CAUSES AND EFFECTS

OF
TRANSIENT ENCLOSURE VOLTAGES
IN
GAS INSULATED SUBSTATION

A DISSERTATION
2010-2011
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Under the Supervision: Submitted By:

Dr. R.S. GORAYAN Saurabh Maheshwari(07020404)
Shashank Tyagi(07020410)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY
VARANASI – 221005
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY
VARANASI – 221005

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that dissertation entitled “CAUSES AND EFFECT OF

TRANSIENT ENCLOSURE VOLTAGE IN GAS INSUALTED SUBSTATION ”, being
submitted by Saurabh Maheshwari [Roll No. 07020404] and Shashank Tyagi [Roll
No. 07020410], in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY [Integrated Dual Degree] in ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING has been carried out under my supervision and guidance. Certified
that the report embodies the results of the work carried out by them under my
supervision within the prescribed period under the ordinances governing the
Bachelor’s degree in Electrical Engineering in the faculty of Institute of Technology,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, applicable for 2010 Examination .

APPROVED FOR SUBMISSION

Dr. R. S. Gorayan Head of Department

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering
Institute of Technology, B.H.U. Institute of Technology, B.H.U.
Varanasi - 221005 Varanasi - 221005
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to express our deep sense of gratitude and

whole hearted thanks to our project supervisor Dr. R.S.Gorayan, Asst
Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, IT-BHU, Varanasi. He
deserves thanks for his invaluable guidance, inspiration and constant
encouragement. At all time we encountered difficulties but for his
counsel and help that was available to us through out, we could
overcome these difficulties and learn a lot in that process.

We express our sincere gratitude to Prof. S. N. Mahendra, Head of the

Department, Department of Electrical Engineering, IT-BHU, Varanasi,
for providing us the facilities to carry out this work.

We are thankful to our friends for their constant support and

encouragement throughout this work and making a memorable stay at
B.H.U, Varanasi.

Saurabh Maheshwari

Shashank Tyagi

ii
Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iv
KEYWORDS ................................................................................................................................ iv
1.1. Introduction .........................................................................................................................2
1.2. GIS advantages and disadvantages .....................................................................................3
1.2.1. GIS Advantages.................................................................................................................4
1.2.2. GIS Disadvantages ............................................................................................................5
1.3. GIS Components...................................................................................................................5
Below figure (1.1) shows layout of GIS components. .................................................................5
FIG 1.1 .......................................................................................................................................6
1.4. GIS Applications ...................................................................................................................6
1.5. Economics of GIS ..................................................................................................................7
2.1. Introduction .........................................................................................................................9
2.2. Classification of VFT’S ........................................................................................................10
Fig 2.1 .......................................................................................................................................10
2.2.1. Internal VFT ...................................................................................................................11
Fig 2.2 ......................................................................................................................................12
2.2.2. External VFT ....................................................................................................................12
2.2.2.1. Transient Enclosure Voltage ........................................................................................12
2.2.2.2. Transient Electromagnetic Fields .................................................................................13
2.2.2.3. Transient on Overhead Connections ...........................................................................13
3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................15
3.2. Basic Theory.......................................................................................................................15
3.3. How Transient Enclosure Voltage is produced ...................................................................17
3.3.1. Mechanism for disconnector switching ..........................................................................17
3.3.1.1. During Turn-Off............................................................................................................18

i
3.3.1.2. During Turn-On ............................................................................................................20
3.3.1.3. Trapped charge ............................................................................................................22
3.3.2. Due to fault .....................................................................................................................22
3.3.3. Skin Effect Considerations...............................................................................................23
4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................26
4.2. Effect on Human ................................................................................................................26
4.2.1. The Strength-Duration Curve ..........................................................................................27
Figure 4.1 .................................................................................................................................28
4.2.2. Sinusoidal Alternating Current and the Strength-Duration Curve ..................................28
Figure 4.2 .................................................................................................................................30
Figure 4.3 .................................................................................................................................31
4.2.3. Vulnerable Period of the Heart .......................................................................................31
Figure 4.4 .................................................................................................................................32
4.2.4. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................33
4.3. Effect on Control Wiring and Control Equipment ...............................................................34
4.3.1. Equipment Lock-Up due EMI ...........................................................................................35
4.3.1.1. Equipment Lock-Up: Ground Bounce ...........................................................................35
4.3.2. Equipment and sensor malfunction ................................................................................35
4.3.3 Equipment Damage .........................................................................................................35
Figure 4.5 .................................................................................................................................36
4.4. Effect on Secondary Equipment .........................................................................................37
4.4.1. Nature of currents during switching operations .............................................................37
Figure 4.6 .................................................................................................................................38
High-voltage circuits with fast transient currents ....................................................................38
Figure 4.7. Typical Shape of current i1 (t). ...............................................................................39
Figure 4.8 ..................................................................................................................................40
Grounding and shielding concept of high-voltage measuring system ......................................40
4.4.2. The current transformer effect .......................................................................................41

ii
Figure 4.9 ..................................................................................................................................43
4.5. Effect on Enclosure ............................................................................................................44
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................45
References ................................................................................................................................47

iii
ABSTRACT
Gas Insulated Substation have found a broad range of applications in power systems over last
three decades because of their high reliability. easy maintenance, small ground space
requirements etc. Although GIS have been in operation for several years some of the problems
are of more attention. These problems include generation of Very Fast Transient Overvoltage’s
(VFTO) during switching operations or earthing faults and Transient Enclosure Voltage (TEV)
outside the GIS.

The very rapid dielectric breakdown of SF6 (e.g. during the operation of disconnect switches)
generates steep-fronted travelling waves which couple to the exterior enclosure surface at the
air/SF6 bushing and cause transient ground potential rise, which may cause concern for
personnel safety and problems for protection and control circuitry.

This project report presents firstly the introduction to GIS. Transients in GIS and their type are
also discussed. Causes of transient enclosure voltage: disconnector switching and fault to ground
are discussed in detail.

As far as possible effect of transient enclosure voltage are discussed: effect on human, control
circuitry and control and measuring equipment, secondary equipments and on enclosure.

KEYWORDS
GIS, Very Fast Transient overvoltage (VFTO), Transient Enclosure Voltage (TEV),
disconnector,

iv
 Chapter: 1
INTRODUCTION TO GIS

1
1.1. Introduction

A gas insulated substation (GIS) is a substation that uses a superior dielectric gas, sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6), high-voltage gas-insulated substations have been in service since the early
1960s. In 1960 the first gas insulated metal-enclosed switchgear went into service in the German
110 kV network. Operation of 800 kV equipment has proved successful since the end of 1979.
Prototype testing of 1100 kV through 1600 kV substation equipment proved the feasibility of this
equipment at the next generation of voltage levels.

The basic principle of gas-insulated equipment is that the high-voltage current- carrying
parts are within a metal enclosure and are held in a concentric configuration by cast epoxy spacer
insulators. The space between the conductor and the enclosure is filled with sulfur hexafluoride
gas under moderate pressure.

Medium-voltage up to 170 kV equipment is available in three phases in one enclosure;

for higher voltages, it is generally in a single-phase enclosure arrangement. The equipment can
be installed indoors or outdoors. Above 170 kV, the size of the enclosure for "three-phase
enclosure", GIS becomes too large to be practical. So a "single-phase enclosure" design is used.
There are no established performance differences between three-phase enclosure and single-
phase enclosure GIS. Some manufacturers use the single-phase enclosure type for all voltage
levels. Enclosures today are mostly cast or welded aluminum, but steel is also used. Steel
enclosures are painted inside and outside to prevent rusting. Aluminum enclosures do not need to
be painted, but may be painted for ease of cleaning and a better appearance. The pressure vessel
requirements for GIS enclosures are set by GIS standards (IEEE Std.; IEC), with the actual
design, manufacture, and test following an established pressure vessel standard of the country of
manufacture.

Service life of GIS has been shown by experience to be more than 30 years. The
condition of GIS examined after many years in service does not indicate any approaching limit in
service life. Experience also shows no need for periodic internal inspection or maintenance.

Inside the enclosure is a dry, inert gas that is itself not subject to aging. There is no
exposure of any of the internal materials to sunlight. The lack of aging has been found for GIS,
whether installed indoors or outdoors. The equipment can be designed for any bus scheme.
Depending on the voltage level, bus scheme, and whether connecting lines are installed
underground or overhead, the land area required for gas- insulated equipment is 10% for 800 kV

2
to 20% for 145 kV of the space required for comparable air-insulated equipment. Because of its
smaller size and enclosed current- carrying parts, this equipment is excellently suited for
installation where real estate is at a premium, where the environmental constraints dictate a
minimum of visual exposure, and where the continuity of service may be threatened by airborne
contamination. The various modules of GIS are factory assembled and are filled with SF6 gas at
a pressure of about 3 kg/cm2. Thereafter, they are taken to site for final assembly. Such
substations are compact and can be installed conveniently on any floor of a multi-storied
building or in an underground substation. As the units are factory assembled, the installation time
is substantially reduced. Such installations are preferred in cosmopolitan cities, industrial
townships, etc., where cost of land is very high and higher cost of SF6 insulated Switchgear
(GIS) is justified by saving due to reduction in floor area requirement. They are also preferred in
heavily polluted areas where dust, chemical fumes and salt layers can cause frequent flashovers
in conventional outdoor air-insulated substations.

1.2. GIS advantages and disadvantages

As mentioned previously there are two types of insulated substation:

1. Air insulated substation.
2. Gas insulated substation.

The atmospheric air insulation used in a conventional, air-insulated substation (AIS)

requires meters of air insulation to do what SF6 can do in centimeters, the insulation distances
determine the main sizes of the classic distribution substation, For a long time, the development
in substation construction concentrated simply in combining existing devices to obtain the
arrangement more adequate for exploitation and supply security. On the other hand, the
increasing needs to convey electric energy, at higher voltages, towards the regions with grand
population density and the industrial centers, causes great difficulties due to the size of the
involved installations, official prescriptions and the town-planning requirements complicate the
construction.

GIS can therefore be smaller than AIS by up to a factor of 10. A GIS is mostly used
where space is expensive or not available. In a GIS the active parts are protected from the
deterioration from exposure to atmospheric air, moisture, contamination, etc. As a result, GIS is
more reliable and requires less maintenance than AIS.

3
1.2.1. GIS Advantages

 Reduced required space:

The space occupied by SF6 installation is only about 8% to 10 % of that a conventional
outdoor substation. High cost is partly compensated by saving in cost of space. A typical
(420/525) kV SF6 GIS requires only 920m2 site area against 30000 m2 for a
conventional air insulated substation.
 Reliable:
The complete enclosure of all live parts guards against any impairment of the insulation
system.
 Reduced erection and assembly times:
The principle of building block construction reduces the installation time to a few weeks.
Each conventional substation requires several months for installation. In SF6 substations,
the time-consuming is highly cost for galvanized steel structures and it is eliminated.
Heavy foundations for galvanized steel structures, equipment support structures ...etc are
also eliminated. The results are economy and reduced project execution time. Modules
are factory assembled, tested and dispatched with nominal SF6 gas. Site erection time is
reduced to final assembly of modules.
 The installations are dielectrically and totally tested in-site (unlike conventional
substations).
 Reduced maintenance and consequently, lower costs.
 The safety is increased:
As the enclosures are at earth potential there is no possibility of accidental contact by
service personnel to live parts.
 From 30 kV to 500 kV they might result cheaper than conventional units. High flexibility
and application versatility provide unique and economic overall concepts.
 Up to 170 kV, tri-polar design is used (three phases in the same casing). For upper
voltages, each phase is separately insulated, enclosed and compartmentalized.
 Provide a protection against the pollution.

The external moisture, Atmospheric Pollution, snow, dust … etc. have little influence on
SF6 insulated substation. Due to the troubles caused by pollution in insulators, the
tendency is to build indoors installations. However, the cost is increasing in construction.

4
1.2.2. GIS Disadvantages

 Excessive damage in case of internal fault. Long outage periods as the repair of damaged
part at site may be difficult.
 Requirement of cleanliness is very stringent. Dust or moisture can cause internal
flashovers.
 Such substations are generally indoor, so they need a separate building. This is generally
not required for conventional outdoor substations.
 Procurement of gas and supply of gas to site is problematic, adequate stock of gas must
be maintained.
 Project needs almost total imports including SF6 Gas. Spares conventional substation is
totally indigenous up to 400 kV.

1.3. GIS Components

The GIS is usually installed on a monolithic concrete pad or the floor of a building. It is
most often rigidly attached by bolting and/or welding the GIS support frames to embedded steel
plates or beams. The compact manufacturing and the highly developed wiring technique allow
the free determination of the site, and ensure the independence regarding climatic conditions.
The gas-insulated substations utilize the same switchgear of conventional substations, but with
design and characteristics slightly different, the whole station is integrated inside a grounded
aluminum enclosure filled with SF6, which ensures the insulation to ground.

The gas insulated substation comprises the following components:

 Circuit breakers.
 Current transformers and voltage transformers.
 Disconnectors or isolators.
 Bus-bars, double bus-bar feeder.
 Cable feeder.
 Auxiliary bus-bar feeder.

Below figure (1.1) shows layout of GIS components.

5
 FIG 1.1

1.4. GIS Applications

Some possible applications of these very high voltage metal-enclosed stations are:
 Main distribution stations inside cities.
 Main distribution stations for important customers.
 Main distribution stations in zones with pollution, salt, or risk of explosion.
 Main distribution stations with special characteristics (underground stations, shelters of
reinforced concrete, etc.).
 Classic installation expansion, in case of reduced space.
 Mobile transformation stations.

6
1.5. Economics of GIS

The equipment cost of GIS is naturally higher than that of AIS due to the grounded
metal enclosure, the provision of a local control cabinet, and the high degree of factory assembly.
A GIS is less expensive to install than an AIS. The site development costs for a GIS will be
much lower than for AIS because of the much smaller area required for the GIS. The site
development advantage of GIS increases as the system voltage increases because high voltage
AIS take very large areas because of the long insulating distances in atmospheric air. Cost
comparisons in the early days of GIS projected that, on a total installed cost basis, GIS costs
would equal AIS costs at 345 kV. For higher voltages, GIS was expected to cost less than AIS.

However, the cost of AIS has been reduced significantly by technical and manufacturing
advances (especially for circuit breakers) over the last 30 years, but GIS equipment has not
shown any cost reduction until very recently. Therefore, although GIS has been a well
established technology for a long time, with a proven high reliability and almost no need for
maintenance, it is presently perceived as costing too much and is only applicable in special cases
where space is the most important factor.

7
 Chapter 2:
TRANSIENTS IN GIS

8
2.1. Introduction
In a Gas insulated substations Very fast transient over voltages (VFTO) are generated during the
switching of disconnectors in 245KV and above voltage level’s GIS. VFTO generated in a GIS
should be considered as an important factor in the insulation design. For designing a substation it
is essential to know the maximum value of VFTO. Moreover, this VFTO in turn generates
Transient Enclosure Voltages (TEV) outside the GIS. Hence studies are carried out on estimation
of the VFTO and TEV levels. In GIS, Very Fast Transient Over voltages (VFTO) are caused by
two ways, due to switching operations, line to enclosure faults and internal insulation flashover.
The internal VFTO’s generated have traveling wave behavior of a surge. Since VFTO’s have the
characteristics of traveling wave, they can change significantly at different points within GIS.
These VFTO’s travel to the external system through enclosures, gas-air bushings, cable joints,
current transformers etc. and may cause damage to the outside equipments like high voltage
transformers connected to the GIS. Further they may give rise to electro-magnetic interference.
Since the contact speed of the disconnector switches is low, re-striking occurs many times before
the interruption is completed. Each re-strike generates VFTO’s with different levels of
magnitude. Disconnector Switches (DS) are used primarily to isolate the operating sections of an
HV installation from each other as a safety measure. Beyond this, they must also be able to
perform certain switching duties, such as load transfer from one bus bar to another or
disconnection of bus bar, circuit breaker etc. Step shaped traveling wave generated between the
disconnector switch contacts propagates in both directions, reflecting at the components of GIS,
thus resulting in a complex waveform. VFTO’s may lead to: Flashover to Ground at the
disconnector switches contacts. Failure of electronic control circuits connected to GIS, because
of electromagnetic interference of VFTO, Dielectric strength is reduced under VFTO if non-
uniform electric field is formed by the particles (mainly metallic). Effect on components such as
bushing and transformer. Transient Enclosure Voltage (TEV) on external surface of the sheath.
This may cause flashover to nearby grounded objects.

For these reasons, VFTO generated in GIS should be considered as an important factor in the
insulation design of not only gas insulated components, but the entire substation.

9
2.2. Classification of VFT’S

ORIGIN OF VERY FAST TRANSIENTS (VFT) IN GIS

Operation of disconnectors , breaker and grounding switches
Earth fault during on site testing or in service.

VERY FAST TRANSIENTS

INTERNAL VFT EXTERNAL VFT

Travelling wave travelling wave and radiation
inside GIS outside GIS

Over Voltage Transient Transient

VFTO Enclosure Voltage Electromagnetic Over Voltages
between Field On overhead lines
between inner
conductor and encapsulation and Radiated from the and equipments
encapsulation earth enclosure

Stress of Stress of
Stress of insulation Stress of adjacent
secondary secondary
in GIS H.V equipments
equipments equipments

Fig 2.1

10
A classification of VFT’s is given in above figure .It shows that different phenomena can be
related to switching operations in SF6 gas insulated switchgear causing a fast voltage step with a
rise time in the range of 4 to 7 ns at the location of the source. The observed phenomena at
different distances from the origin of the VFT can be divided into internal and external VFT’s
and may exhibit different shapes, because of reflections of travelling waves given by the layout
of the installation and damping effects inside and outside of the GIS.

2.2.1. Internal VFT

The transients internal to the GIS can be analyzed using the basic transmission line theory. The
superposition of the various component traveling waves generated in GIS network gives the final
wave shape of the VFTO. The electrical length of the GIS bus determines the oscillation
frequencies. Generally, the primary oscillation frequency of the GIS will be in the range of
5MHz to 10Mz. However, in the view of short initial rise time of the VFTO, higher frequency
components in the range of 100MHz also exist. The amplitude and shape of the VFTO along
the GIS can be significantly different at point within the GIS that are separated by only a few
meters. The calculation of the VFTO can be done by treating each section of GIS (bus and other
components) as a transmission line characterized by surge impedance and electrical length
(transit time) with no damping due to skin effect. In fact, the main source of damping for the
high frequency content are the small impedance changes along the bus ducts such as bends,
spacers and shielding electrodes, which creates a large number of reflection and refractions of
the step voltages thereby reducing the VFTO magnitude. Thus for accurate calculation of VFTO,
both the finite rise time of the initial steps and detailed modeling of even the small impedance
changes within the bus ducts are necessary.

In the view of the interconnected transmission line nature of the GIS network, the VFTO
magnitude and their frequencies are estimated using the well known Electromagnetic Transient
Program (EMTP). Below figure shows the typical VFTO waveforms obtained using the EMTP
method and by actual measurement. The simulation of the below figure neglects the presence of
propagation losses (skin effect etc.) which results in less damping of the high frequency detail of
the waveform. In addition, the effect of the spacers, flanges, elbows, corona shields and other
connection hardware were included by adjusting the propagation velocity to 0.95 times the
velocity of light. It can be seen that the agreement between the computed and measured value is
good.

11
 Fig 2.2

2.2.2. External VFT

An internally generated VFT propagates as a travelling wave through the bus and reaches the
bushing where a part causes the transient rise of enclosure voltage and a part propagates along
the overhead transmission line and may stress the adjacent equipment.TEV is very difficult to
calculate or measure. It depends mainly on the inductance of the grounding lines and the
grounding grid. The frequencies involved in the TEV are mainly high frequency. At low
frequencies, the grounding becomes very effective but there is no low frequency in TEV.
Therefore, the GIS design should give utmost consideration to reduce the inductance of the
grounding connections. The magnitudes of TEV are very sensitive to the grounding design and
therefore vary considerably from one GIS to another. It is very difficult to estimate the TEV
magnitude but it is always possible to reduce them by proper grounding design.

2.2.2.1. Transient Enclosure Voltage

TEV although not unique to GIS probably manifests itself more visibly in this type of substation
than in the conventional air insulated type by the appearance of sparks between metallic
components of the enclosure and between enclosures and other earthed components or structures.
The magnitude of the transient can vary according to the location of the measurement point on
the enclosure. On simple arrangement it can vary between 0.1-0.25 p.u. for the GIS generally but
can reach an order of magnitude higher near the SF6 to air termination.

TEV has caused a concern for personnel safety but is itself a low energy phenomenon and here is
no recorded evidence available to suggest that it is directly dangerous to the health of personnel
performing normal duties within the substation. The element of surprise which may be
occasioned at the appearance of sparking however is of great concern for the safety of personnel

12
and in some cases has brought about the introduction of appropriate operating procedures (e.g.
warning signals, limited access etc.)

TEV can also cause interference with or even damage to the substation control, protection and
other secondary equipment.

2.2.2.2. Transient Electromagnetic Fields

Electromagnetic fields associated with the external VFTO are radiated from the enclosure
and the overhead line. Any electronic cubicle even at some distance from the enclosure will
therefore be subjected to a transient electromagnetic field which may induce voltages or current
within an electronic circuit. The amplitude of the electric field is typical some 10 kv/m near the
enclosure. The frequency of the electromagnetic field depends on the arrangement of the GIS,
but is typically in the range of 10 to 20 MHz. Near the enclosure, the electric field decreases with
the distance. There are multiple reflections in the earthing system, resulting in high frequencies
in the electric field near the earth side. The magnetic field can be estimated to be in the range of
some 10A/m having the same frequencies as the electric field.

2.2.2.3. Transient on Overhead Connections

A portion of a VFT travelling wave incident at an air termination is coupled onto the
overhead connections and propagates to other power system components. The propagation of
VFT on air insulated lines and bus is lossy and results in some increase of the waveform rise
time. However measurements indicate that if the air connections are relatively short, VFT with
rise times in the range of 10 to 20 ns can propagate from the GIS over short air connections to
connected components such as power transformers. The overall wave-shape is dictated by
lumped circuit parameter such as the capacitance of voltage transformer, line and earthing
inductances, etc. As the VFT occur during normal conditions in GIS and each DS operation may
generate tens to hundreds of individual transients, the possible ageing effect on the insulation of
external components is needed to be considered.

13
 Chapter 3:
TRANSIENT ENCLOSURE VOLTAGE

14
3.1. Introduction
Transient Enclosure Voltage (TEV) refers to short rise time, short duration high voltage
transient that appears on the external surface of the earthed GIS enclosure.TEV of the gas
insulated switchgear (GIS) is the result of the very fast transient overvoltage (VFTO) caused by
the operation of the switching devices, particularly disconnector. The phenomena caused by
transient enclosure voltage rise (TEV) can be observed coincident with disconnect switch
operations or breakdowns during acceptance testing of gas-insulated substations (GIS).
Observations of sparking between grounded enclosures and support structures, failures of
protective devices on control circuits, inadvertent operation of relays, etc. are common
manifestations of TEV. Despite the use of grounding (based on power frequency considerations),
these phenomena indicate the presence of high potentials on the GIS enclosures, which raises the
issues of equipment protection and of shock hazard. Shocks ranging from a "tingling" sensation
to what was described as a "good belt" have been reported by both manufacturer and user.
Therefore the efforts have been concentrated on the investigation of the effects of these very fast
transients in GIS and adjacent equipment

3.2. Basic Theory

TEV is normally caused by dielectric breakdown within the GIS, which can be line-to-
ground breakdown or breakdown across the contacts of a disconnect switch during its operation.
Fault induced TEV is common during acceptance testing, but disconnect switch operation
induced TEV occurs under normal operating conditions. The collapsing electric field during a
breakdown produces travelling waves which propagate in both directions from the disturbance.
These travelling waves generally have rise times of 5-20 ns, which produce broadband excitation
of resonances within the station. The coaxial nature of GIS and the virtually lossless dielectric
form an excellent high frequency distribution network for these transients. The magnitude of
these travelling waves depends on their source as well as station configuration. For example, a
line-to-ground fault creates a travelling wave with a magnitude equivalent to the potential at
breakdown. A disconnect switch operation produces a travelling wave of a magnitude half of the
potential across the switch contacts prior to breakdown. The travelling waves may then be
reduced in magnitude by transmission line discontinuities, such as bus duct "T" connections.
These transient produced within the GIS produces the transient enclosure voltage on the
enclosure when discontinuities in the sheath are encountered.

15
FIG 3.1 Development of an earth fault by branching of the leader-discharge during
disconnector operation.

16
3.3. How Transient Enclosure Voltage is produced
Transient enclosure voltage is produced due to coupling of internal transient (VFT) to the
enclosure at its discontinuities.

There are two main source of origin of VFT in GIS:

1. Disconnector switching

2. Earth fault

In both the cases, there is a voltage collapse either between the contacts or between phase and
ground, which generates steep voltage surges with very short but finite rise time.

3.3.1. Mechanism for disconnector switching

During the operation of disconnector switch on a capacitive load (the normal circumstances for
DS operation), re-strikes between contacts occurs due to the relatively low speed of the moving
contact. The inter-contact gap dielectric strength does not recover fast enough compared to the
transient recovery voltage Va that appears across the contacts. The breakdown voltage is
determined by the contact gap, electrode geometry and the properties of the cold insulating gas.

17
 Fig 3.2 Mechanism of switching overvoltage generation during opening of a disconnector.

Va: Voltage across DS contacts during opening stroke

Vs: Source side voltage
VL: Load side voltage, residual voltage
Vw: Dielectric strength across DS contacts

3.3.1.1. During Turn-Off

The load side voltage VL follows the source side voltage Vs in a stepwise manner. Each time Va
reaches Vw {dielectric strength across DS contact}, a re-strike occurs between contacts
generating a spark, which equalizes the potential between the switch contacts and results in the
generation of VFTO. The sparks between contacts last for some tens of microseconds and then
extinguish. Following spark extinction, the supply and load-side potentials will deviate according
to the ac supply voltage variation and the discharge characteristics of the load side respectively.
Another spark will result when the voltage across the contacts reaches the new dielectric strength
level as determined by the instantaneous contact gap. The process repeats itself until the contacts
are sufficiently spaced so that Vw will be higher than Va. The power frequency voltage
amplitude at the last strike will remain on the load side and is called the residual voltage V l. This
residual voltage will last on the capacitor forever, as the dielectric losses are very small for SF 6
bus ducts. Depending on the speed of the moving contacts the number of re-strike can vary from
less than ten up to a few hundreds

18
Fig 3.3 Load side and voltage side voltage waveforms when the disconnect switch is opened on a
capacitive load.

Fig 3.4

19
3.3.1.2. During Turn-On

Consider the above circuit (fig 3.3) {in order to understand the general switching behavior of a
DS} in which 'R' is added as a lumped element to understand the physical phenomenon.

As the contacts bridge, the electric field between them rise until spark over occurs. The first
strike will almost inevitably occur at the peak of the power frequency voltage due to the slow
operating speed of the contact. Thereafter, the current will flow through the spark and the charge
on the capacitive load gets changed to the source voltage Vs. During this period, the potential
difference across the contacts falls and the spark will eventually extinguish.

After this the source side of the DS will continue to follow the power frequency and the voltage
will fall from the peak value leaving the load charged. The potential difference across the DS
will therefore rise again but now with the opposite polarity, and a second spark will occur when
the source voltage is near zero.

The inter-contact breakdown voltage of a DS is always higher in one polarity than in the other
due to unsymmetrical contact design, and the first strike will take place when the moving contact
has the negative polarity. Consequently, the second strike will take place for a greater potential
difference than the first and will occur when the source voltage has crossed zero. The gradual
approach of the contacts results in a steady reduction of inter-contact breakdown voltage
difference, which in turn increases the number of re-strike per cycle and the amplitude of
individual voltage steps become smaller.

20
 Fig 3.5 load side and voltage side voltage waveforms when the disconnect switch
is closed on a capacitive load.

The precise number of the steps and their amplitude distribution during switching will depend on
the design of the disconnector switch, the operating speed and the behavior of the GIS after each
extinction of the spark. It also depends on the specific operational procedures of the GIS. In
some cases, such as the opening of a circuit breaker (p.u.).This can create severe conditions
because the first spark over occurs on the peak of the power frequency source voltage giving a
charge of 2 p.u. When spark over occurs, the voltage on both sides of the switch will collapse to
zero, thus creating two 1 p.u. voltage steps (trapped charge) of opposite polarity and they
propagate outwards.

However, for a low speed DS, the trapped charge on the contacts when opening a pure capacitive
load range from 0.1 to 0.5 p.u.. With a peak value of about 0.3 p.u. this produces peak VFTO
magnitudes of about 1.5 p.u. Fast operating DS, on the other hand can leave trapped charge of
1.0 p.u. and the resulting VFTO magnitude can be as high as 2.5 p.u. Also, on extinction of the

21
spark between the DS contacts, the circuit on the either side of the DS will oscillate at very high
frequencies in the range of a few MHz.

The phenomenon that occurs during the DS closing into capacitive load is very nearly the reverse
of processes that occur during its opening. Here, the first re-strike occurs due to the residual
voltage left behind by a previous opening on the load side. Circuit breaker or load break switch
closing or opening also generate VFTO is much lower than those generated by DS operation.

3.3.1.3. Trapped charge

When a disconnect switch is opened on a floating section of switchgear, which is a common

mode of operation, a trapped charge may be left on the floating section. The potential caused by
trapped charge will normally decay very slowly (hours to days) as a result of decay through
spacers. Large trapped charge is undesirable for several reasons. A trapped charge near 1 pu
(peak) can levitate particles. Particles motion under DC conditions is much more severe than that
for AC excitation and may lead to appreciable (uA) dc currents which will normally discharge
the floating section in a relatively short time.

A trapped charge of 1 pu implies that the first breakdown upon closing the disconnect switch will
occur at 2 pu across the switch contacts may lead to conductor to ground over voltage of up to
2.5 pu. Thus the magnitude of trapped charge left after operation of a disconnect switch may be
of some consequence to switchgear reliability.

3.3.2. Due to fault

Fault induced transient enclose voltage is common during acceptance testing. Step surges with
magnitudes equal to the instantaneous value of the applied voltage at the moment of breakdown
are generated due to a line to enclosure fault. VFTO generated by this mechanism may be
dangerous for other parts of GIS only if line to ground voltage exceeds the rated voltage. This
might happen for example during on-site testing with lightning impulse or with the generation of
actual lightning impulse overvoltage due to a thunderstorm. Here the maximum VTO amplitudes
can reach values which are twice the phase to ground voltage before flashover.

22
 Fig 3.6

3.3.3. Skin Effect Considerations

At the high frequencies of breakdown induced transients, currents are constrained to flow along
the surfaces of conductors and do not penetrate through the conductor ("skin effect"). For this
reason, the inside and outside surfaces of the GIS enclosure must be considered distinct, so that
transients generated within the GIS do not appear on the exterior surface of the enclosure until
discontinuities in the sheath are encountered. The most typical of these discontinuities occurs at
cable/SF6 transitions and air/SF6 terminations. Of these, the air/SF6 termination is often the
most significant sheath discontinuity.

Now these internal transients get coupled to the GIS enclosure at its discontinuities, resulting in
transient enclosure voltage at the surface of the earthed GIS enclosure. TEV occurs due to the
high inductance (long length) of the normal earthing connections, which are designed for power
frequency voltages. Highly inductive circuit will not provide effective grounding for the short
rise time VFTO voltages. Insulated flanges at GIS/cable interface and some current transformers
are the other some sources of TEV.

The mechanism of TEV generation at the air termination can be analyzed by considering the
GIS-air interference to be a connection of three transmission lines
 The coaxial GIS transmission line
 The transmission line formed by the bushing conductor and overhead lines

23
  The GIS enclosure-to-ground transmission lines.
These three transmission lines with surge impedances are shown in below fig3.6. When a
internal travelling wave propagates to the gas-to-air bushing a portion of the transient is coupled
onto the overhead line-to-ground transmission line and a portion is coupled onto the GIS
enclosure-to-ground transmission line. The latter constitutes TEV.
The TEV wave which couples onto the enclosure encounters earthing connections which form
transmission line discontinuities and attenuate TEV.

FIG 3.7 The GIS air termination modeled as a connection of three transmission lines. The
portion which couples from the internal GIS(1) to the transmission line formed by the GIS
enclosure and the ground plane(3) is the primary mechanism for TEV at the air termination.

24
 Chapter 4:
Effects of Transient enclosure Voltage

25
4.1. Introduction
Transient enclosure voltages produced in GIS affect humans, secondary equipment, control
wiring control equipments (electronic circuits). TEV is a high voltage, short frequency and short
duration phenomena.

4.2. Effect on Human

The passage of electric current through living tissue can produce two quite different
effects: stimulation of excitable tissue and, with high intensity, thermal effects including
coagulation of protein or burning and charring. Stimulation can occur in muscles, glands or
nerves, the latter producing both excitatory and inhibitory effects. In the latter case respiratory
arrest or unconsciousness can occur if current flows through the brain.

The fact that nerves, muscles and other excitable tissue, including sensory organs, can be
stimulated electrically with a galvanic cell, charged capacitor (Leyden jar) and induction coil.
The basic laws of tissue stimulation slowly evolved from these observations. The ability of
sinusoidal alternating current to stimulate decreased as the frequency was increased from the low
kilohertz to the megahertz range. In fact, when a frequency of 500 kHz was used, a current of
one ampere (rms) could be passed through the human body with only a mild sensation of warmth
operation involves many breakdowns across the being perceived. With shorter exposure times,
associated with disconnect switch closure, total the current threshold raises.

A aspect of the safe passage of high-frequency alternating current through the body was
exploited by Clark who found that by using a blunt needle electrode carrying current to the
tissue, three very useful effects could be produced 1) desiccation, 2) coagulation of protein and
therefore closure of small blood vessels, and 3) fine cutting due to an arc that surrounded the
electrode as it was drawn across the tissue. The return path for the current was via the
capacitance of the subject to ground.

From the considerable successes of diathermy and electro surgery, it was concluded that
high-frequency current could not stimulate living tissue. Occasionally tissue burns were
encountered with diathermy and electro surgery if there arose a high current density.

26
 The view that high-frequency current stimulate has persisted until recent times. The event
that prompted a re-examination of the belief came from electro surgery. Surgeons had noted that
with coagulating current, and sometimes with cutting current, motor nerves and muscles adjacent
to the active (needle) electrode were stimulated. Fibrillation is the random contraction and
relaxation of all of the muscle fibres in the ventricles, the main pumping chambers of the heart.
The result is a loss of all pumping and circulatory arrest. Irreversible brain damage occurs about
three minutes and, unless the circulation is restored by cardiopulmonary resuscitation and/or
defibrillation, the human dies.

High-frequency current, which insofar as living tissues concerned, resembles a train of

short-duration pulses, can stimulate living tissues. To explain how such current can stimulate, it
is necessary to understand the theory underlying tissue stimulation which is described by the
strength-duration curve.

4.2.1. The Strength-Duration Curve

For stimulation of a given type of excitable tissue, there is a reciprocal relationship

between the minimum stimulus strength (actually current density) and the duration (d) of the
stimulus. A plot of this relationship provides a hyperbolic-like curve of the type shown in Fig. 1.
Note that there is a long-duration asymptote (the rheobasic current b); from this asymptote, a
progressive decrease in duration increases the stimulus strength required for excitation. The
simplest expression for the curve is shown Fig below. In order to define the strength-duration
curve by two points, Lapicque defined the chronaxie (c), the duration for twice the rheobasic
current strength. The strength-duration curve then took the following form:

27
 Figure 4.1

4.2.2. Sinusoidal Alternating Current and the Strength-Duration Curve

It was suggested that excitable tissue views sinusoidal alternating current as a train of
short-duration pulses. This is, however, a slight oversimplification of the mechanism of
stimulation with repetitive pulses. An important physiological characteristic of all irritable tissue,
namely the refractory period, must be recognized, because its existence precludes every pulse in
a train from producing an excitation.

Only a single stimulus was delivered to carry out the analysis and the duration curve is an
expression of the stimulus strength delivered to fully recovered (i.e., resting) tissue. If tests are
made to determine how soon a second stimulus can be delivered to evoke a response, the
phenomenon of the refractory period is revealed by the inability of a second, closely spaced
stimulus to excite the tissue. For all tissues, the recovery time is finite, and if the second stimulus

28
is delivered before adequate recovery, no response will occur, i.e., the tissue is said to be
refractory. The end of the refractory period can be identified by the strength-interval curve,
which is a plot of the intensity of a second stimulus needed to evoke a response, the time
(interval) after the first stimulus. Fig. 2.2a is a plot of the strength-interval curve heart muscle
and shows that the refractory period is on the order of 70% of the duration of the action potential.
Figure 2.2b illustrates the earliest time in the electrical cycle of the heart when a stimulus can
evoke a response. A stimulus presented earlier than this time will not stimulate, no matter how
intense, because the cell has not recovered enough to be responsive. Very strong stimuli can, of
course, produce thermal damage.

In general, the duration of the refractory period can be estimated from the action potential
which idenstrengthtifies excitation (depolarization) and the slower recovery to the resting
membrane potential (RMP). It is in the later phase of recovery that the refractory period ends and
the cell is ready to respond to a second stimulus. The refractory period is important in identifying
how an alternating current can stimulate excitable tissue. If sinusoidal alternating current is
equated to a train of short-duration pulses, (of duration equal to the reciprocal of frequency), it is
only a pulse that falls outside of the refractory period that can stimulate. Therefore if the period
of the alternating current is short, i.e., the frequency is high, for only a sub-multiple of the pulses
will stimulate the cell.

29
 Figure 4.2

The hazards from alternating current relate to ventricular fibrillation and skin burns, the
latter can be produced by current of any frequency if the current density is high enough and the
exposure time is long enough. Ventricular fibrillation is most easily produced by low frequency
(60 Hz) alternating current and as the frequency is increased, the current required is increased.
There are only limited data on this subject as yet; however, it is known that under special
circumstances, electrosurgical current (0.5 MHz) can precipitate ventricular fibrillation.

30
 Figure 4.3
Threshold current for skin sensation (forearm) with single rectangular
pulses of different durations (d) and sinusoidal current of different periods (d).

4.2.3. Vulnerable Period of the Heart

The supreme electrical hazard is ventricular fibrillation which can be produced by

repetitive stimuli. Ventricular fibrillation can also be precipitated by a single stimulus if it occurs
during a particular interval in the pumping cycle of the ventricles; this interval is called the
vulnerable period, which occurs late in the recovery phase of the ventricles. To be effective in
precipitating fibrillation, the single stimulus must be several folds more intense than the
threshold required when the heart is fully recovered. Fig. illustrates the action potential of the
ventricles and the way it is expressed in the electrocardiogram, which is a record of the heart's
electrical activity when obtained with body surface electrodes. Fig. 15 illustrates precipitation of
ventricular fibrillation by a single stimulus (x) delivered during the vulnerable period, which is
identified on the electrocardiogram in the inset on the same illustration.

31
 Figure 4.4

The third area needing research involves the determination of the distribution of the
current, charge energy and so on of impulses in the human body. The basic data on heart
stimulation has been developed for direct heart stimulation while hazardous shocks are usually
applied at the extremities.

The parameters for vulnerable-period stimulation are by no means well worked out.
There is evidence that the shorter the duration of the pulse, the more intense it must be to
precipitate ventricular fibrillation by vulnerable-period stimulation. It has long been suspected
that single, short duration capacitor-discharge (static-electricity) shocks, if delivered during the
vulnerable period, could induce ventricular fibrillation. The static discharges were produced by
the operator. Voltages as high as 22 kV were generated and ventricular responses we reproduced
with as low as 2 kV. Single stimuli falling in the vulnerable period produced only a single
ventricular excitation. However, when a heart attack (myocardial infarction) was induced by
closure of a coronary artery branch, a single 6 kV static discharge, falling in the vulnerable
period, precipitated ventricular fibrillation.

Based on present information, it is not known whether a single short-duration shock of

high intensity delivered to a normal heart during the vulnerable period will cause ventricular
fibrillation. However, it should be apparent that ventricular fibrillation can be precipitated with
repetitive stimuli if one falls in the vulnerable period. At least three aspects of biomedical
research require immediate investigation to provide information needed to assess transient
ground rise shock hazard.

32
4.2.4. Conclusion

Transient potential rises on gas-insulated equipment enclosures resulting from internal

dielectric breakdowns (either by faults or by disconnect switch operations) are high (on the order
of 100 kV), but are of short duration (typically less than a few microseconds).The potential
magnitudes can be estimated and the shock intensity based on the energy in the waveform can be
calculated. Such calculations for typical substation configurations can indicate shock intensities
higher than can be accepted based on present biomedical knowledge.

There is a considerable literature on the threshold current for sensation and the current
density and duration of application required producing burns. There is, however, a paucity of
information on the intensities and durations of current pulses that will precipitate ventricular
fibrillation. The fact that electrosurgical current (i.e., 0.5 MHz) and single ventricular fibrillation,
argues in favour of investigation of the nature and potential occurrence of the hazards of single
or multiple short-duration current pulses.

It was concluded that existing scientific knowledge is inadequate to give reliable opinions
on the safety or hazards of transient potentials. Three areas in need of biomedical research have
been identified. First, the electrical quantities which can be most effectively used to define
allowable intensity of short duration shocks have not been established. Impulse energy, current,
charge some function of these and time have been proposed, but not verified. Second, the
magnitudes of these possible parameters which will not cause injury to humans have not been
sufficiently established. Third, the distribution of the current in the human body has not been
established. It has been hypothesized that the high frequencies inherent in short duration pulses
would be confined to the skin, but recent reports of damage to internal organs indicates
otherwise.
Dalziel provides the only available guidance on allowable shock intensity. An energy criterion is
recommended:
Maximum allowable energy absorbed by the body
= 0.027 RB joules
where this value for the body resistance RB of 500 results in an allowable energy in humans of
13.5 J. It should be emphasized that this criterion is in doubt, both in terms of its magnitude and
in terms of the use of energy as a parameter for shock intensity. Recent work suggests that this
limit may be too high and that the timing of the impulse relative to the heartbeat cycle is of
importance. Methods to estimate the energy which would be absorbed by a body resistance.

33
4.3. Effect on Control Wiring and Control Equipment

A problem associated with GIS breakdowns and disconnect switch operations is that of
surges on low-voltage control wiring. Experience indicates that severe transient potentials, large
enough to damage electronic components and cause flashovers at connection pins, are frequently
generated on cables connected to bus-duct transducers and control devices. The close proximity
of these cables to the grounded enclosures suggests that the control-wiring transient and transient
ground potential rise problems are intimately related. Preliminary findings are as follows:

a. Peak open-circuit potentials on cables connected to bus-duct devices can exceed

10 kV.

b. Typically, more than 90% of the potential results from pick-up on unshielded
pigtail lead at transducers in close proximity to the GIS enclosure.

c. Transient Ground Potential Rise (TGPR) is a oscillating voltage of frequency of

hundreds of KHz to few MHz, which leads to electromagnetic interference in
close by control circuit

Strong coupling between transient ground potentials and short lengths of unshielded in
the vicinity of the enclosures is therefore indicated.

Electro-magnetic Interference can affect control equipments and cable in following ways:
1. EMI causes equipment lock-up
2. EMI causes equipment and sensor malfunction
3. EMI may cause component damage

34
4.3.1. Equipment Lock-Up due EMI

Equipment lock – up means generation of false signal. This false signal is not generated by
source but is generated in cable which use used to transfer the control signal. Electromagnetic
interference produced due TGPR causes a voltage spike in control wire (Figure 4.5b). The
electronic circuit interpret this voltage spike as an extra pulse. This leads to generation of false
signal (Figure 4.5c). Electromagnetic fields induce seemingly legitimate signals into electronic
circuits which lead to circuit malfunction. The electronics circuit does not suspect that it was
affected by EMI. The new circuits work at higher speeds and now ―notice‖ the ultra-short spikes
that older slower circuits ignored. These induced signal are virtually impossible to reproduce or
difficult to diagnose.

4.3.1.1. Equipment Lock-Up: Ground Bounce

EMI induces voltages in equipment’s ground. Hence, a current flow from equipment’s ground to
facility’s ground. If ground path is imperfect, voltage drop develops. Equipment ground
―bounces‖ i.e. its voltage level increases. Since electronic circuits treat ground voltage Logical
Low, thus circuit signal levels are no longer valid. This leads to malfunction of electronic
equipment.

4.3.2. Equipment and sensor malfunction

Electromagnetic Interference causes sensor malfunction. Strong electromagnetic field produced

due to TGPR induces voltages and currents in sensor circuits. This leads sensor to detect wrong
signals and cause false readings, which again affect the control of devices. Consequences of this
can be disrupted process, good components failed and bad components passed.

4.3.3 Equipment Damage

Any piece of wire is an antenna. Any antenna will convert electromagnetic field into voltage
and/or current. A signal wire, a data cable, a ground wire, a power cable -- they are all antennae.
In order for antenna to be efficient, it needs to be 1/4 of the wavelength of the electromagnetic
field. With the rise time of ESD Events of 1µS or less, the energy spectrum of the rising front
lies in the range of few KHz to 2 MHz. The voltage or current developed circuit may cause

35
 Figure 4.5

(a) Actual control signal to be transferred

(b) Voltage spike (red) induced due to EMI
(c) Extra pulse due to voltage spike

36
4.4. Effect on Secondary Equipment

TEV may interfere with secondary equipment by raising the housing potential of such
equipment in case it is connected directly or via cable shield to the GIS enclosure, and by
emitting free radiation which may induce the voltages or currents in adjacent equipment. Though
intermittent and of short duration, these effect may interfere with the normal functioning of
electronic equipment or even damage sensitive circuits.
Now in case of a current metering device is connected to system through current transformer and
now if either of situations arise:

1) In the event of high voltage line to ground fault

2) When actuating disconnection switches or circuit breakers.

The currents produced by switching operations however have been given attention only
for severa1 years. The growing interest in this field is certainly associated with the increasing use
of electronic equipment in electrical energy distribution systems because it has been noted that
such units can react sensitively to the electromagnetic phenomena which occur during switching
operations. The currents which flow through the shields of instrumentation and control cables are
significant in this respect.

4.4.1. Nature of currents during switching operations

The currents i1 (t) which flow when a switch is closed between two neighbouring
instrument transformers in a switchgear facility or when a chopping gap fires in a high-voltage
laboratory. The form of the current can be described approx. as follows: in a regular succession,
current impulses are superimposed on a sinusoidal fundamental wave so that at least initially, a
terrace-type current result.
An approximate equation was developed for the amplitude. It is:

𝑈0 𝑇𝑘
𝑖1 = +1 (1)
𝑍 𝑇𝑙

37
 Figure 4.6
High-voltage circuits with fast transient currents
G ground grid or plate
Ka capacitance or stray capacitance of measuring transformer
Kb capacitance of test object
C chopping gap
PG power generator
IG impulse generator
L Length of high-voltage connection
B breaker or disconnector

Tk is the time constant Z. K and Uo is the voltage prior to closing of the switch. Z is the
𝑙
characteristic impedance of the high-voltage line and Tl is the electrical transit time .c is the
𝑐
velocity of light.

38
 The period of the basic oscillation is approximately.
𝑇 ≈ 2𝜋 𝑇𝑘 𝑇𝑙 (2)

Figure 4.7. Typical Shape of current i1 (t).

A high-voltage measuring system such as a voltage transformer with the associated

instrumentation has a structure similar to that shown in fig. When switch B is closed, a current i1,
according to equation (1), flows through the stray capacitance K of the transformer. The loop a-
b-c-d-e formed by the ground plate, the ground connections and the shield of the instrumentation
line is located at a distance r away from the current path il, As shown in fig. 3b, the loop a-e
encircles part of the magnetic field which envelopes the current il . This temporally changing
magnetic field produces a current i2 in the loop. In turn, the current i2 can cause a series of
disturbances:

1) Voltage drops at plugs PL1 and PL2 or inductive coupling into the plugs.
2) Voltages inside the connection and the measuring instrument impedance
of the cable.
3) Disturbances inside the instrument I by the current flowing in its shield.

39
 Figure 4.8
Grounding and shielding concept of high-voltage measuring system
a) General diagram
b) Routes of currents i1 and i2

40
4.4.2. The current transformer effect

For the mathematical discussion, figure 4.3 (b) shows only those parts of the high-voltage
measuring system which are significant to the following deliberations. These elements are the
current path for current i1, the ground plate G, the shield of the instrument cable, plugs P L1 and
PL2 of the instrumentation cable, ground connections a-b and d-e as well as part c-d of the
instrument shield through which current i2 flows.

Let the magnetic flux through surface a-b-c-d-e normalized with respect to excitation
current il be M. In general it is called mutual inductance. If R is the ohmic resistance of current
path a-b-c-d-e-a and L is the self inductance of this loop, the relationship between i2 and ji to a
first approximation can be described quasi-stationary by the following differential equation:

𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿
𝑀. 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑅 𝑖2 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑖 (3)

To illustrate the behaviour of electrical systems in the time domain, special test functions
such as rectangular impulses are often used. If we solve equation (3) under the assumption that i1
(t) is a unit step pulse

0 𝑡<0
𝑖1 ∗ (𝑡) = (4)
𝑖1 𝑡≥0

We obtain for i2 (t):

𝑅
𝑀 −𝐿 𝑡
𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑖1 𝑒 (5)
𝐿

M
Current i2 (t) in this case rises to the value i1. and then exponentially drops with the
L
L
time constant . For further considerations, the magnitude of the time constant is important. L is
R
generally in the order of 10-6 — 10-5 H; R hardly ever attains values smaller than 10 -1 Ω. Thus,

41
 L
the time constant R is generally larger than 10 -5 seconds. The period of the excitation current i1 (t)
L
as calculated in section 4.1 is at least ten times smaller than the time constant R .

This means that the exponential drop at the beginning of current i2 (t) will hardly be noted
so that we can simplify equation (5) to obtain i2 (t):

𝑀 𝐿
𝑖2 𝑡 ≈ . 𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑡≪ (6)
𝐿 𝑅

For several µs, the system therefore behaves in the same manner as an ideal current
M
transformer with the transformation ratio i.e. i2 (t) is practically the same in form as i1 (t) for
L
this brief period of time. Experimentally, this characteristic is easy to verify. The circuit shown
in fig. 4.4a can be used to generate a rectangular current 11* (t). The oscillographs of Current i1*
(t) and i2* (t) in fig. 4.4b and 4.4c show that both currents look almost the same for several us.

According to equation (6), we could theoretically expect 12 to be approx. 7% of ii. The

evaluation of the oscillographs yields a value of 6 %. Hence, the actual value is well correlated
with the theoretical prognosis considering the fact that the theoretical formula is very simple and
furthermore incorporates the approximation according to equation (6).
The fact that current i2 (t) can be obtained from excitation current i1 (t) simplify by multiplying
with a scale factor is significant from two points of view.

42
 Figure 4.9

Quickly changing currents with periods shorter than 1ps flow through capacitors or stray
capacitances to ground when switching operations are performed in high-voltage substations or
laboratories. Due to a current transformer effect, similar currents are produced on the shields of
the secondary cables. The ratio of the ―current transformer‖ is proportional to the mutual
inductance between high-voltage and secondary circuits and inversely proportional to the self-

43
inductance of the secondary circuit. This causes the change in secondary current following
through measuring device which could lead to error in measure current.

4.5. Effect on Enclosure

With insulating flanges the buildup of transient’s enclosure voltage causes sparking across
flanges which established high frequency continuity in the enclosure and limits the magnitude of
the TEV coupled onto the enclosure to about 10KV whereas TEV near SF6 to air connection can
be within the range of several tens of KV to 100KV in magnitude.

The spark may also cause damage to insulating material in the vicinity and impair its service life.
Damage to insulating bushes in the housing of externally mounted current transformer may give
rise to the development of short-circuited turns around the current transformer and hence
interference with the correct operation of the devices. Equally, puncture of insulation intended to
limit the spread of circulating currents within the enclosure, due to the passage of normal load
current in the main conductor, may have harmful effects particularly under short-circuit
conditions.

44
CONCLUSION
GIS has proven to be a very good alternative for air-insulated substation where space is
expensive or not available. GIS can be smaller than AIS up to a factor of 10. They are also
preferred in heavily polluted areas where dust, chemical fumes and salt layers can cause frequent
flashovers in conventional outdoor air-insulated substations.

Switching operation in SF6-gas-insulated switchgear leads to very fast transient

phenomena, which can be subdivided into internal and external fast transients. Generally the
primary oscillation frequency of the GIS is in the range of 5MHz to 10MHz. However, in the
view of short rise time of the VFTO, higher frequency components in the range of 100Mz also
exist. The VFTO magnitude and their frequencies are estimated using the well known
Electromagnetic Transient Program. The external VFTO includes transients on overhead
connections and Transient Enclosure Voltage (TEV).

TEV refers to short rise time, short duration high voltage transient that appears on the
external surface of the earthed GIS enclosure. Transient enclosure voltage is produced due to the
coupling of internal transient to the enclosure at its discontinuities. Main source of these internal
transients are disconnector switching and earth fault. In both the cases breakdown of dielectric
takes place. Disconnect switch operation typically involves slow-moving contacts which results
in numerous discharges during operation. Each re-strike generates a spark which equalizes the
potential between the switch contacts. Another spark will result when the voltage across the
contacts reaches the new dielectric strength level as determined by the instantaneous contact gap.

As high frequency currents are restricted to the surface of the conductors by skin effect,
TEV doesn’t emerge onto the external enclosure surface at the point of initial disturbance (DS
operation or breakdown to the enclosure). Transients couple onto the exterior surface of the
enclosure at physical discontinuities, SF6-air bushing is normally the most significant source of
TEV. The TEV which couples onto the enclosure encounters earthing connections which form
transmission line discontinuities and attenuates TEV.

TEV as we have discussed above is short rise time, short duration high voltage
transient.TEV affect various part of GIS. It affects human, control wiring, control equipment,
secondary equipment such as C.T.s etc and enclosure. Now, effect on these can be studied as
how a short duration, high frequency and high voltage affect humans, control wiring and
equipment, secondary devices. It has adverse effect on human being since it has high frequency
it doesn’t means all current will flow through skin of human (since at high frequency most of a
current flows through surface of conductor). A.C. current can also cause heart failure. It also
produces EMI which causes effect on control wiring and control equipment (electronics
equipment). Control wire, power cable, etc act as antenna and hence voltages and current is
developed in circuit which leads to malfunction and damage of equipment. The measuring
equipment are also affected by due to current transformer effect.

45
 Appendix-1
1. Desiccation: Dryness resulting from the removal of water.
2. Coagulation: The process of forming semisolid lumps in a liquid.
3. Electro surgery: Surgery performed with electrical devices (as in electrocautery).
4. Coagulation Current: An electric current delivered by a needle ball or variously shaped
points to bind tissues together.
5. Fibrillation: Muscular twitching involving individual muscle fibers acting without
coordination.
6. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation: An emergency procedure consisting of external
cardiac massage and artificial respiration; the first treatment for a person who has
collapsed and has no pulse and has stopped breathing; attempts to restore circulation of
the blood and prevent death or brain damage due to lack of oxygen.
7. Defibrillation: Treatment by stopping fibrillation of heart muscles (usually by
electric shock delivered by a defibrillator).
8. Chronaxie: In the mathematical description of the functioning of the nervous system, the
chronaxie (or chronaxy) is the minimum time over which an electric current double the
strength of the rheobase needs to be applied, in order to stimulate a muscle fiber or nerve
cell.
9. Rheobase: In neuroscience, rheobase is the minimal current amplitude of infinite duration
(practically, a few hundred milliseconds) that results in the depolarization threshold of the
cell membranes being reached (i.e. an action potential or the contraction of a muscle).
10. Ventricular fibrillation: Ventricular fibrillation (V-fib or VF) is a condition in which
there is uncoordinated contraction of the cardiac muscle of the ventricles in the heart,
making them quiver rather than contract properly.
11. Refractory Period: The amount of time it takes for an excitable membrane to be ready
for a second stimulus once it returns to its resting state following excitation in the areas of
biology, physiology, and cardiology.

46
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50