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PENYESUAIAN HERBERT G.
HENEMAN III DAN ANTHONY
T. MILANOWSKI
Pendahuluan
keselarasan sumber daya manusiateori manajemen sumber daya manusia
(selanjutnya disebut HRM strategis) berpusat pada premis dasar bahwa praktik SDM
Korespondensidengan: Herbert G. Heneman lll, Sekolah Pascasarjana Bisnis dan Konsorsium untuk
Penelitian Kebijakan dalam Pendidikan, Universitas Wisconsin- Madison, 975 University Ave., Madison, WI
53706, Telepon: 608-262-9175,
Faks: 608-263-9390, Email: hheneman@bus.wisc.edu.
Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia, Januari – Februari 2011, Vol. 50, No. 1, Pp. 45 - 64
© 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Diterbitkan online di Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002 /
hrm.20405
bahwa sistem SDM yang berbeda (yaitu yang dibedakan) mungkin diperlukan di seluruh
pekerjaan ini, meskipun sistem tersebut dapat berbagi beberapa elemen umum (misalnya,
teknologi). Sangat penting untuk menciptakan sistem SDM yang terpisah untuk pekerjaan-
pekerjaan utama, terutama yang menggunakan
strategi SDM. Dimensi penyelarasan horizontal adalah (1) kekuatan interaksi antara
praktik SDM, (2) menyelaraskan tujuan dominan dengan sistem SDM, dan (3) tingkat
konsistensi praktik SDM untuk
kelompok karyawan yang berbeda. Berdasarkan
memiliki kepentingan strategis yang kritis karena karyawan yang memenuhi peran ini secara
langsung menerapkan strategi organisasi (Becker & Huselid, 2006).
Untuk membuat sistem SDM yang selaras, organisasi harus terlebih dahulu mendiagnosis
kondisi penyelarasan SDM saat ini. Dari perspektif strategis SDM perilaku, diagnosis seperti
itu akan membantu organisasi menentukan sejauh mana praktik SDM (1) diselaraskan dengan
kompetensi kinerja yang mendorong pencapaian tujuan strategis dan (2) diselaraskan satu
sama lain. Kami menyebut proses diagnostik ini penilaian Sumber Daya Manusia (HRA).
Anehnya, mengingat sentralitas penyelarasan SDM dalam teori SDM strategis, hanya
beberapa upaya telah dilaporkan untuk melakukan penilaian tersebut. Kami beralih ke
deskripsi singkat dan kritik atas upaya-upaya itu.
Pekerjaan Sebelumnya
Schneider et al. (2003) menimbulkan persepsi karyawan tentang budaya layanan di bank kecil
untuk menyimpulkan praktik SDM apa yang selaras dengan budaya layanan. Selama
kelompok fokus dengan manajer dan karyawan, masing-masing kelompok pertama kali
ditanya pertanyaan umum, "Tolong jelaskan iklim atau budaya bank, terutama peran layanan
di dalamnya." Pertanyaan tindak lanjut menggali lebih dalam ke dalam contoh yang lebih
spesifik dari praktik SDM yang mendukung. Beberapa praktik SDM yang sangat selaras
muncul dari menganalisis respons: pelatihan dan pengembangan, kerja tim, tujuan dan
penghargaan, dan kepegawaian. Analisis isi dari tanggapan mengungkapkan persepsi tentang
keselarasan vertikal yang tinggi dari praktik SDM dengan strategi layanan.
Boon, Boselie, Paauwe, dan DenHartog (2007) mengemukakan tiga dimensi untuk
vertikal
pada sub-dimensi ini, Boon et al. (2007) melakukan studi kasus konten praktik SDM dan
penyelarasan SDM di dua organisasi ritel besar. Wawancara dan analisis dokumen digunakan
untuk mengumpulkan data. Peringkat (rata-rata di beberapa penilai) dari keselarasan praktik
SDM secara keseluruhan dibuat untuk masing-masing dimensi penyelarasan vertikal dan
horizontal. Ada perbedaan peringkat antara dimensi dan organisasi, memberikan dukungan
untuk tiga dimensi hipotesis dari penyelarasan vertikal dan horizontal.
Akhirnya, Ulrich dan Brockbank (2005) melaporkan proses penilaian HRA rinci yang mereka
gunakan di unit Motorola. Selama lokakarya dua hari, anggota organisasi pertama-tama
mengidentifikasi tren lingkungan dan indikator keunggulan kompetitif di tingkat strategis.
Mereka kemudian mengidentifikasi "kemampuan budaya" (misalnya, akuntabilitas, semangat,
kolaborasi kinerja tinggi) yang diperlukan untuk mendukung indikator keunggulan kompetitif.
Ini diikuti dengan mengembangkan "pembangunan skenario perilaku" untuk mendapatkan
perilaku spesifik yang dapat dilakukan (yaitu, kompetensi kinerja) yang menggambarkan setiap
kemampuan budaya. Para peserta kemudian diberi daftar area praktik SDM tanpa penjelasan
praktik yang menyertainya. Mereka memberi peringkat pada setiap area praktik SDM dalam hal
(1)
Untuk menciptakanselaras
sistem SDM yang, organisasi harus terlebih dahulu mendiagnosis kondisi penyelarasan
SDM saat ini. Dari PERILAKU HRM strategis PERSPEKTIF, diagnosis semacam itu akan
praktik SDM
satu sama lain. Kami menyebut proses diagnostik ini penilaian Human Resource
Alignment (HRA).
perataan dan tiga untuk horizontal. Dimensi penyelarasan vertikal adalah (1) strategi konten
SDM - hubungan praktik SDM, (2) peran SDM dalam merumuskan strategi, dan (3)
penerapan
keselarasan dengan kemampuan budaya sekarang dan
2. dampak yang bisa didapat praktik jika sepenuhnya selaras dengan kemampuan
budaya. Kedua peringkat dikalikan untuk memberikan
indeks yang mana perubahan penyelarasan praktik SDM akan menghasilkan hasil
tertinggi. Akhirnya, peserta membahas kemungkinan praktik SDM
perubahan, meringkas peningkatan yang mungkin
, dan mengembangkansingkat
model kompetensi kinerjauntuk pekerjaan guru. Keempat, domain penuh praktik SDM di
tingkat terpusat disertakan, bersama dengan deskripsi rinci tentang bagaimana kompetensi
tertanam di dalamnya. Kelima,
dari teori SDM strategis. Kami MENGEMBANGKAN, menguji lapangan, dan MENGEVALUASI
Latar Belakang
Situs
Kami berbagi pandangan ini, meskipun kami percaya bahwa studi tambahan
diperlukan menggunakan proses penilaian HRA yang lebih halus, mendalam, dan
lengkap. Oleh karena itu kami menggambarkan proses yang kami gunakan, dan pelajaran
yang kami pelajari, untuk memberikan organisasi dengan panduan tambahan dalam
melakukan penilaian HRA.
Dua bidang yang mungkin dipertimbangkan dalam ranah praktik SDM dikecualikan:
hubungan kerja dan desain kerja. Karena perjanjian kerja untuk para guru mencakup
kedelapan area praktik SDM, termasuk hubungan kerja sebagai area terpisah, akan
membingungkan
terkait dengan peningkatan prestasi siswa. Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa
efektivitas guru adalah pendorong terpenting pencapaian siswa yang dapat
dipengaruhi oleh distrik sekolah
secara langsung (Brophy, 1986; Goldhaber
& Anthony, 2003; Nye, Konstanto
- proses penilaian HRA. Sehubungan dengan desain pekerjaan, distrik sekolah umumnya
tidak menganggap ini sebagai fungsi SDM. Lebih lanjut, kabupaten tersebut telah
memutuskan bahwa model kompetensi guru (dijelaskan di bawah) mewakili desain pekerjaan
guru.
Beberapa tahun sebelum penilaian HRA, kabupaten telah mengadopsi sistem evaluasi
guru baru berdasarkan model kompetensi kinerja guru dari buku C. Danielson,
Meningkatkan Praktek Profesional: Kerangka Kerja Pengajaran (1996, 2007). Kerangka
Pengajaran tidak hanya menjadi dasar dari sistem evaluasi guru di distrik kasus, tetapi mulai
meresapi budaya dan bahasa distrik. Itu juga sebagian dimasukkan ke dalam praktik SDM
kabupaten, terutama induksi, pendampingan, dan pengembangan profesional. Distrik
menerima saran penulis untuk menandatangani dan melakukan penilaian HRA eksperimental
berdasarkan Kerangka Pengajaran. Mereka mengakui nilai strategis potensial penilaian dalam
mengidentifikasi perubahan praktik SDM yang akan mendukung kompetensi kinerja yang
telah mereka adopsi. Namun, distrik tidak membuat komitmen di muka untuk bertindak
berdasarkan hasil penilaian atau untuk menerapkan perubahan praktik SDM.
memasukkan staf dari luar dan di dalam departemen SDM dalam kelompok studi
penilaian HRA karena unit pengajaran pusat lainnya bertanggung jawab atas beberapa
semua bidang praktek SDM dan memungkinkan kita untuk memasukkan lebih luas
Domain Komponen
1. Perencanaan dan 1a: Mendemonstrasikan Pengetahuan tentang Konten dan Pedagogi 1b:
Persiapan Mendemonstrasikan Pengetahuan Siswa
1c: Menetapkan Hasil Pembelajaran 1c: Menetapkan Hasil Instruksional
1d: Mendemonstrasikan Pengetahuan Sumberdaya 1e: Merancang
Instruksi
Koheren 1f: Merancang Penilaian Siswa
2. Lingkungan Kelas 2a: Menciptakan Lingkungan Penghormatan dan Hubungan 2b: Membangun Budaya
Belajar
2c: Mengelola Prosedur Kelas 2d: Mengelola Perilaku
SiswaPerilaku Siswa
2e: Mengorganisir2e: Mengorganisir Ruang Fisik
Persyaratan yang diinginkan untuk menggunakan model kompetensi kinerja apa pun
adalah bahwa ia memiliki bukti validitas yang mendukung. Baik bukti validitas konten
dan prediksi mendukung Kerangka Pengajaran. Pengembang Kerangka melaporkan
substansial
kegiatan penelitian yang terlibat dalam
pemetaan domain konten
Langkah Lima: Tinjau dan Setujui Model Kompetensi Kinerja
Kami mengusulkan kepada kelompok studi bahwa model kompetensi yang ada berdasarkan
Kerangka Pengajaran digunakan dalam proses penilaian HRA. Kami membahas banyak
keuntungan menggunakan model.
banyak KEUNTUNGAN menggunakan model yang sudah ada dan tertanam dalam bahasa dan
praktik
distrik; , yang MENGUNTUNGKAN KEABSAHAN BUKTI untuk model saat ini, dan beban kerja
yang
diperlukan untuk MENGEMBANGKAN model baru.
praktik mengajar yang efektif, termasuk domain, komponen, dan elemen (Danielson, 1996, 2007).
Beberapa bukti juga menunjukkan bahwa penilaian guru tentang kompetensi ini merupakan
prediktor signifikan terhadap prestasi siswa mereka. Guru sekolah dasar dan menengah di tiga
pengaturan (termasuk kabupaten dari studi saat ini) yang kinerjanya dinilai lebih tinggi pada
kompetensi kinerja memiliki prestasi siswa rata-rata yang lebih tinggi dalam membaca dan
matematika (Milanowski, Kimball, & Odden, 2005). Model kompetensi dengan demikian juga
dapat dikatakan memiliki "validitas strategis" (Huselid et al., 2005,
p. 908). Ada banyak minat terhadap Kerangka ini dari distrik sekolah di seluruh negeri, dan kami
merasa bahwa lebih dari 200 distrik sekolah telah mengadopsinya.
Harus dicatat di sini bahwa jika organisasi tidak memiliki model kompetensi kinerja, seseorang
harus diciptakan untuk digunakan dalam penilaian HRA. Dalam menciptakan model kompetensi
kinerja, penting untuk memastikan bahwa kompetensi berasal dari strategi keseluruhan organisasi
melalui proses yang cermat dalam menerjemahkan tujuan strategis ke dalam kompetensi karyawan
yang
siap di tempat dan tertanam dalam bahasa dan praktik-praktik distrik. , bukti validitas yang
menguntungkan untuk model saat ini, dan beban kerja yang diperlukan untuk
mengembangkan model baru (yang kemungkinan akan tumpang tindih dengan model saat
ini). Kelompok studi kemudian secara resmi disetujui menggunakan model kompetensi saat
ini.
anggota kelompok Studi Ulasan draft deskripsi dari praktik HR dan nyarankan-
Kompensasi
BasisBayar Bayar Memulai pembayaran dan pembayaran yang cukup untuk
menarik dan mempertahankan guru dengan kompetensi.
Pemberian bonus untuk mencapai kompetensi.
Variabel Paket Perekrutan
Membedakan kompensasi awal berdasarkan tingkat kompetensi.
Manajemen
Kinerja Penilaian Kinerja Menilai tingkat kompetensi yang ditunjukkan guru.
Penetapan Sasaran Menetapkan tujuan untuk peningkatan dalam hal kompetensi.
Umpan Balik & Coaching Membantu guru dalam meningkatkan bidang kompetensi di
mana mereka kekurangan.
Remediation Mengambil langkah-langkah menuju peningkatan kinerja atau
memberhentikan guru yang tidak menunjukkan kompetensi.
Pemimpin Instruksional
Pelatihan Seleksi Memilih pemimpin berdasarkan pada kemampuan mereka
untuk menilai kompetensi dan melatih perkembangan mereka.
Manajemen Kinerja Melakukan upaya untuk mengembangkan kemampuan
pemimpin untuk menilai dan melatih kompetensi.
Memegang pemimpin bertanggung jawab karena menjadi
manajer kinerja yang efektif.
Catatan: * Istilah “kompetensi” mengacu pada kompetensi mengajar yang didefinisikan secara perilaku yang diidentifikasi oleh
kabupaten.
modifikasi bersarang. Penulisan ulang selesai dan draft akhir diserahkan ke kelompok
studi untuk disetujui. Deskripsi untuk masing-masing dari delapan area praktik SDM
adalah sekitar satu hingga dua halaman dengan spasi tunggal dan digunakan sebagai
sumber informasi ketika anggota kelompok studi membuat penilaian HRA mereka.
Sebagai contoh, deskripsi akhir untuk pendampingan ditunjukkan pada Gambar 2. Ini
menggambarkan area praktik SDM yang memiliki penyelarasan vertikal yang kuat dengan
kompetensi kinerja.
Kelompok studi membuat penilaian terpisah untuk perataan vertikal dan horizontal.
Peringkat keselarasan dibuat dan ide untuk perbaikan keselarasan dikembangkan.
Penyelarasan Vertikal
ditunjukkan di bawah ini adalah skala peringkat penyelarasan vertikal. Use this scale to provide both the initial and final ratings for
mentoring: content and participants. Provide ratings for each teacher performance competency domain.
1 The HR practices in this area rarely incorporate the teacher performance competencies from this domain.
2 The HR practices in this area sometimes incorporate the teacher performance competencies from this domain.
3 The HR practices in this area often incorporate the teacher performance competencies from this domain.
4 The HR practices in this area almost always incorporate the teacher performance competencies from this domain.
Vertical Alignment Ratings for Mentoring
Instruction
Professional Responsibilities
Horizontal Alignment
We used the inter-HR activity approach (Kepes & Delery, 2007), which involves rat- ing two
HR practices at a time in terms of
for vertical alignment, this proved difficult because members (1) were still “fuzzy” on
the precise meaning of horizontal align- ment; (2) thought that suggesting align- ment
improvements for each of the 28 pairs of HR practices would be confusing and
time consuming; and (3) argued
that horizontal alignment would
how well they support and reinforce one another. The study group members reported that
considering all pair-wise combinations of the 21 HR practice components within the eight HR
areas would be too confusing and time consuming. We therefore decided to obtain ratings of
just the 28 pairs of HR practice areas as a whole. The rating scale format suggested by Becker,
Huselid, and Ulrich (2001), requiring alignment ratings from between –100 to +100 points,
was used initially. The study group members told us, however, that this scale format was
vague, confusing, and called for more precision in
improve as an outgrowth of im- proving vertical alignment. Sep- arate suggestions for horizontal
alignment improvement were thus not made.
HR alignment.
rating than they were comfortable with. Further, a visual review of the ratings sug- gested low
inter-rater agreement. This scale, therefore, was replaced by the 5-point rat- ing scale, shown
in Figure 4, with which study group members rated how well two practices were “working
together to support the competencies.”
The horizontal alignment ratings were made in a separate meeting after all the vertical
alignment ratings were completed. Members were given the teacher perfor- mance
competency model, descriptions of all the HR practices, and the horizontal alignment rating
scale. As before, ratings were completed independently. Due to time constraints, the process of
discussing and re-rating the horizontal alignments was not possible. Average and percent
horizontal alignment data were calculated. Results were: recruitment, 53%; selection, 53%; in-
duction, 65%; mentoring, 70%; profes- sional development, 53%, compensation, 40%;
performance management, 53%; and leaders, 45%. The overall (average) align- ment was 54%.
After reviewing the ratings, study group members discussed ways to improve hori- zontal
alignment. Unlike the discussions
cussion, members were provided with the final rating results and the list of 34 sugges-
tions for improving vertical alignment.
The suggestions were discussed for clar- ity of understanding and to solicit addi-
tional suggestions (none were offered). The group then collectively rated each sugges-
tion on the basis of two criteria: (1) degree of likely impact on teacher performance
competency if adopted (high, medium, low) and (2) time frame for action (do now, do
within a year, study further). The time frame for action criterion implicitly in- cluded
considerations such as cost and im- plementation difficulty. Each suggestion was
considered a possible recommendation from the study group.
Seven examples of the study group's rec- ommendations, all viewed as high
potential impact, but varying in the time frame for ac- tion, are shown in Table IV. The
highest prior- ity 'recommendations called for the district superintendent to begin
immediately leading the district's top management in improving their collective
performance management. This broad recommendation resulted from discussions
during which study group members pointed to major deficiencies in the practice of
performance management by top manage-
Horizontal Alignment Rating Scale
Horizontal alignment refers to the degree to which the district's HR practices are internally consistent and mutually reinforcing. It
relates to the question “Are HRM programs working together to support the same competencies?” (ie, components of the four domains
of the teacher evaluation system: planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction, and professional responsibilities).
Starting pay high enough to recruit candidates with the needed competencies
Induction programs providing information about the performance expectations to which new hires will be held
Professional development programs that cover areas in need of improvement as documented by performance evaluation
For each pair of practices shown below, please rate the degree to which you believe the two are aligned.
Pair 1
Teacher Recruitment: Finding qualified external and Teacher Selection: Assessing candidates' qualifications relative to the
internal applicants; informing applicants about the teacher teacher standards; hiring committee interviews and evaluations of
standards. applicants.
ment itself, including lack of commitment, little planning or guidance, and minimal effort
toward evaluating the performance of their own direct reports. The group felt that a
renewed commitment to performance man- agement from top management would filter
down to successive levels and ultimately improve performance management for teach- ers.
The other top recommendation called for the much narrower change of informing teacher
job applicants about the district's
teacher performance competency model on both the district website and during their vis-
its to school sites for interviews. This change would signal the importance of the perfor-
mance competency model early on to appli- cants, allowing them to evaluate their own
competencies and decide whether to continue or opt out of the selection process.
The second priority recommendations (changes to be made within one year) in- cluded
improving the selection process by de-
veloping a standard interview with questions based on the competencies, auditing profes-
sional development programs approved by the district for competency coverage, and im-
proving the feedback principals give teachers about their competencies. The goal for each
change was to embed more deeply the perfor- mance competencies in actual HR practice.
The final category of recommendations called for additional study of two complex issues
that required bargaining with the teachers' association: (1) lengthening new teachers'
probationary period to allow the teachers' classroom performance to be as- sessed more
thoroughly prior to the tenure decision, and (2) giving salary increases only for district-
approved coursework relevant to the teacher performance competency model. The study
group believed that lack of staff expertise, time, and budget constraints prevented the district
from moving forward with all the 34 recommendations concur- rently. As its final
recommendations, the group chose the 22 recommendations con- sidered to have the highest
potential impact,
including all those shown in Table IV.
Step Ten: Develop the Final Report
The authors developed a draft of a final report for the study group, which reviewed the
report and suggested changes. The final report included an executive summary, a brief
description and illustration of HR practice alignment to teacher performance
competencies, a synopsis of the eight HR practice areas, descriptions of the HRA as-
sessment process and rating results, and the 22 changes. The report recommended that
the 22 high-impact changes be pur- sued immediately, and that the study group be
continued to provide guidance and fol- low through on the changes. The report was
presented to the district Board of Trust- ees (school board), which approved both
recommendations.
Lessons Learned
The overall lesson learned from this case is that the HRA assessment process worked
reasonably well in the case of vertical, but not horizontal, alignment. With vertical
Impact/Timeline Suggestion
I. High Potential Impact – 1. Have superintendent lead top management in being more proactive in
Be- gin Implementation performance management and accountable for effec- tive performance
Now management (HR area—Instructional Leaders)
2. Inform job applicants about the teacher performance competency
model on the website and during site (school) visits (HR area—
Recruitment)
II. High Potential Impact— 3. Develop standard interview questions/answer rubrics based on the
Implement Within teacher performance competency model (HR area—Selection)
One year
3. Evaluate current professional development and in-service cours- es in
terms of their content relevance to the teacher performance
competency model (HR area—Professional Development)
3. Provide teachers with more feedback (both written and oral) from
their teacher evaluations relative to the teacher performance
competency model (HR area—Performance Management)
III. High Potential Impact— 6. Lengthen the probationary period from one to two years (HR
Study Further area –Performance Management)
alignment, study group members grasped the concept, worked through the assessment
pro- cess without problems, produced reliable as-
sessment ratings (discussed later),
and generated a large number of
performance competency model, explaining that these criteria might be important, but they
were not the focus of our attention. This suggests that using multiple criteria could re- sult in
an HRA assessment process that un-
In a post-exercise
discussion with the study group, members pointed to SEVERAL features of the process that
they found essential or VERY helpful. These features included the competency model as
the
alignment criterion, the HR practice descriptions with the embedded information about
competency usage, the initial rating- discussion-final rating format, SEVERAL RELATIVELY
short meetings, and using the percent alignment score for interpreting rating results.
recommendations to improve ver- tical alignment. Their recommen- dations, as noted, were
approved by the district's Board of Trustees. Members reported that the process was a novel and
eye-opening exer- cise that drove home the need for greater cross-fertilization between the
district's HR and instructional silos to design and manage HR practices related to the teacher
performance competency model. Members also learned that the HRA assessment is not for the
faint of heart. It requires a com- mitment to large-scale assessment and change in HR practices
and the total HR system.
As facilitators, we found that using the teacher performance competency model as the criterion
for assessing HR prac- tices was invaluable. It framed, focused, and shaped all discus- sions of HR
practices, the assessment ratings, and the sug- gestions for changes in HR prac- tices. The model
also provided an anchor for the study group, creating a common purpose, lan- guage, and
understanding.
There was, however, a down- side to the singular focus on teacher performance competencies
that surfaced as study group mem- bers discussed possible HR practice changes. With the tight
focus, we ignored other potentially impor- tant criteria for gauging HR prac- tice alignment, such
as transac- tional efficiency, HR process improvement, reducing costs, and improving service
speed and qual- ity. When such criteria arose dur- ing discussions, we simply had to direct study
group members to the
folds into an even more transformative one. Another important lesson we learned con-
cerned the reliability of the assessment rat- ings, because low reliability would seriously
question the meaning and usefulness of the process and results. We learned that vertical
alignment could be rated reliably, while hori- zontal alignment could not. We learned this by
calculating the percentage agreement among study group members' ratings, using 75%
agreement as the acceptable threshold (Heneman & Judge, 2009). For vertical align- ment,
we found an average of 68% agreement across the HR practice areas in the initial rat- ings,
and this increased to a more acceptable 77.3% agreement for the final ratings. Unfor-
tunately, the average agreement for the hori- zontal alignment ratings was only 54.2%. It
seems likely that the acceptable reliability for the vertical alignment ratings aided study
group members in identifying and agreeing on their suggestions for HR practice changes.
The low reliability for horizontal align- ment likely reflects an underlying difficulty in
conceptualizing and measuring it. To in- troduce horizontal alignment to the study group,
we defined it in general terms as hav- ing HR practices that are mutually supportive and
reinforcing. We verbally illustrated this with several examples of horizontal align- ment
between pairs of HR practices (eg, select for certain competencies and develop other
competencies). This conceptualization was carried on to the rating scale, where study group
members were given three more examples of horizontal alignment between HR practice
pairs. This was followed by rating each of 28 HR practice pairs in terms of how well they
were “working together to support the same competencies” (see Figure 4). Unfortunately,
this combined definition- measurement approach was insufficient to produce acceptable
reliability. We will pro- vide some suggestions for how future research might proceed toward
assessing horizontal
alignment better.
In a post-exercise discussion with the study group, members pointed to several fea- tures
of the process that they found essential or very helpful. These features included the
competency model as the alignment crite- rion, the HR practice descriptions with the
embedded information about competency usage, the initial rating-discussion-final rat- ing
format, several relatively short meetings, and using the percent alignment score for
interpreting rating results.
Another lesson learned based on discus- sions with the study group was that the members
remained skeptical that their verti- cal alignment recommendations would be acted upon and
implemented, even if they
received Board approval. Unfortunately, our
for an organization. Second, to date, horizon- tal alignment has only been presented in
broad, generic terms (Chadwick, 2010). The commonly used broad examples are
positive synergy and negative synergy, which refer to HR practice interactions that help
or hinder effectiveness, respectively, beyond the stand- alone effects of each practice
(Chadwick, 2010; Kepes & Delery, 2007). We used this concep- tion to guide our study.
Given the results, there appears to be a need to sharpen the meaning and measurement
of horizontal alignment.
Along these lines, we offer two more specific examples of horizontal alignment
to stimulate work in this direc-
tion. The examples are compe-
study was not funded to follow up on the recommendations and their implementation fate.
Such implementation skepticism itself, however, could be an important problem for HRA
assessment that must be addressed early and directly. The process will be very anemic if
participants do not believe that their rec- ommended HR practice changes that support
strategic objectives will be implemented.
Finally, following through on recommen- dations may well require individuals with special
competencies to design, implement, and manage the HR practice changes (Ulrich &
Brockbank, 2005). Such competencies may be lacking in current HR and other staff. Thus,
some combination of training/replac- ing staff, along with importing temporary talent, may be
necessary.
tency communication flows and use of cross-practice teams. Competency-focused HR prac- tices
require information about individual employee competen- cies that can be shared and used
across HR practices, such as those found in a talent manage- ment system. This allows for fo-
cused and tailor-made actions for each individual. For exam- ple, a new hire's competency scores
determined during selec- tion could be provided to train- ing staff to develop a specific set of
training actions focused on specific competency deficiencies that were identified at time of hire.
Hiring bonuses might also
Along these lines, we offer two more specific examples of horizontal alignment to
stimulate work
in this direction. The examples are competency communication flows and use of
cross-practice
teams.
amples) could be identified, those could then serve as the primary basis for experi-
menting with new ways to examine hori- zontal alignment during the HRA assess- ment
process.
Turning to vertical alignment, the exten- sive HR practice descriptions contained em-
bedded competency information, providing concrete guidance for rating. Four-point rat-
ing scales and simple combining/averaging scores were used as a matter of convention
and study group acceptance. Future research might investigate whether more or fewer
scale points are needed to capture the true amount of alignment variation and to im- prove
the alignment ratings' reliability. Also, alternative ways of combining scores, such as
differential weighting, might be examined to determine if they lead to a more organiza-
tionally useful sense of alignment or to differ- ent HR practice changes. Finally, it might be
useful to use rating scales that allow for nega- tive (and positive) alignment ratings to
allow for perceived negative alignment.
As facilitators, we wrote the HR practice descriptions, possibly resulting in demand ef-
fects. That is, this process may have slanted the descriptions in ways that favored the
compe- tency model and yielded high vertical align- ment ratings as a result. Because there
were large differences in vertical alignment scores across the HR practice areas, however,
it seems likely that little slanting occurred. Future re- search might look at ways to control
for slant- ing. One way would be to use arm's-length, disinterested people to generate the
HR prac- tice descriptions and others to do the assess- ment ratings. Another method
would be to simply use the organization's existing HR prac- tices descriptions. This would
require, however, that the competency usage information be present in the descriptions
and that the de- scriptions not be onerously long and complex.
The HR practice descriptions we used were of intended HR practice, as opposed to
actual or perceived practice. Actual practice might deviate from intended practice for
many rea- sons, including lack of resources or poor im- plementation. Perceived practice
by job in- cumbents might differ from intended practice due to incumbents' lack of HR
practice knowl-
edge or personal experience. These alternative views of HR practice could be incorporated
into separate sets of HR practice descriptions, followed by designing and conducting an
HRA assessment process for each set of de- scriptions. This would help determine if the
assessment rating characteristics and sugges- tions for HR practice change vary according
to whether intended, enacted, or perceived HR practice descriptions were used.
The intended HR practices we used were described and assessed at the central level of
the district, rather than in individual organiza- tional units (ie, schools). It is very possible
that intended practices are not fully carried out and that other HR practices beyond those
de- scribed are used at the unit level. This suggests a need to experiment with conducting
the HRA assessment at the unit level and the cen- tral level, determining points of both
intersec- tion and divergence of HR alignment, and de- veloping a more robust set of HR
practice changes.
Research might also look at the process by which HR practice change suggestions are
generated. The number and quality of sugges- tions might be compared across different
processes, such as (1) study group members generate suggestions without assistance, as in
the present study; (2) facilitators take an ac- tive role in suggesting changes to study group
members for them to consider; and (3) study group members are first presented with de-
scriptions of evidence-based or “best” prac- tice examples to stimulate their thinking.
The composition and tasks of the study group might also be examined. Does the study
group need to have both HR and non- HR representation? While we used both to gain HR
practice expertise across the HR practice areas and to secure buy-in, perhaps using just HR
staff is sufficient. Or, what might happen if there was combined repre- sentation to
generate and approve HR prac- tice descriptions and then just HR staff per- formed the
alignment ratings and generated ideas for HR practice improvement? These questions
warrant additional research.
Related to this is whether it is desirable to use outside experts to help generate
improvement suggestions. Research suggests
Acknowledgments
The research reported in this paper was sup- ported by the Carnegie Corporation of
New York and the Society for Human Resource Manage- ment Foundation. The
opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily re- flect the view of
the Carnegie Corporation, the Society for Human Resource Management Foun-
dation, the institutional partners of the Consor- tium for Policy Research in
Education, or the Wisconsin Center for Education Research. An earlier version of this
paper was presented at the 2008 Academy of Management annual meeting in
Anaheim, California. We thank Human Resource Management's Associate Editor
Kevin Carlson and three anonymous reviewers for the many ideas and comments
that im- proved this paper.