CONTENTS

1. CONSIDERATIONS ON HARDNESS TESTING

2. WHAT IS HARDNESS TESTING?

3. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

4. ROCKWELL SUPERFICIAL HARDNESS TEST

5. THE BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

6. VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

7. MICROHARDNESS TEST

8. HANDHELD TESTERS

9. CONVERSIONS AND COMPARISONS OF HARDNESS VALUES

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1. CONSIDERATIONS ON HARDNESS TESTING
WHAT TYPE OF TESTER SHOULD I USE?

The more the operator can be removed from the test process, the better the result will
be. A portable device should therefore only be used if the use of a bench tester is not
going to be possible.

Bench testers offer greater stability, rigidity and consistency of operation. If your test
piece is capable of being placed in a bench tester, or if you can take a sample for testing
in a bench tester, then this will be the best option.

Better still are the digital and motorised machines that take out operator error by either
instructing the user when to carry out each stage of the test, or remove any operator
input apart from loading the sample and pressing “start”.

Portables are becoming very accurate, but they still require an operator to hold them in
the correct orientation, and the relative low load is susceptible to any surface or material
faults.

Portable testers that can fit in stands or rigid frames will produce better results than free
hand operation – although sometimes a portable machine is the only way a test can be
carried out.

If the component needs to be measured accurately to HV/10 for example, then the best
option is to use a machine that can test to HV/10. Comparative tests are possible, but as
mentioned in section 9, they can leave room for errors. It is possible to make test
samples to compare a bench test to a portable test to help reduce this problem.

ROCKWELL, VICKERS, BRINELL, LEEB, KNOOP, MICRO, MACRO, UCI,

BENCH, PORTABLE...?

The amount of machines and methods available can be confusing. The important thing to
do is choose the test method that bests suits your component.

For example, a Brinell 3000kg load behind a 10mm ball will be of no use for testing thin
case hardness, and likewise a Micro-Vickers or Knoop test will be no good on coarse
grained materials with a poor surface finish.

Using this guide will help you start to understand hardness testing, and go some way into
helping you select the method that could be best suited for.

Bowers Metrology can help walk you through the various testers and methods to help
you select the set up that will best suit your purpose.

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2. WHAT IS HARDNESS TESTING?
WHAT IS HARDNESS?

Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,

usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to
bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.

MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS:

Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise

definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A
hardness property value is the result of a defined measurement
procedure.

Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by resistance

to scratching or cutting. An example would be material B scratches
material C, but not material A. Alternatively, material A scratches
material B slightly and scratches material C heavily. Relative hardness
of minerals can be assessed by reference to the Mohs Scale that ranks
the ability of materials to resist scratching by another material.
Similar methods of relative hardness assessment are still commonly
used today.

An example is the file test where a file tempered to a desired hardness is rubbed on the
test material surface. If the file slides without biting or marking the surface, the test
material would be considered harder than the file. If the file
CV Rockwell Basic
bites or marks the surface, the test material would be Digital
considered softer than the file. Hardness Tester 600BD

The above relative hardness tests are limited in practical use and do not
provide accurate numeric data or scales particularly for modern day
metals and materials. The usual method to achieve a hardness value is
to measure the depth or area of an indentation left by an indenter of a
specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time. There are
three principal standard test methods for expressing the relationship
between hardness and the size of the impression, these being Brinell,
Vickers, and Rockwell. For practical and calibration reasons, each of
these methods is divided into a range
of

scales, defined by a
combination of
applied load and
indenter geometry.

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3. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test
material under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf.

When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device, which follows the movements
of the indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set
to a datum position.

While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is applied with
resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B).

When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is removed but the
preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a
partial recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration (Fig. 1C).

The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and
removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.

HR = E - e
F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf
F1 = additional major load in kgf
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1 measured in units
of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130 units
for steel ball indenter
HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball

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 Fig. 1.Rockwell Principle

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Page 5
ROCKWELL HARDNESS SCALES

Minor Load Major Load Total Load

Value of
Scale Indenter F0 F1 F
E
kgf kgf kgf

A Diamond cone 10 50 60 100

B 1/16" steel ball 10 90 100 130

C Diamond cone 10 140 150 100

D Diamond cone 10 90 100 100

E 1/8" steel ball 10 90 100 130

F 1/16" steel ball 10 50 60 130

G 1/16" steel ball 10 140 150 130

H 1/8" steel ball 10 50 60 130

K 1/8" steel ball 10 140 150 130

L 1/4" steel ball 10 50 60 130

M 1/4" steel ball 10 90 100 130

P 1/4" steel ball 10 140 150 130

R 1/2" steel ball 10 50 60 130

S 1/2" steel ball 10 90 100 130

V 1/2" steel ball 10 140 150 130

TYPICAL APPLICATION OF ROCKWELL HARDNESS SCALES

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Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness
number readout and rapid testing time.

Disadvantages include many arbitrary non-

related scales and possible effects from the
specimen support anvil (try putting a
cigarette paper under a test block and take
note of the effect on the hardness reading!
Vickers and Brinell methods don't suffer from
this effect).

CV Rockwell Basic
Digital
Eseway Premium Hardness Tester 600BD
Rockwell
Hardness Tester EW650

Reproduced with kind permission of Gordon England

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4. ROCKWELL SUPERFICIAL HARDNESS TEST
The Rockwell Superficial hardness test method consists of indenting the test material
with a diamond cone (N scale) or hardened steel ball indenter.

The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 1A)
usually 3 kgf.

When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device that follows the movements of
the indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to
a datum position.

While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load, is applied with
resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B).

When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is removed but the
preliminary minor load is still maintained.

Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of
penetration (Fig. 1C).

The permanent increase in depth of penetration, e, resulting from the application and
removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell Superficial
hardness number.

HR = E - e
F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf
F1 = additional major load in kgf
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1, measured in units
of 0.001 mm
E = a constant of 100 units for diamond and ball indenters
HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball

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 Fig. 1.Rockwell Superficial Principle

ROCKWELL SUPERFICIAL HARDNESS SCALES

Minor Load Major Load Total Load

Value of
Scale Indenter Type F0 F1 F
E
kgf kgf kgf

HR 15 N N Diamond cone 3 12 15 100

HR 30 N N Diamond cone 3 27 30 100

HR 45 N N Diamond cone 3 42 45 100

HR 15 T 1/16" steel ball 3 12 15 100

HR 30 T 1/16" steel ball 3 27 30 100

HR 45 T 1/16" steel ball 3 42 45 100

HR 15 W 1/8" steel ball 3 12 15 100

HR 30 W 1/8" steel ball 3 27 30 100

HR 45 W 1/8" steel ball 3 42 45 100

HR 15 X 1/4" steel ball 3 12 15 100

HR 30 X 1/4" steel ball 3 27 30 100

HR 45 X 1/4" steel ball 3 42 45 100

HR 15 Y 1/2" steel ball 3 12 15 100

HR 30 Y 1/2" steel ball 3 27 30 100

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HR 45 Y 1/2" steel ball 3 42 45 100

TYPICAL APPLICATION OF ROCKWELL SUPERFICIAL HARDNESS SCALES

Eseway® Premium Closed

Loop Rockwell Hardness
Tester EW6000

Reproduced with kind permission of Gordon England

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5. THE BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm
diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg.

For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive
indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and
steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals.

The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered
microscope. The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the
surface area of the indentation.

F= Force (Kgf)

B= Ball diameter (mm)

D= Diameter of Indentation

The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the
use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell
hardness. A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and
looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was
obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a
period of 30 seconds.

On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.
Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and
widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material,
which will more accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in
the uniformity of the material.

This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material,
particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.

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 ‘King’ Brinell Portable
Hardness Tester

CV Brinell Digital
Hardness Tester 3000JDB

Reproduced with kind permission of Gordon England

Page 12
6. VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond
indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees
between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf.

The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the
indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured
using a microscope and their average calculated.

The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is
the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.

F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm

HV = Vickers hardness

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Page 13
When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers hardness
may be calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use conversion tables.
The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers
hardness of 800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force.

Several different loading settings give practically identical hardness numbers on uniform
material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of scale with the other
hardness testing methods.

The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate readings can be
taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface
treatments. The disadvantage of this type of test is that when using manual optical
measuring devices, different operators can get different readings for the same
indentation due to personal optical variations. Newer TV based optical systems have now
made this less of a problem, and PC based systems have reduced the operator optical
error to almost zero.

There is now a trend towards reporting Vickers hardness in SI units (MPa or GPa)
particularly in academic papers. Unfortunately, this can cause confusion. Vickers
hardness (e.g. HV/30) value should normally be expressed as a number only (without the
units kgf/mm2).

Rigorous application of SI is a problem. Most Vickers hardness testing machines use

forces of 1, 2, 5, 10, 30, 50 and 100 kgf and tables for calculating HV. SI would involve
reporting force in newtons (compare 700 HV/30 to HV/294 N = 6.87 GPa) which is
practically meaningless and messy to engineers and technicians.

To convert a Vickers hardness number the force applied needs converting from kgf to
newtons and the area needs converting form mm2 to m2 to give results in pascals using
the formula above.

To convert HV to MPa multiply by 9.807

To convert HV to GPa multiply by 0.009807

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7. MICROHARDNESS TEST
The term microhardness test usually refers to static indentations made with loads not
exceeding 1 kgf. The indenter is either the Vickers diamond pyramid or the Knoop
elongated diamond pyramid. The procedure for testing is very similar to that of the
standard Vickers hardness test, except that it is done on a microscopic scale with higher
precision instruments.

The surface being tested generally requires a metallographic finish; the smaller the load
used, the higher the surface finish required. Precision microscopes are used to measure
the indentations; these usually have a magnification of around X500 and measure to an
accuracy of +0.5 micrometres. Also with the same observer differences of +0.2
micrometres can usually be resolved. It should, however, be added that considerable
care and experience are necessary to obtain this accuracy.

KNOOP

Knoop Hardness Indenter Indentation

The Knoop hardness number KHN is the ratio of the load applied to the indenter, P (kgf)
to the unrecovered projected area A (mm2)

KHN = F/A = P/CL2

Where:
F = applied load in kgf
A = the unrecovered projected area of the indentation in mm2

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L = measured length of long diagonal of indentation in mm
C = 0.07028 = Constant of indenter relating projected area of the indentation to the
square of the length of the long diagonal.

The Knoop indenter is a diamond ground to pyramidal form that produces a diamond
shaped indentation having approximate ratio between long and short diagonals of 7:1.
The depth of indentation is about 1/30 of its length. When measuring the Knoop
hardness, only the longest diagonal of the indentation is measured and this is used in the
above formula with the load used to calculate KHN. Tables of these values are usually a
more convenient way to look-up KHN values from the measurements.

MICRO-VICKERS

Vickers Pyramid Diamond Indenter

Indentation

The Vickers Diamond Pyramid harness

number is the applied load (kgf) divided
by the surface area of the indentation
(mm2)

Where:
F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness

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Page 16
The Vickers Diamond Pyramid indenter is ground in the form of a squared pyramid with
an angle of 136o between faces. The depth of indentation is about 1/7 of the diagonal
length. When calculating the Vickers Diamond Pyramid hardness number, both diagonals
of the indentation are measured and the mean of these values is used in the above
formula with the load used to determine the value of HV. Tables of these values are
usually a more convenient way to look-up HV values from the measurements.

KNOOP VS. VICKERS

Comparing the indentations made with Knoop and Vickers Diamond Pyramid indenters
for a given load and test material:

• Vickers indenter penetrates about twice as deep as Knoop indenter

• Vickers indentation diagonal about 1/3 of the length of Knoop major diagonal
• Vickers test is less sensitive to surface conditions than Knoop test
• Vickers test is more sensitive to measurement errors than knoop test
• Vickers test best for small rounded areas
• Knoop test best for small elongated areas
• Knoop test good for very hard brittle materials and very thin sections

There is now a trend

towards reporting
Vickers and Knoop
hardness in SI units
(MPa or GPa)
particularly in
academic papers.
Unfortunately, this
can cause confusion.
Vickers hardness
(e.g. HV/30) value
should normally be
expressed as a
number only (without the units kgf/mm2).

Rigorous application of SI is a problem. Most Vickers hardness testing machines use

forces of 1, 2, 5, 10, 30, 50 and 100 kgf and tables for calculating HV. SI would involve

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Page 17
reporting force in newtons (compare 700 HV/30 to HV/294 N = 6.87 GPa) which is
practically meaningless and messy to engineers and technicians.

To convert a Vickers hardness number the force applied needs converting from kgf to
newtons and the area needs converting form mm2 to m2 to give results in pascals using
the formula above.

To convert HV to MPa multiply by 9.807

To convert HV to GPa multiply by 0.009807

8. HANDHELD TESTERS
THE SCLEROSCOPE AND LEEBS TEST (REBOUND HARDNESS TESTING)

The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond

tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass tube under
the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the CV Portable
Hardness Tester -
test specimen.
TH-160
The height of the rebound travel of the hammer is
measured on a graduated scale. The scale of the
rebound is arbitrarily chosen and consists on Shore
units, divided into 100 parts, which represent the
average rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel.
The scale is continued higher than 100 to include
metals having greater hardness.

In normal use the shore scleroscope test does not mark the material under test. The
Shore Scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity of the material and the
hardness number depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds, the harder the
material, the higher the rebound. The Scleroscope is a difficult tester to use and has
largely been superseded by the Leeb style tester.

The Leeb test is a modern version of the Scleroscope. It uses a spring loaded carbide ball
hammer rather than the gravity system of the Scleroscope.

An electronic sensor measures the velocity of the hammer as it travels toward and away
from the surface of the material being tested. The obtained figure is a Leeb hardness
that can be related to other hardness scales as such a majority of Leeb testers have the
inbuilt ability in their electronics to convert to more common hardness scales such as
Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell.

LEEB VALUE = HAMMER REBOUND VELOCITY / IMPACT VELOCITY x 1000

The main limitations are

that the items to be tested
must have a certain mass
and thickness to ensure
correct readings. Leeb
testers are portable and

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Page 18
can cover a wide range of material test circumstances. They can be used at different
angles as long as they are perpendicular to the test surface, as many testers have inbuilt
angle correction.

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Page 19
THE DUROMETER

The Durometer is a popular instrument

for measuring the indentation hardness
of rubber and rubber-like materials. The
most popular testers are the Model A
used for measuring softer materials and
the Model D for harder materials.

The operation of the tester is quite

simple. The material is subjected to a
definite pressure applied by a calibrated
spring to an indenter that is either a
cone or sphere and an indicating device measures the depth of indentation.
CV Digital Durometer and Stand
THE UCI METHOD

The Ultrasonic Contact Impedance (UCI)

hardness test method uses a spring to a set
load to a Vickers indenter, which is in turn
attached to the end of a resonating probe.

As the probe and Vickers indenter penetrate

the test sample the frequency of vibration
changes in the probe. This change is
measured and can be related to the depth of Vickers Portable Hardness Tester
penetration of the Vickers indenter into the sample. 'Ultramatic' CV-HV400

The results are electronically converted to other hardness scales such as Brinell, Vickers
and Rockwell. The advantage to these instruments is the accuracy, portability and range
of materials that can be tested - although the test sample has a smooth surface and be
at least 12mm thick.

DIRECT LOAD METHOD

This mechanical system uses a direct load of about CV Instrumatic

150N onto an indenter. The machine is operated Portable Analogue
by pressing fully down on the handles on either Hardness Tester
side of the tester. The reading of the indenter
depth is then registered
on either an analogue
or digital display.

Some of these direct

load handheld testers
have the ability to convert to several different scales. Due to
the mechanical construction and operation, these testers can
be used in any orientation, although they require a stable

CV Portable
Digital
Hardness Tester

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Page 20
sample surface to work correctly. For more accurate readings and for measuring smaller
components a light weight portable bench stand can be used.

9. CONVERSIONS AND COMPARISONS OF

HARDNESS VALUES
Hardness conversion between different methods and scales cannot be made
mathematically exact for a wide range of materials.

Different loads, different shape of indenters, homogeneity of specimen, cold working

properties and elastic properties all complicate the problem.

All tables and charts should be considered as giving approximate equivalents,

particularly when converting to a method or scale which is not physically possible for the
particular test material and thus cannot be verified.

For example, a thin item may not stand up to HRC testing, but a comparison can be
made from HV/10 or HR15T to HRC.

Problems can occur though. In the diagram below the HRC and Vickers test on the
sample with no surface hardness should give a good comparison, as the material is even
throughout.

The first test shows a good comparison:

The HRC test may give a comparative reading of 55HRC - 602HV/10.

The HV test may give a comparative reading of 601HV/10 – 55.3HRC.

The surface hardened example though demonstrates why it is always best (where
possible) to use the correct hardness test for the material in question. The HRC indenter
penetrates the surface hardened layer and measures into the softer material below. The
Vickers test fails to penetrate the
hardened surface and therefore
only measures the hard top
surface.

The second test shows a poor

comparison:

The HRC test may give a

comparative reading of 59HRC -
680HV/10.

The HV test may give a

comparative reading of 880HV/10
– 66.4HRC.

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Page 21
HARDNESS CONVERSION TABLES AND CHARTS

Hardness Conversion Table

Hardness Scale Relationship Chart

Rockwell Hardness Comparison Chart

Brinell and Vickers Hardness Scale and Tensile Strength Equivalents

Brinell Hardness, Vickers Hardness and Tensile Strength Equivalents

Hardness Conversion Table - Rockwell C Hardness Scale (hard materials)

Hardness Conversion Chart - Rockwell C Hardness Scales (hard materials)

Estimated Hardness Equivalent Chart - Rockwell C and Vickers (hard materials)

Hardness Conversion Table - Rockwell B Hardness Scale (soft metals)

Hardness Conversion Chart - Rockwell B Hardness Scale (soft metals)

Hardness Charts with Calculators for Hardness and Depth (.xls file)

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Page 22