Introduction to Security and

Impact of Crime
 References
• 2007 CSI/FBI Computer Crime and Security Survey,
http://www.gocsi.com/forms/csi_survey.jhtml
• Joris Evers, Computer crime costs $67 billion, FBI says, CNET News 19 January
2006, http://news.com.com/ Computer+crime+costs+67.2+billion,+FBI+says/2100-
7349_3-6028946.html
• Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, A Theory of Crime Problems,
http://www.popcenter.org/learning/ pam/help/theory.cfm
• The Home Office Policing and Reducing Crime Unit Research, Development and
Statistics Directorate 1998, The Routine Activity Approach, http://www.
rouncefield.homestead.com/files/a_soc_dev_22.htm
• Tom O Connor, Cybercrime: The Internet As Crime Scene, http://faculty.ncwc.edu/
toconnor/315/315lecr12.htm
• Tom O Connor, Crime Theories,
http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/111/111lect03.htm
• H.J. Eysenck, Chapter 10:Personality Theory and the Problem of Criminality,
Muncie, John, Criminological Perspectives Essential Readings (Second Edition),
Pages 52-56, 90-105, http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mmulibrary/Doc?id=10080914
• Ronald Clarke, The Theory of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design,
http://www.e-doca.net/Resources/Articles/
Clarke_the_theory_of_crime_prevention_through_environmental_design.pdf
• US. Geological Survey Manual, Physical Security Handbook, http://www.usgs.gov/
usgs-manual/handbook/hb/440-2-h/440-2-h.html
 Definition of Crime
• Generally, a crime is an act that violates a
political or moral law of any one person or
social grouping.
• Specifically, a crime is a violation of
criminal law (criminal standards of bad
behaviour).
Source: Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime)
 Categories of Crime Addressed by
Physical Security
• Malicious Destruction of Property.
– Arson (Targeting a property for damage or fire).
– Breaking and entering (Forced entry and destruction of
property).
– Vandalism (Defacement of a structure or system).
• Causing Harm to Individuals.
– Assault & Battery.
– Rape.
– Stalking.
– Kidnapping.
– Homicide / Manslaughter / Murder (Tampering with life-
sustaining equipment).
• Espionage/ Sabotage (Stealing secrets or destroying
competitors’ records).

Source: Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime

 Categories of Crime Addressed by
Physical Security
• Theft.
– Burglary / Looting (Break-ins to steal property).
– "Carjacking" (Vehicle Theft).
– Larceny / Theft / Robbery / Embezzlement (Theft of
property).
• Fraud (Deception made for personal gain).
– Counterfeiting.
– Identity theft.
– Forgery (Issuing false documents or information through
a computer).
• Criminal Threatening / Blackmail / Extortion (Threatening to
damage a person/property to obtain something).
• Trespass (Unauthorized presence on someone’s property).

Source: Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime

 Cost of Crime
• The average annual loss reported in 2007
shot up to $350,424 from $168,000 the
previous year amounting to a total loss of
$66,930,950 of the 280 respondents
surveyed.
• Not since the 2004 report have average
losses been this high.

– Source: CSI 2007 Computer Crime and Security Survey, Computer Security Institute
Cost of Crime
Cost of Crime
Cost of Crime
Cost of Crime
 Crime & Personality
• According to H.J. Eysenck (Criminological Perspectives
Essential Readings), studies show that different criminal
activities are related to different personality types.
• Male and female criminals appear to have similar
personality patterns.
• These personality traits can generally be classified into 3
categories:
– P (Psychoticism).
– E (Extraversion).
– N (Neuroticism).
• Older criminals have a higher range of P & N traits while
younger criminals have a higher rate of P & E traits.
 Traits Characterizing the
Psychoticism factor

Source: Adapted from Muncie, John, Criminological Perspectives Essential Readings (Second Edition), Page 94
 Definitions
(Adapted from Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin
Company)

• Aggressive
– Inclined to behave in an actively hostile
fashion.
• Cold
– Not affectionate or friendly; aloof.
• Egocentric
– Selfish; holding the view that the ego is the
center, object, and norm of all experience.
• Impersonal
– Showing no emotion or personality.
 Definitions
(Adapted from Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin
Company)

• Impulsive
– Inclined to act on impulse rather than thought.
• Antisocial
– Not sociable; Antagonistic toward or disrespectful of
others; rude
• Unempathic
– Does not identify with and understand with another's
situation, feelings, and motives
• Creative
– Having the ability or power to create
• Tough-minded
– Facing facts and difficulties with strength and
determination; realistic and resolute.
 Traits Characterizing the
Extraversion Factor

Source: Adapted from Muncie, John, Criminological Perspectives Essential Readings (Second Edition), Page 94
 Definitions
(Adapted from Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin
Company)

• Sociable
– Fond of the company of others; pleasant; friendly
• Lively
– Full of life and energy; vigorous
• Active
– Energetic, dynamic, vigorous, lively
• Assertive
– Inclined to bold or confident assertion; aggressively
self-assured
 Definitions
(Adapted from Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin
Company)

• Sensation-seeking
– Always looking for excitement.
• Carefree
– Free of worries and responsibilities.
• Dominant
– Exercising the most influence or control.
• Surgent
– Rising, swelling
• Venturesome
– Disposed to venture or to take risks; daring; involving
risk or danger
 Traits Characterizing the
Neuroticism Factor

Source: Adapted from Muncie, John, Criminological Perspectives Essential Readings (Second Edition), Page 94
 Definitions
(Adapted from Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin
Company)

• Anxious
– Uneasy and apprehensive about an uncertain event
or matter; worried.
• Depressed
– Low spirits; dejected.
• Guilt Feelings
– Remorse caused by feeling responsible for some
offence.
• Low Self-Esteem
– Low self-respect.
 Definitions
(Adapted from Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin
Company)

• Tense
– In a state of mental or nervous tension.
• Irrational
– Not rational; marked by a lack of accord with reason
or sound judgment.
• Shy
– Easily startled; timid.
• Moody
– Given to frequent changes of mood; temperamental.
• Emotional
– Readily affected with or stirred by emotion
 Theories of Crime
(Dr. Tom O'Connor)
1. Biochemistry
• Causes of Crime: Heredity, vitamin deficiency, allergy, tumor, toxins,
brain dysfunction, hormonal imbalance.
2. Psychology
• Causes of Crime: low intelligence, psychopathy (personality disorders,
like the psychopaths, sociopaths, and antisocial personalities), stress.
3. Ecology
• Causes of Crime: Disorganized Neighborhoods (The study of
relationships between an organism and its environment).
• This type of theory explains crime by the disorganized eco-areas where
people live rather than by the kind of people who live there.
4. Strain
• Causes of Crime: Economic Goal Blockage. This type of theory sees
crime as the normal result of an "American dream" in which people set
their aspirations (for wealth, education, occupation, any status symbol)
too high, and inevitably discover strain, or goal blockages, along the
way.
 Theories of Crime
(Dr. Tom O'Connor)
1. Learning
• Causes of Crime: Imitation, “Peer Pressure” (Involves the
analysis of what is positively and negatively rewarding for
individuals to imitate the group)
2. Control
• Causes of Crime: Socialization (based on relationships with
authority figures), low self-control.
3. Labeling
• Causes of Crime: Negative labeling and “identity immersion”
(The social reaction of the individual who will eventually become
more like the label because it becomes his/her identify)
4. Conflict
• Causes of Crime: Competition, the study of power and
powerlessness (based on conflict between competing interest
groups)
 Theories of Crime
(Dr. Tom O'Connor)
1. Radical
• Causes of Crime: Class Struggle in a Capitalist Economy (criminals
are like rebels who try to make a statement against a society which
allows things to exist like millions of billionaires and millionaires while
the vast majority of people live in poverty or just get by)
2. Left realism
• Causes of Crime: Predatory Relationships (focuses upon the reasons
why people of the working class victimize other poor people of their
own race and kind)
3. Peacemaking
• Causes of Crime: Inner suffering and turmoil
4. Feminist
• Causes of Crime: Gender inequality, patriarchy (male domination)
5. Postmodern
• Causes of Crime: Feelings of being disconnected from society and
dehumanized
 Opportunity Theory
• Criminal behavior is the result of the interaction
between the person and the environment (criminal
opportunity)
• Based on Ecology Theory
• 2 Opportunity Theories:
– Routine Activity Theory
– Rational Choice Perspective
• Countermeasures: Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design (CPTED) and Physical Security
 Routine Activity Theory
(Cohen & Felson, 1979)
• Focuses on characteristics of Crime rather than the
characteristics (personality of the offender)
• Routine Activity Theory:
– States that criminal offenses are related to the nature of
everyday patterns of social interaction.
– Explains how changes in the routine activities of society
affect the number of suitable “targets” for crime.
– States the for crime to happen, the following must be
present at the same place and same time:
• A suitable target
• A potential offender
• The absence of an effective guardian
 Routine Activity Theory
(Cohen & Felson, 1979)
• In the absence of effective controls, offenders will attack attractive
“targets” (for property crimes, a “target” is a thing or object of value)
• Crime will occur where “handlers” (influential people in the lives of
potential offenders) are absent, weak or corrupt.
• There is less opportunity for a target with an effective “guardian” (i.e.
police, security guards & others whose job is to protect people and
property from crime) to be attacked than a target with an absent, weak
or corrupt guardian.
• Guardians may use light to increase surveillance, engraving devices to
mark property and other tools to reduce opportunities for crime.
• Place Managers (owners of a site/location and their agents i.e.
merchants, lifeguards, parking lot attendants, recreation and park
workers, janitors, motel clerks, etc.) may use gates, fences, signs and
other tools to control the behavior of offenders and potential victims
 Routine Activity Theory
• Problems happen when offenders are at the
same places as targets without any effective
controller present.

Courtesy of PAM (Problem Oriented Policing) http://www.popcenter.org/learning/pam/images/triangle-complete2.gif

 Routine Activity Theory
4 main elements which influence the target’s
risk of attack by an offender (VIVA):
• Value
– The worth of the target/property
• Inertia
– The weight of the target/property
• Visibility
– The chances of exposure of the target to potential
offenders (e.g. placement of valuable goods by the
window)
• Access
– Location of target and ease of access to target by
potential offenders (e.g. street patterns, placement of
goods near the door, etc.)
 Rational Choice
Perspective/Theory
• Concerned with:
– Understanding crime from the perspective of the offender.
– the thinking process of offenders.
• What are they seeking?
• How do they decide to commit a particular crime?
• If prevented from committing them, what other crimes might they
choose to commit?
– How offenders evaluate criminal opportunities.
• How do they weigh the risks & rewards involved in these crimes?
• How do they set about committing them?
– Why offenders choose to obtain their ends by criminal and
not legal means.