Lecture 9

• Introduction to thermodynamics
• Temperature scales, absolute zero
• Phase changes, equilibrium, diagram
 Interlude

Quiz (Thursday, March 5)

• Chapter 21
1st mid-term (Tuesday, March 10)

• Chapters 14, 15 (except 15.6), 20 and 21

• diverse topics: start preparing now
 Thermodynamics (Chs. 16-19)
• Next few weeks:
transformation of energy from one form to another: e.g.
engines convert fuel energy into mechanical; living organisms
convert chemical energy of food into kinetic...
macroscopic systems instead of particles; temperature (T),
pressure (p)...instead of position, velocity...
How do pressure, temperature change or work done by engines
related to fuel energy used?
macro/micro connection: T related to motion of atoms...2nd law...
ultimate goal: how heat engines convert heat energy to work
• This week
bulk properties (T, p)
phases of matter; phase changes
start micro/macro connection
• Today: 3 phases of matter; mass...
 Solids, Liquids and Gases
change between liquild/solid or liquid/gas: phase change
• Solids
rigid: atoms vibrate, but not free to move; incompressible (atoms
as close as can be); crystal (arranged in periodic arrray) or
amorphous (random)

• Liquids
incompressible, but flows/fits shape of container: molecules can
slide around each other, but can’t get far apart

• Gases
freely moving molecules...till collide with each other/wall
compressible (lot of space...)
 State variables
• parameters describing macroscopic systems
ρ=
e.g.
M
mass (M), density (ρ ), p, T...related: e.g., V

• change state by changing variables: ∆X = X − X f i

• Thermal equilibrium: state variable not changing

Atoms and Moles (I)

• mass depends on total number of atoms,

N, typically ∼ 10 , i.e., 10
25 24
to 10 26
" 10 or 10
5 15

: larger in solid than gas, independent

of volume for uniform system
 Atoms and Moles (II)
• mass of atom determined by atomic mass number (number of
protons and neutrons)

• atomic mass unit: mass of 12C atom (6 p + 6 n) defined to be 12

u ! " ! " ! "
m !1H " /m 12C = 1.0078
12 → m 1H = 1.00078u
m 1H ≈ A (neglect small difference)

• molecular mass: sum of atomic masses

• 1 mole contains Avogadro’s number: 6.02 × 1023 of basic particles

(as in12 g of 12C ): e.g. 1 mole of O2 : 2 × 6.02 × 1023 O atoms
number of moles,
12 g
1 atom of 12C has mass 6.02×1023 = 1.993 × 10−26 kg
“ ”

⇒1u=
m 12
C = 1.661 × 10−27 kg
! " 12
m 20Ne = 20 u = 3.32 × 10−26 kg
• molar mass ( Mmol.): mass in grams of 1 mole (12 g/mol. for 12C )
= atomic mass in u
 Temperature
• temperature is related to system’s thermal energy
(kinetic and potential energy of atoms)
• measured by thermometer: small system undergoes a
change upon exchagning thermal energy, e.g., length
of mercury/alcohol in glass tube or
ideal gas’ pressure
Temperature Scales
• Celcius/centigrade◦ scale:
boiling point (100 C) freezing point (0◦C)
• Fahrenheit scale: F 5 C
T = 9
T + 32◦

(212 ◦F and 32◦F )

 Example
• At what temperature does the numerical value in
degree Fahrenheit in match the numerical value in
degree Celsius?
 Absolute Zero and Absolute Temperature
• property changes linearly with
temperature: e.g., pressure of
constant-volume gas
• p = 0 for all gases at T0 = −273 ◦C
p due to collisions all motion
stopped, zero thermal energy:
absolute zero (lowest temperature)
• absolute temperature scale:
zero point at absolute zero
Kelvin scale if same unit size as
Celcius scale:
TK = TC + 273 (no degrees for Kelvin)
 Phase Changes
• melting/freezing point: temperature
at which solid becomes
liquid...thermal energy large enough
to allow molecules to move around
• phase equilibrium: 2 phases co-exist
• condensation/boiling point: phase
equilibrium between liquid and gas
thermal energy too large for bonding
• phase change temperatures are
pressure-dependent: freezing (boiling)
point higher (lower) at lower
pressure
 Phase diagram
• how phases and phase changes
vary with T, p

• 3 regions with phase transitions at

boundaries...gas-solid (sublimation)

• critical point: liquid-gas boundary

ends

• triple point: all 3 phases co-exist

• triple point of water

( T3 = 0.01◦C ) used as reference
point (reproduced with no
variation) for Kelvin scale:
273.16 K
0 K fixed by gas properties
• cf. Celcius scale requires 2 reference points: boiling and
melting points (p-dependent)