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Robert Hooke(1665): Published first book on cells. Discovered cells when looking at
cork under a microscope. Discovered cell structure of plants.

Anton von Leewenhoek (1650-1700): Dutch. First observed protists. With a simple
lens(x200), he observed unicellular organisms & nuclei. By using his ability to grind
lenses, he greatly improved the microscope as a scientific tool. He discovered
bacteria, protozoa and other small life-forms which he called 'tiny animals'.

Mattias Schleiden(1838): Deduced theory of 'photogenesis' which states that all

living things are made of cels or their derivitives.

Theodore Schwann(1839): With Schleiden, Schwann deduced the cell theory- that
all animals and plants are made of cells and that within an organism all the cells are
identical. Discovered Schwann cells.

Rudolph Virchow (1855): Deduced that all cells are created by other cells.
Demonstrated that cell theory applies to diseased tissue as well as living tissue.

Jansen: Invented compound microscope.

Light Microscopes: Light from a source beneath the stage is transmitted through the
two lenses in a series, the objective and the ocular (eyepiece) lenses to provide
magnifications. Cannot resolve details better than about 0.2 mm(micrometers)

Advantages of light microscopes:

p ·nables user to see larger structures within eukaryotes and distinguish

individual prokyrotes.
p They are user-friendly: small, portable, easily-prepared slides, relitivly cheap
to buy and maintian.
p Both living and dead material may be viewed.
p Material is rarely distorted by preperation.
p Thicker materials may be viewed
 Allows experimenter to view image directly.
p Allows for specimen to be observed in natural state.
p Slides are simple to prepare
p Faster
p Color
p Can observe movement.
·lectron microscopes: Uses an electron beam instead of a light beam, and
electromagnets instead of lenses. ·lectrons are recorded on a photographic plate,
which forms an image on screen.

Advantages or electron microscopes:

p Magnifies over 500,000x

p Resolving power for biological specimin around 1nm
p 3-D view instead of one.
p Interior view
p See organelles than cannot be observed w/ light microscope.
'Resolution': Ability to percieve fine detail. ·xpressed as the minimmum distance
between two points for them to be visually distinct. Depends on the lens quality and
the wavelength of light used.

'Magnification: The ratio between the size represented on the microscope and the
actual size.

Organelle: A small body inside a cell with a specilised structure that performs a
specific function. It also has its own protective membrane.

Relitive Sizes:

p 1nm: Membrane Thickness

p 10nm: Viruses
p 100nm: Bacteria
p 1-10mm(read'micrometer'): Organelles
p less than or equal to 100mm(micrometers): Cells
OR:

p 1 nm: Molecules
p 10 nm: Cell Membrane
 p 75 nm: Virus
p 100 nm: Macromolecules
p 1 mm(micrometer): Bacteria
p 3 mm: Organelles
p 10 mm: Cell
Surface area to volume ratio: *The rate of the metabolism of a cell is a function of its
mass to volume ratio.* The more active a cell's metabolism, the more material must
be exchanged if the cell is to continue to function. The smaller the cell, the more
efficent it is. Larger cells require more energy, but their surface area to volume is
closer to one, making them less efficent.

Cell Nucleus: A membrane enclosed organelle containing genetic information.

Possible outdated information:

p All living things are made from cells, and other cells create all cells.
p A virus is a non-cellular structure of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein
coat.
p Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life
p In multicellular organisms, all cells contain genes. By only expressing some of
their genes, the cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out
specialized jobs.
p A tissue is an integrated group oi cells that have a common structure and
function.
p An organ is a center of the body composed of several different types of tissue
and carries out a bodily function.
p An organ system is a group of organs that specialize in a certain function
together.






Prokaryote: (pro 2
 + karyon   ) A cell that lacks any membrane bound
organelles. Prokaryotes also belong to their own kingdom, bacteria and blue-green
algee.

Ribosomes: Small cytoplasmic granules found in all cells. They are smaller than the
ribosomes found in eukaryotic cells. They occur singly or in groups called
polysomes. They are made of RNA and protein. They are important in protein
synthesis. Produces protein for use inside cells.

Mesosomes: Resembles the mitocondria in eukaryotes. They are infoldings of the

cell membrane and are important in/site of resperation. Primitive vacoules(deep
furrows) to store food or waste.

Slime-Capsule: Surrounds the cell wall of bacteria, it helps to keep the cell from
being digested or drying out. Keeps away predatory protazoam white blood cells
and bacteriophages.

Flagellum: A small projection from a cell wall that propells a cell. It is an organelle.
Flagullum are accanged around the cell in nine doublets with two single
microtubules in the middle. This arrangement is known as the "9+2" pattern.

Cell Wall: Gives the cell it's shape, protects the cell and prevents the cell from
obsorbing too much water.

Cell Surface Membrane:Controls the movement of things in and out of the cell.
Protects the organellesinside from the outside enviornment. It is made of
phospholipids.

Plasmid: An extra-chromosomal, independantly replicating, small, circular DNA

molecule. ·nables production of antibiotics or resistance to anti-biotics.

Naked Nucleic Acid: Contains the hereditary information of the cell. It regulates
protein production.

Cytoplasm: A gelatonus, semi-trasparent fluid that fills most cells.

Cytoskeleton: A structure that maintains the shape of the cell, protects the cell and
enables motion, The cytoskeleton plays an important role in inter-cellular transport
and cellular division.





 ATP: energy molecule used in active transport against the concentration gradient.
 Centrioles: vital for reproduction (production of spindle fibres)
 Chloroplast: contains chlorophyll and is present only in plant cells. Is involved in
photosynthesis.
 Concentration gradient: difference of concentration between two substances
 Cytolysis: animal cell exploding
 Cytoskleteon: maintains in cell shape
 ·ndocytosis: food/liquid going into the cell
 ·ndosymbiosis: The theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts are descended
from specialized bacteria. This is because these organelles both contain their
own DNA and this DNA is present in a single, continuous molecule, like the
DNA of bacteria. Many of the enzymes contained in the cell membranes of
bacteria are found in the mitochondrial membranes. Also, they both have
their own ribosomes that resemble those of bacteria. Mitochondria can only
be produced by mitochondria, like cells from cells. Probably these organelles
used to be simple bacteria and were swallowed up by bigger bacteria who
could not digest them. In turn these organelles provided the cell with energy
in return for protection etc. and turned into an organelle.
 ·quilibrium: equal amounts moving in and out
 ·xocytosis: waste going out of the cell
 Flaccid: animal cell shrinking
 Golgi Apparatus: stacks of flattened membranous sacs. Packages secretions and
manufactures lysosomes. Modifies and 'repacks' proteins.
 Homeostasis: balance
 Hypertonic: less water, more solute
 Hypotonic: more water, less solute
 Isotonic: equal amounts of water and solute
 Lysosome: membranous sacs containing hyrolytic enzymes. Hyrolyze proteins
and other matierals, including ingested bacteria, and also play a role in cell
death by 'digesting' the whole cell.
 Mitochondrion: (similar to mesosomes in prokaryotes) site of the most of the
reactions of cellular respiration; power plants of the cell.
 Nucleolus: stores RNA within the nucleus
 Nucleus: large spherical structure surrounded by a double nuclear membrane;
contains nucleolus and chromosomes. Control center of the cell; contains
genetic material. An organelle that stores linear DNA.
 Osmosis: movement of H2O in and out of cell
 Phagocytsosis: endocytosis of food
 Pinocytosis: endocytosis of liquid
 Plant cell wall: contains cellulose which is strong tough material. This is important
because cells of plants need more structure so that it doesn't move- the cell
wall provides this. It also contains pits and plasmodesmata in the cell wall so
that the plant cell can 'communicate' with other plant cells.
 Plasmolysis: plant cell shrinking
 Protein carriers: pumps (active) and channels (passive)
 Ribosome: nonmembranous granules composed of RNA and protein- some are
attached to ·R. Manufacture proteins.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum: network of internal membranes extending through
cytoplasm; forms system of tubes and vesicles. Rough sort contains
ribosomes which stud the outer surfaces. Manufactures and transports
proteins.
 Smooth ·ndoplasmic reticulum: stores proteins, but does not have ribosomes
 Turgid: plant cell turning stiff
 Turgor pressure: pressure inside the cell
 Vacuole: stores excess liquids
Two similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic:

 both contain a cell membrane, two phospholipid sheets.

 both contain the genetic information- that directs a cell's activities and enables it
to reproduce.
Two differences between the eukaryotic nucleus and prokaryotic nuclear material:

 in a prokaryotic cell, the genetic material is in the form of a large, circular

molecule of DNA, with wihich a vaiety of proteins are loosely associated. This
molecule is known as the chromosome. In eukaryotic cells, the DNA is linear,
forming a number of distinct chromosomes; morover, it is tightly bound to
special proteins known as histones, which are an integral part of the
chromosome structure.
 Within the eukaryotic cell, the chromosomes are surrounded by a double
membrane, the nuclear envelope, but in eukaryotic cells the genetic
information is contained within a region called the nucleoid.
Three differences between plant and animal cells:

1. Plant cells contain a tough, slightly elastic cellulose cell wall in addition to
the cell membrane, but this cell wall is a non-living part of the cell. Also,
plant cells contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis, animal cells do not.
2. Animal cells contain centrioles which are involved in cell reproduction,
plant cells do not.
3. Pits and plasmodesmata are found in the cell wall of plant cells, and plant
cells also contain a much larger, centralized vacuole.
The ·ndosymbotics Theory: The endosymbiotic theory assumes that eukaryotes
evolved from prokaryotes, because a prokaryotic cell acquired organelles. It states
that it is possible that a heterotrophic prokaryote (one which obtains energy and
organic matter from inorganic raw materials and an external energy source) which,
instead of being digested, became a symbiont (lived in association with) inside the
heterotroph, enabling it to carry out photosynthesis. ·quipped with its own DNA,
the symbiont may be divided inside the host cell very time the host cell itself
divided, and in this way the symbiont may have become a chloroplast inside the
host cell. ·vidence: - Ribosomes in mitochondria and chloroplasts are the same sizes
as those found in modern prokaryotes and significantly smaller than those found in
the cytosol of a eukaryote. - The inner membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts
have several enzymes and transport systems which resemble those found in the cell
membranes of modern prokaryotes. - Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own
DNA in the form of a ring, just as in prokaryotes found today.

·ukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles and perform functions in a

similar way to organs in an organism.

p R·R (Rough endoplasmic reticulum)- to isolate and transport proteins which

have been synthesised by the ribosomes to other cells. Ribosomes-
synthesise proteins
p Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- synthesis and transport of lipids and
steroids.
p Golgi apparatus- assembly point through which raw materials for secretion
are funnelled, carbohydrate components are added, and then are shed from
 the cell.
p Lysosomes- destroys unwanted structures (e.g. old mitochondria), or entire
cells by the rupturing of the lysosome membrane and the releasing of
digestive enzymes (e.g. tadpole tails in frog metamorphosis).
p Mitochondria- concerned with the chemical reactions of aerobic respiration;
i.e. energy is converted to ATP here (the inner surface is infolded to increase
surface area).
p Nucleus- contains genetic information (bounded by a nuclear membrane).
p Chloroplasts- contain chlorophyll used in photosynthesis
DNA in Prokaryotes Vs. DNA in ·ukaryotes:

p DNA is loose in prokaryotic cells, in eukaryotic cells the DNA is contained

within a nuclear envelope.
p DNA in prokaryotic cells is circular, in eukaryotic cells it is arranged in
chromosomes
p Prokaryotic cells have about 1/1000 as much genetic material.
Cell Reproduction:

 prophase
p separate when nuclear membrane disappears
p nucleolus disappears
p centrioles go to poles
p spindle fibers appear
p chromosomes get shorter and thicker
 metaphase
p centrioles become asters
p the chromosomes line up Dzsingle filedz at the equator
p spindle fibers attach to centromere with kinetochore
 anaphase
p the chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles
 telophase
p the nuclear membranes reappear
p nucleolus reappears
p asters become centrioles
p in animals spindle fiber disappears
p chromatids get longer and thinner and become chromatin.