Assignment

On
Motivation theory

Submitted to -
Anwarul Azim Arif

Submitted by -
Mohammed Salahuddin # 101000406
Chowdhury Md. Zumlat Sultan # 101000

Mohammed Zakir
Yeasmin Rumi # 101000

East Delta University

Motivation Theory
The word motivation is coined from the Latin word "movere", which means to move.
Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction. The
term motivation theory is concerned with the processes that describe why and how human
behavior is activated and directed. It is regarded as one of the most important areas of study
in the field of organizational behavior. There are two different categories of motivation
theories such as content theories, and process theories. Even though there are different
motivation theories, none of them are universally accepted.

Also known as need theory, the content theory of motivation mainly focuses on the internal
factors that energize and direct human behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Alderfer's
ERG theory, Herzeberg's motivator-hygiene theory (Herzeberg's dual factors theory), and
McClelland's learned needs or three-needs theory are some of the major content theories.

Of the different types of content theories, the most famous content theory is Abraham
Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Maslow introduced five levels of basic needs through
his theory. Basic needs are categorized as physiological needs, safety and security needs,
needs of love, needs for self esteem and needs for self-actualization.

Just like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory explains existence, relatedness, and
growth needs. Through dual factors theory, Herzeberg describes certain factors in the
workplace which result in job satisfaction. McClelland's learned needs or three-needs theory
uses a projective technique called the Thematic Aptitude Test (TAT) so as to evaluate people
based on three needs: power, achievement, and affiliation. People with high need of power
take action in a way that influences the other's behavior.

Another type of motivation theory is process theory. Process theories of motivation provide
an opportunity to understand thought processes that influence behavior. The major process
theories of motivation include Adams' equity theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, goal-
setting theory, and reinforcement theory. Expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are the
key concepts explained in the expectancy theory. Goal setting theory suggests that the
individuals are motivated to reach set goals. It also requires that the set goals should be
specific. Reinforcement theory is concerned with controlling behavior by manipulating its
consequences.
Motivation is the driving force which causes us to achieve goals. Motivation is said to be
intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but, theoretically, it can also be
used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human
motivation. According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to
minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as
eating and resting, or a desired object, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to
less-apparent reasons such as altruism, selfishness, morality, or avoiding mortality.
Conceptually, motivation should not be confused with either volition or optimism.
Motivation is related to, but distinct from, emotion.

3 Groups of Motivational Theories

Internal

Suggest that variables within the individual give rise to motivation and behavior
Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
Process
Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the individual and the environment
Example: Expectancy theory
External
Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior
Example: Two-factor theory

Early Philosophers of Motivational Theories

Max Weber - work contributes to salvation, Protestant work ethic

Sigmund Freud - Delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives
and needs

Adam Smith - “enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the
individual and to other people.

Frederick Taylor - Founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between

management and labor to enlarge company profits.

Maslow's Theory of Motivation - Hierarchy of Needs

 SA
Esteem

Love (Social)

Safety and Security

Physiological

Self-Actualization
Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's motivation theory. It is about the quest of
reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully
satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to
grow.

Self-actualized people tend to have motivators such as:

• Truth
• Justice
• Wisdom
• Meaning

Self-actualized persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are energized
moments of profound happiness and harmony. According to Maslow, only a small
percentage of the population reaches the level of self-actualization.

Esteem Needs
After a person feels that they "belong", the urge to attain a degree of importance emerges.
Esteem needs can be categorized as external motivators and internal motivators.

Internally motivating esteem needs are those such as self-esteem, accomplishment, and self
respect. External esteem needs are those such as reputation and recognition.
Some examples of esteem needs are:

• Recognition (external motivator)

• Attention (external motivator)
• Social Status (external motivator)
• Accomplishment (internal motivator)
• Self-respect (internal motivator)

Maslow later improved his model to add a layer in between self-actualization and esteem
needs: the need for aesthetics and knowledge.

Social Needs
Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher
level motivators awaken. The first level of higher level needs are social needs. Social needs
are those related to interaction with others and may include:

• Friendship
• Belonging to a group
• Giving and receiving love

Safety Needs
Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be
free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:

• Living in a safe area

• Medical insurance
• Job security
• Financial reserves

According to the Maslow hierarchy, if a person feels threatened, needs further up the
pyramid will not receive attention until that need has been resolved.

Physiological Needs
Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:

• Air
• Water
• Food
• Sleep
According to this theory, if these fundamental needs are not satisfied then one will surely be
motivated to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not recognized
until one satisfies the needs basic to existence.

Applying Maslow's Needs Hierarchy - Business Management

Implications
If Maslow's theory is true, there are some very important leadership implications to enhance
workplace motivation. There are staff motivation opportunities by motivating each employee
through their style of management, compensation plans, role definition, and company
activities.

• Physiological Motivation: Provide ample breaks for lunch and recuperation and
pay salaries that allow workers to buy life's essentials.
• Safety Needs: Provide a working environment which is safe, relative job security, and
freedom from threats.
• Social Needs: Generate a feeling of acceptance, belonging, and community by
reinforcing team dynamics.
• Esteem Motivators: Recognize achievements, assign important projects, and provide
status to make employees feel valued and appreciated.
• Self-Actualization: Offer challenging and meaningful work assignments which enable
innovation, creativity, and progress according to long-term goals.

Remember, everyone is not motivated by same needs. At various points in their lives and
careers, various employees will be motivated by completely different needs. It is imperative
that you recognize each employee's needs currently being pursued. In order to motivate their
employees, leadership must be understand the current level of needs at which the employee
finds themselves, and leverage needs for workplace motivation.

Maslow's Theory - Limitations and Criticism

Though Maslow's hierarchy makes sense intuitively, little evidence supports its strict
hierarchy. Actually, recent research challenges the order that the needs are imposed by
Maslow's pyramid. As an example, in some cultures, social needs are placed more
fundamentally than any others. Further, Maslow's hierarchy fails to explain the "starving
artist" scenario, in which the aesthetic neglects their physical needs to pursuit of aesthetic or
spiritual goals. Additionally, little evidence suggests that people satisfy exclusively one
motivating need at a time, other than situations where needs conflict.

While scientific support fails to reinforce Maslow's hierarchy, his thery is very popular, being
the introductory motivation theory for many students and managers, worldwide. To handle a
number of the issues of present in the Needs Hierarchy, Clayton Alderfer devised the ERG
theory, a consistent needs-based model that aligns more accurately with scientific research.

Today the theories are seldom used explicitly, largely because the insights they provided
have influenced and been incorporated by further generations of management theorists and
practitioners. More commonly, workplaces are described as "hard" versus "soft." Taken too
literally any such dichotomy including Theory X and Y seem to represent unrealistic
extremes. Most employees (and managers) fall somewhere in between these poles. Naturally,
McGregor was well aware of the heuristic as opposed to literal way in which such
distinctions are useful. Theory X and Theory Y are still important terms in the field of
management and motivation. Recent studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, but
McGregor's X-Y Theory remains a guiding principle of positive approaches to management,
to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture.

Maslow said he "studied" and "discovered" characteristics of self-actualizers, and he

objected to complaints that he had merely invented the self-actualizer syndrome. But the
complaint seems valid. Maslow never presented data to prove that his lists of
characteristics of self-actualizers were accurate. He just said it was obvious, or that every
healthy person he knew acted this way, or that "my research showed me" how self-
actualizers acted. This does not mean Maslow was wrong, but it does mean that his
opinions were not validated in the normal scientific way, by finding independent sources
of evidence.

Motivational Theories X and Y

Theory X - A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower
order needs.

Theory Y - A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher
order needs.
Theories Applied to Needs Hierarchy

SA
Theory Y – a set of
Esteem assumptions of how to manage
individuals motivated by higher
Love (Social) order needs

Safety and Security

Theory X – a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals motivated
Physiological by lower order needs

McGregon’s assumptions about people based on theory X

❖ Naturally indolent
❖ Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led
❖ Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs
❖ Naturally resistant to change
❖ Gullible, not bright, ready dupes

McGregor’s assumptions about people based on theory Y

❖ Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational experience

❖ People possess
• Motivation
 • Development potential
• Capacity for assuming responsibility
• Readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals

 Management’s task - Arrange conditions and operational methods so people

can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational goals.

Criticisms

Today the theories are seldom used explicitly, largely because the insights they provided
have influenced and been incorporated by further generations of management theorists and
practitioners. More commonly, workplaces are described as "hard" versus "soft." Taken too
literally any such dichotomy including Theory X and Y seem to represent unrealistic
extremes. Most employees (and managers) fall somewhere in between these poles. Naturally,
McGregor was well aware of the heuristic as opposed to literal way in which such
distinctions are useful. Theory X and Theory Y are still important terms in the field of
management and motivation. Recent studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, but
McGregor's X-Y Theory remains a guiding principle of positive approaches to management,
to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

 A variation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

 Three groups of needs.
o Existence needs: physical and material wants.
o Relatedness needs: desires for interpersonal relationships.
o Growth needs: desires to be creative and productive; to use one’s skills.
 Both similar to and different from Maslow's need hierarchy.
 Satisfied and unsatisfied needs operate in much the same way.
 Movement upward is the same.
 Movement downward is new.

Relationship of Maslow’s hierarchy to E.R.G. Theory.

 SA
Growth
Esteem

Love (Social) Relatedness

Safety and Security
Existence
Physiological
McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Achievement – A manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues
of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties.

Need for Power – A manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to
make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference
in life.

Need for Affiliation – A manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need
to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people.

Relationship of four Motivational Need Theories

Maslow McGregor Alderfer McClelland

Self-actualization Theory Y Growth Need for

Achievement
Esteem
(Interpersonal)
Higher Need for
Order Power
Needs Belongingness
(social and love)
Relatedness
Theory X Need for
Safety and Security Affiliation
(interpersonal)

Lower
Order Physical
Needs Physiological Existence
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor – Work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain.

❖ Maintenance factor.
❖ Contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied.
❖ Contributes to absence of complaints.

Motivation Factor – Work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological
growth.

❖ Job enrichment.
❖ Leads to superior performance & effort.

Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation

Motivation factors increase

Company policy and job satisfaction
administration
Supervision
Interpersonal relations
Working conditions
Salary Achievement
Status Achievement recognition
Work itself
Security Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Salary?
Hygiene factors avoid job
dissatisfaction
Growth
Salary?

Motivation–Hygiene Combinations

High M Low M
High H High motivation Low motivation
Few complaints Few compliants
Low H High motivation Low motivation
Many compliants Many compliants
(M = motivation, H = hygiene)
Questions on Herzberg’s Theory

❖ Is salary a hygiene or a motivational factor?

❖ What role do individual differences (age, sex, social status, education) play?
❖ What role do intrinsic job factors (work flow process) play?

Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key Constructs

 Valence – value or importance placed on a particular reward

 Expectancy – belief that effort leads to performance
 Instrumentality – belief that performance is related to rewards

Expectancy model of motivaiton

E Effort Performance Reward

f
f
o Perceived
r Perceived effort –
Performance – Perceived
Performance
t Probability
Reward Value of reward
probability

“What are my “What are my chances

chances of getting of getting the rewards I “What rewards
the job done if I put value if I satisfactorily do I value?”
forth the necessary complete the job?”
effort?”

International Aspects of the Need Theories of Motivation

 Concept of needs holds across cultures

 People from different cultures may express and satisfy needs differently
 Importance of needs in Maslow's need hierarchy
 United States: self-actualization
 Latin America: security, affiliation
 France and Germany: need for security
  New Zealand: belongingness and love

 See textbook for results of some large cross-country studies of McClelland's

Achievement Motivation Theory
 Use caution when applying need theories of motivation in different countries
 Strong evidence they are culture bound

Ethical Issues and the Need Theories of Motivation

 Ethics of directly affecting employee behavior without informed consent

 Consider the ethics of actions from the different ethical views in Chapter 3
 Ethical Issues and the Need Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
 Utilitarian analysis
 Total effects of the manager's efforts
 Do they produce a widespread net positive benefit for the organization?
 Rights and justice analysis: Employees' rights to know their manager’s intent
 Ethical Issues and the Need Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
 Ethical egoism
 It is right for a manager to affect behavior because it meets the
manager's interests
 Interests include unit’s work performance and the manager's career
 Ethical Issues and the Need Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
 Ethically required to create need satisfying work experiences?
 Existing research does not always show higher performance and satisfaction from
work designs aligned with people's needs
 Ethical answer rests on the philosophy of each organization and its managers
 Ethical Issues and the Need Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
 Should managers consider cultural differences in people’s needs?
 Manage according to the needs of people in the host culture, or
 Manage as if they were in their home culture?
 Ethical Issues and the Need Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
 Utilitarian and rights-based analyses answer "yes" to the first question and "no" to the
second
 Utilitarian view: managing a multinational operation so it aligns with
local people's needs
 Rights view: people have the right of congruence with their needs in
their work experiences

Three Causes of Motivational Problems

 Belief that effort will not result in performance

  Belief that performance will not result in rewards
 The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain rewards.
Moral Maturity

The measure of a person’s cognitive moral development –

 Morally mature people behave and act based on universal ethical principles.
 Morally immature people behave and act based on egocentric motivations.

Cultural Differences
❖ Motivational theories are culturally bound
❖ Research results differ among cultures

Ways to Motivate People

❖ Training
❖ Coaching
❖ Task assignments
❖ Rewards contingent on good performance
❖ Valued rewards available