2% body weight per day

Water Quality

 Maximum growth rate occurs at optimum levels of pH, DO,

CO2, salinity, unionized ammonia, etc.
 Optimum water quality for best growth is different for each
species.
 Generally:
 DO >5 mg/L
 pH 6 – 9
 CO2 < 10 mg/L
 Unionized ammonia <0.05 mg/L

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Temperature Effects on Growth

 Growth slows or stops at high (hot) and low (cold) water

temperatures.
 Optimal growth at optimal temperature.
 Optimum temperature is different for each species.

Effects of Health on Growth

 Fish in poor health will not grow as well as fish in good

health.
 Poor health is usually caused by stress due to:
 Handling (stocking & harvesting)
 Poor water quality
 Unfavorable water temperature
 Nutritional deficiency

Effects of Poor Water Quality on Health

 Poor water quality causes most health-related issues.

 Culturists stock fish densities & feed amounts that are too
high for the culture system & water area.
 Overfeeding results in poor water quality & chronic stress,
which can lead to disease.
 Often lowering fish standing crop can help the culturist
maintain good water quality.

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Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations Needed to

Support a Moderate Degree of Swimming as
Dissolved CO2 Increases

Effect of Feeding on Oxygen Consumption

(catfish before -.- & after ---)

Fish Circulatory System

 Arrangement of blood flow

results in a steady decrease
in pressure to trunk muscles.
 Muscle:
 Red - aerobic energy for
cruising & foraging
positioning
 White – fast acceleration
(can be anaerobic)

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Osmoregulation in Fresh & Saltwater Fish

Digestion

 Digestion begins in stomach not mouth.

 Distention stimulates secretion of HCl & pepsinogen
 In marine fish food is coated with mucous layer containing HCL
& pepsinogen.
 Intestine (proximal midgut & distal hindgut (microbial processing))
 Bile & digestive enzymes (chitinase, amylase, & lipase, etc)
 Fish do not have separate large intestine; some fish do not have
stomachs (carp & suckers)
 Specific dynamic action (10 – 50 % increase in O2 consumption)
 Food retention: Composition, temperature, volume

A Few Definitions
 Endocrine gland (ductless gland)
 A gland that manufactures one or more hormones and secretes directly into
the bloodstream (and not through a duct)
 Hormone
 A substance that is produced in one part of the body by an endocrine gland, passes
into the bloodstream and is carried to other organs or tissues, where it acts to modify
their structure or function.
 Regulate and coordinate physiological processes
 Development
 Growth
 Reproduction
 Homeostasis
 Energy
 Behavior

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Examples of Endocrine Glands

 Pituitary Gland
 Adrenal Gland
 Thyroid/parathyroid
 Gonads
 Others

Pituitary Gland
 Located at base of brain =
hypophysis
 “Master gland” of endocrine
system
 Neurohypophysis
(pars nervosa)
 Adenohypophysis
(pars distalis)
 Pars intermedia

Adrenal Glands

 Not a discrete, organized gland in fish

 Located in inter-renal tissue and suprarenal gland
 Production of stress hormones
 Corticosteroids - cortisol
 Catecholamines – epinephrine, norepinephrine

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Adrenal Glands

Stress response of
adrenal hormones

Gonads

 Gonad stimulation and development by gonadrotropin

hormones.
 Production of estrogens, progesterone, maturation factors,
testosterone by gonads.
 Environmental pollutants can increase cell destruction, or
mimic sex steroids.
 Artificial manipulation of spawning, sexual manipulation
in aquaculture.

Gonads

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Thyroid Glands

 Diffuse organ system, located in tiny nodules around heart,

head kidney, ovary and pericardium.
 Stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from
adenohypophysis.
 Production of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
from thyroid gland.
 Important in growth, development, metabolism and
osmoregulation (smoltification).

Thyroid glands

Pineal Gland (epiphysis)

 Receives and processes light stimuli

 Produces melatonin
 Adjustment of physiologic and behavior due to changing
photoperiod – circadian rhythms
 Growth
 Reproduction
 Migration
 Metabolism
 Skin pigmentation

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Corpuscles of Stannius

 Unique to teleosts
and holostean fishes
 Produce the
hormone
stanniocalcin
 Important in
regulating Ca++
levels – reduce
uptake at gills

Stress Response Stages

 Initial alarm reaction-Pituitary-interrenal axis is activated

& catecholamine & corticosteroid hormones are released.
 Stage of resistance- physiological systems have successfully
compensated & acclimation has been achieved. Caloric
energy cost for compensation & growth may be reduced.
 Stage of exhaustion- severity of the stressful challenge has
exceeded acclimation tolerance limits. Immune protection
is impaired & fish disease may occur.

Water Chemistry Limits Recommended to Protect

Health of Cold- & Warmwater Fish
Parameter Recommended limits Parameter Recommended limits

Acidity pH 6 – 9 Hydrogen sulfide <0.003 mg/L

Arsenic <400 ug/L Iron <0.1 mg/L

Alkalinity >20 mg/L (as CaCO3-) Lead <0.02 mg/L

Aluminum <0.075 mg/L Mercury <0.0002 mg/L

Ammonia (un-ionized) <0.02 mg/L Nitrate (NO3-) <1.0 mg/L

Cadmium <0.0005 mg/L in soft water Nitrite (NO2-) <0.1 mg/L

<0.005 mg/L in hard water
Clacium >5 mg/L Oxygen 6 mg/L, coldwater fish
4 ,mg/L, warmwater fish
Carbon dioxide <5 – 10 mg/L Selenium <0.01 mg/L

Chloride >4.0 mg/L TDS <200 mg/L

Chlorine <0.003 mg/L TSS <80 mg/L

Copper <0.0006 mg/L in soft water Turbidity <20 NTU over ambient levels
<0.03 mg/L in hard water
Gas supersaturation <110% total gas pressure Zinc <0.005 mg/L

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