VOCATIONAL TRAINING REPORT

PROJECT REPORT
ON
BROADCASTING

New Delhi Television Limited,

NEW DELHI

Prepared and submitted

By

(SHASHI RANJAN SINGH)

ECE/90/05
B.Tech in electronics and communication engineering
R.V.S. College Of Engineering and Technology
Edalbera, Bhilai Pahari, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It give me great pleasure to express my sincere thanks and deep sense of

gratitude to Mr. Dinesh Singh (Chief technology Officer) for giving me an
opportunity of under- going works to visit at NDTV LTD New Delhi.

I give special thanks to Mr. Ashish Kumar (Head of Broadcasting and

Operations) and Mr. Kumar Niranjan Singh (Head of Electrical Engineering)
for their contribution during visit and I extend my good wishes for their
assistance and ideas.

Also I give thanks to MR. Navin yadav, Abdul Ahmed, and Sahil Munjal for
sharing their lots of ideas about outside broadcasting.

SHASHI RANJAN SINGH

ECE/90/05
B.TECH - ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING.

R.V.S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

EDALBERA, BHILAI PAHARI, JAMSHEDPUR JHARKHAND.
 CERTIFICATE
Ref No:

To whom it may Concern

This is certify that Mr. Shashi Ranjan Singh (ECE/90/05) Student of R.V.S College of
Engineering & Technology, Jamshedpur, a student of 4 years B.Tech course In
Electronics & Communication Engineering (3rdyear), session 2005 - 2009 has
successfully completed six weeks vocational training from 17May’2010 to 30June’2010
at our concern.

During the training period his behavior and passion behind the work was
incredible.

DINESH SINGH

(Chief Technology Officer)

NDTV LTD,
New Delhi.
 CONTENTS
1) INTRODUCTION
2) ELECTRICAL SETUP

INTRODUCTION
1) ELECTRICAL MACHINE
1) DRY TYPE POWER TRANSFORMER
2) ISOLATION TRANSFORMER
3) SERVO TRANSFORMER
4) DIESAL GENRATOR

2) PROTECTIVE DEVICE & SWITCH GEARS

1) RELAY

3) CIRCUIT BREAKER

TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER

1) LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER

2) MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKER
3) THERMAL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKER
4) COMMON TRIP BREAKER
5) MEDIUM VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER
6) HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER
8) SULFER HEXAFLORIDE HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIBREKAR
9) OTHER BREAKER
10) AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER
11) PHASE REVERSAL SWTICH
12) BUS BAR
13) DISTRIBUTION PANEL

3) POWER ELECTRONICS

1) INVERTER
2) UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
3) BATTERY BANK

4) OUTSIDE BOARDCASTING
EQUIPMENT USED IN OUTSIDE BOARDCASTING

1) GENERATOR
2) U P S
3) VIDEO CAMERA
4) CONNECTORS AND ACESSORIES CABLES
5) VIDEO TAPE RECODER (VTR)
6) ENCODER
7) MODEM
8) BLOCK UP CONVTER (BUC)
9) BAND USED IN BOARDCATING
10) BAND FREQUNCY PRAMETER
11) FREQUENCY CALCULATION
12) HIGH POWER AMPLIFIER (HPA)
13) REFLECTOR (ANTENNA)
14) FEEDHORN
15) LNB

5) PRODUCTION CONTROL ROOM (PCR)

EQUIPMENT USED IN PRODUCTION COTROL

ROOM

1) DEMODULATOR
2) DECODER
3) VISION MIXER
4) AUDIO MIXER

6) TRANSMISSION CONTROL ROOM (TCM)

7) MASTER CONTROL ROOM (MCR)

 INTRODUCTION

Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or video signals which transmit programs to
an audience. Receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively large subset
of the whole, such as children or young adults.

The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. As with all technological

endeavors, a number of technical terms and slang have developed. A list of these terms
can be found at List of broadcasting terms. Television and radio programs are distributed
through radio broadcasting or cable, often both simultaneously. By coding signals and
having decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels
and pay-per-view services.

The first regular television broadcasts began in 1937. Broadcasts can be classified as
"recorded" or "live". The former allows correcting errors, and removing superfluous or
undesired material, rearranging it, applying slow-motion and repetitions, and other
techniques to enhance the program. However, some live events like sports telecasts can
include some of the aspects including slow-motion clips of important goals/hits, etc., in
between the live telecast.

A broadcast may be distributed through several physical means. If coming directly from
the studio at a single radio or television station, it is simply sent through the air chain to
the transmitter and thence from the antenna on the tower out to the world. Programming
may also come through a communications satellite, played either live or recorded for later
transmission. Networks of stations may simulcast the same programming at the same
time, originally via microwave link, now usually by satellite.

Distribution to stations or networks may also be through physical media, such as analog
or digital videotape, compact disc, DVD, and sometimes other formats. Usually these are
included in another broadcast, such as when electronic news gathering returns a story to
the station for inclusion on a news programmed.

The final leg of broadcast distribution is how the signal gets to the listener or viewer. It
may come over the air as with a radio station or television station to an antenna and
receiver, or may come through cable television or cable radio (or "wireless cable") via the
station or directly from a network. The Internet may also bring either radio or television
to the recipient, especially with multicasting allowing the signal and bandwidth to be
shared.

The term "broadcast network" is often used to distinguish networks that broadcast an
over-the-air television signal that can be received using a television antenna from so-
called networks that are broadcast only via cable or satellite television. The term
"broadcast television" can refer to the programming of such networks.

Goods and services

The broadcasting industry consists of radio and television stations and networks that
create content or acquire the right to broadcast prerecorded television and radio
programs. Networks transmit their signals from broadcasting studios via satellite signals
to local stations or cable distributors. Broadcast signals then travel over cable television
lines, satellite distribution systems, or the airwaves from a station's transmission tower to
the antennas of televisions and radios. Anyone in the signal area with a radio or television
can receive the programming. Cable and other pay television distributors provide
television broadcasts to most Americans. Although cable television stations and networks
are included in this statement, cable and other pay television distributors are classified in
the telecommunications industry.

Industry organization

Radio and television stations and networks broadcast a variety of programs, such as
national and local news, talk shows, music programs, movies, other entertainment, and
advertisements. Stations produce some of these programs, most notably news programs,
in their own studios; however, much of the programming is produced outside the
broadcasting industry. Revenue for commercial radio and television stations and
networks comes from the sale of advertising time. The rates paid by advertisers depend
on the size and characteristics (age, gender, and median income, among others) of a
program's audience. Educational and noncommercial stations generate revenue primarily
from donations by individuals, foundations, government, and corporations. These stations
generally are owned and managed by public broadcasting organizations, religious
institutions, or school systems.
Establishments that produce filmed or taped programming for radio and television
stations and networks—but that do not broadcast the programming—are in the motion
picture industry. Many television networks own production companies that produce their
many shows.

Work environment

Most employees in this industry work in clean, comfortable surroundings in broadcast

stations and studios. Some employees work in the production of shows and broadcasting,
while other employees work in advertising, sales, promotions, and marketing.
Television news teams made up of reporters, camera operators, and technicians travel in
electronic news-gathering vehicles to various locations to cover news stories. Although
such location work is exciting, some assignments, such as reporting on military conflicts
or natural disasters, may be dangerous. These assignments also may require outdoor work
under adverse weather conditions.
Camera operators working on such news teams must have the physical stamina to carry
and set up their equipment. Broadcast technicians on electronic news-gathering trucks
must ensure that the mobile unit's antenna is correctly positioned for optimal transmission
quality and to prevent electrocution from power lines. Field service engineers work on
outdoor transmitting equipment and may have to climb poles or antenna towers; their
work can take place under a variety of weather conditions. Broadcast technicians who
maintain and set up equipment may have to do heavy lifting. Technological changes have
enabled camera operators also to fulfill the tasks of broadcast technicians, operating the
transmission and editing equipment on a remote broadcasting truck. News operations,
programming, and engineering employees work under a great deal of pressure in order to
meet deadlines. As a result, these workers are likely to experience varied or erratic work
schedules, often working on early morning or late evening news programs.
 ELECTRICAL SET UP

Introduction
Electrical infrastructure is a back bone of any media set up, since the entire system
require clean and good power quality and off course the continuity is must which involve
use of ups systems. Success rate of any engineering set up can be defined directly
through the quality and architecture of the electrical infrastructure.
Below are the descriptions of various machines under this setup at M/s NDTV LTD.

Electrical Machines

DRY TYPE POWER TRANSFORMER

A dry type transformer is one which does not employ a liquid as a cooling or insulating
medium.

Dry type transformers are voltage changing (Step-up or Step-down) or isolation device
that is air cooled rather than liquid cooled. The transformer case is ventilated to allow air
to flow and cool the coil (coils).

“Dry type” simply means it is cooled by normal air ventilation. The dry type transformer
does not require a liquid such as oil or silicone or any other liquid to cool the electrical
core and coils.

Dry type transformers require minimum maintenance to provide many years of reliable
trouble free service. Unlike liquid fill transformers which are cooled with oil or fire
resistant liquid dielectric, dry type units utilize only environmentally safe, CSA and UL
recognized high temperature insulation systems. Dry type transformers provide a safe
and reliable power source which does not require fire proof vaults, catch basins or the
venting of toxic gasses. These important safety factors allow the installation of dry type
transformers inside buildings close to the load, which improves overall system regulation
and reduces costly secondary line losses.

Dry type transformers are a rather mature product and technology but, of all the
components in a power system, a transformer replacement can be a physically
challenging event, extended delivery of a replacement or repair unit and expensive
transportation costs. These are transformers whose core and coils are not immersed in
insulating oil.
Here at NDTV this dry type transformer is of capacity 1250kva, 11kv/0.40kv.
Isolation Transformer
An isolation transformer is a transformer, often with symmetrical windings, which is
used to decouple two circuits. An isolation transformer allows an AC signal or power to
be taken from one device and fed into another without electrically connecting the two
circuits. Isolation transformers block transmission of DC signals from one circuit to the
other, but allow AC signals to pass. They also block interference caused by ground
loops. Isolation transformers with electrostatic shields are used for power supplies for
sensitive equipment such as computers or laboratory instruments.

Isolation transformers are commonly designed with careful attention to capacitive

coupling between the two windings. This is necessary because excessive capacitance
could also couple AC current from the primary to the secondary. A grounded shield is
commonly interposed between the primary and the secondary. This greatly reduces the
coupling of common-mode noise present on supply conductors.

Differential noise can magnetically couple from the primary to the secondary of an
isolation transformer. This requires other measures, such as a filter, to block differential
noise from the secondary of an isolation transformer.

Bare uncased isolation transformers have floating outputs (not tied to ground). Most
commercial isolation transformer assemblies sold have one leg of the secondary tied to
ground as a safety requirement. This forms a new neutral which eliminates common
mode noise and differential ground noise, prime functions when used to power
equipment.

Here these transformers are used to power the bypass line of ups systems below are the
description of same.

A. 350kva isolation transformer – This is used with a similar capacity SCVS to

power the bypass line of 2X250kva set of ups.
B. 120kva isolation transformer – This is used to power the bypass line of 2X120kva
ups system which is configured in hot standby mode.
C. 90kva isolation transformer – This is used to power the bypass line of a 2X90kva
ups system which is also configured in hot standby mode.
Servo Transformers
Servo Transformers are used to constantly monitor the output voltage and control the
variations in the input voltage (+/- 1%). This is probably the cheapest power-
conditioning product available. It gives reasonably good voltage regulation and is all
right where voltage fluctuations are not considerable. However it is not advisable to use
in outside big cities where apart from considerable fluctuations in voltage, the power is
full of frequency drifts, failures, noise and spikes.

Diesel Generator
A diesel generator is the combination of a diesel engine with an electrical generator
(often called an alternator) to generate electric energy. Diesel generating sets are used
in places without connection to the power grid or as emergency power-supply if the grid
fails.

The packaged combination of a diesel engine, a generator and various ancillary devices
such as base, canopy, sound attenuation, control systems, circuit breakers, jacket water
heaters, starting systems etc, is referred to as a generating set or a gen set for short.

While the larger industrial generators can range from 8 to 30 kVA for homes, small
shops & offices up to 2,000 kVA used for large office complexes, factories. A 2,000 kVA
set can be housed in a 40ft ISO container and be fully packaged and portable. Sizes up
to about 5 MW are used for small power stations and these may use from one to 20
units. In these larger sizes the engine and generator are brought to site separately and
assembled along with ancillary equipment
Protective Devices & Switchgears
Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate
a switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find
applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-
transmitting it to another. Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power
required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control
power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple
operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern
electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protection relays".

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to
detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue
electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit
breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.
Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual
household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits
feeding an entire city

Types of circuit breaker

Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features
such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.
Low voltage circuit breakers
Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and
industrial application, include:

• MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)—rated current not more than 100 A. Trip
characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.
Breakers illustrated above are in this category.

• MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)—rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or

thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.

• Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in LV

switchboards or switchgear cabinets.

The characteristics of LV circuit breakers are given by international standards such as

IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow
removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear.

Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electrical motor
operators, allowing them to be tripped (opened) and closed under remote control. These
may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power.

Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, for
example DC supplied for subway lines. Special breakers are required for direct current
because the arc does not have a natural tendency to go out on each half cycle as for
alternating current. A direct current circuit breaker will have blow-out coils which
generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc when interrupting direct current.

Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a
breaker panel.

Magnetic circuit breaker

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases
with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the
solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the
solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases
the latch which then allows the contacts to open by spring action. Some types of
magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. The
core is restrained by a spring until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an
overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits
brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing
equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the
latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature
affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker.

Thermal magnetic circuit breaker

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards,
incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large
surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but
longer-term over-current conditions.

Common trip breakers

When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor
must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted
when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain
two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally
tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are
common on 120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or
further distribution boards) span the two live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are
typically used to supply three-phase electric power to large motors or further distribution
boards.

Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect the neutral
wire, to be sure that no current can flow back through the neutral wire from other loads
connected to the same network when people need to touch the wires for maintenance.
Separate circuit breakers must never be used for disconnecting live and neutral,
because if the neutral gets disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a
dangerous condition arises: the circuit will appear de-energized (appliances will not
work), but wires will stay live and RCDs will not trip if someone touches the live wire
(because RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be
used when switching of the neutral wire is needed.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers

Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into
metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components
installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for
indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers
(up to about 35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are
also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current
transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards
such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current
sensors and protection relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic over
current sensors.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the
arc:

• Vacuum circuit breaker—With rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers

interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container.
These are generally applied for voltages up to about 35,000 V,[4] which
corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum
circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do
air circuit breakers.

• Air circuit breaker—Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often

fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually
electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via
an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large
industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease
of maintenance.

• SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride
gas.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections
to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers
in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing the breaker to
be removed without disturbing the power circuit connections, using a motor-operated or
hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure.
High-voltage circuit breakers
Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage
breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually
thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International
Electro technical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-
operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers.
In substations the protection relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and
busses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault.

High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

• Bulk oil
• Minimum oil
• Air blast
• Vacuum
• SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric) , AREVA, Mitsubishi Electric,
Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Končar HVS, BHEL, CGL.

Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers
use SF6 gas to quench the arc.

Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that contains the
breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth
potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to
765 kV. 1200KV breakers are likely to come into market very soon.

High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a

single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some
classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability.

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-

breakers
A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas
to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be
incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental
heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6
gas.

Other breakers
Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current device:
Residual-current device (RCD, formerly known as a residual current circuit breaker) —
detects current imbalance, but does not provide over-current protection.

Residual current breaker with over-current protection (RCBO) — combines the functions
of an RCD and an MCB in one package. In the United States and Canada, panel-
mounted devices that combine ground (earth) fault detection and over-current protection
are called Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) breakers; a wall mounted outlet device
providing ground fault detection only is called a GFI.

Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) — This detects earth current directly rather than
detecting imbalance. They are no longer seen in new installations for various reasons.

Autorecloser — A type of circuit breaker which closes again after a delay. These are
used on overhead power distribution systems, to prevent short duration faults from
causing sustained outages.

Polyswitch (polyfuse) — A small device commonly described as an automatically

resetting fuse rather than a circuit breaker

AIR CIRCUIT BREKER (ACB)

An air circuit breaker is an electric protecting apparatus which is installed between an electric
source and load units in order to protect a load unit and a load line from an abnormal current
generated on an electric circuit and to perform distribution function for changing the electric
power line to another line. Electrical power distribution systems and their components need
protection from numerous types of malfunctions, including over current conditions, over
voltage conditions, under voltage conditions, reverse current flow, and unbalanced phase
voltages. Circuit breakers can interrupt an electric circuit due to a trip condition such as a
current overload or ground fault. The current overload condition results when a current
exceeds the continuous rating of the breaker for a time interval determined by the trip current.

In the event an over current condition occurs, electrical contacts within the circuit breaker will
open, stopping the flow of electrical current through the circuit breaker to the equipment. Air
circuit breakers are commonly used in electrical distribution systems.
A typical air circuit breaker comprises a component for connecting an electrical power source
to electrical power consumer called a load. The component is referred to as a main contact
assembly. A main contact is typically either opened, interrupting a path for power to travel
from the source to the load, or closed, providing a path for power to travel from the source to
the load. In a low voltage air circuit breaker, the movable contact is mounted on a contact arm
that is pivoted to open the contacts by a spring powered operating mechanism triggered by a
trip unit responsive to an over current condition in the protected circuit. In many air circuit
breakers, the mechanism for controlling the compression springs comprises a configuration of
mechanical linkages between a latching shaft and an actuation device. The actuation device
may be manually or electrically operated. An air circuit breaker is divided into a fixed type
fixedly installed between power source and a load and a drawer type in which a breaker is
movable so as to be separated from power source and a load in order to facilitate
maintenance and secure stability.

PHASE REVERSAL SWITCH

A phase reversal switch is a device which corrects the phase rotation. Here it’s
assembled with the main distribution panel to correct the phase rotation if its changed
from the substation.
BUS BAR
In electrical power distribution, a busbar is a thick strip of copper or aluminium that
conducts electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation or other electrical
apparatus. Busbars are used to carry very large currents, or to distribute current to
multiple devices within switchgear or equipment. For example, a household circuit
breaker panel board will have bus bars at the back, arranged for the connection of
multiple branch circuit breakers. An aluminum smelter will have very large bus bars used
to carry tens of thousands of amperes to the electrochemical cells that produce
aluminum from molten salts.

The size of the busbar is important in determining the maximum amount of current that
can be safely carried. Busbars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as 10 mm² but
electrical substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (1,963 mm²) or more as
busbars.

DISTRIBUTION PANEL
A distribution panel is a component of an electricity supply system which divides an
electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits, while providing a protective fuse or circuit
breaker for each circuit, in a common enclosure.
Further it can be divided into various categories depending broadly on the voltage level
i.e. HV distribution panel, MV distribution panel and LV distribution panel.
Power Electronics

INVERTER
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current
(AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of
appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. An inverter is essentially the
opposite of a rectifier.

Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct
current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply
AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.

The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early

mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were
"inverted", to convert DC to AC.

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or
battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a
load when the input power source, typically the utility mains, fails. A UPS differs from an
auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide
instantaneous or near-instantaneous protection from input power interruptions by means
of one or more attached batteries and associated electronic circuitry for low power users,
and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for high power users. The on-battery
runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short—5–15 minutes being
typical for smaller units—but sufficient to allow time to bring an auxiliary power source on
line, or to properly shut down the protected equipment.

While not limited to protecting any particular type of equipment, a UPS is typically used
to protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical
equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious
business disruption and/or data loss. UPS units range in size from units designed to
protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200 VA rating) to large units
powering entire data centers, buildings, or even cities.
BATTERY BANK
As reflects from its name it’s basically group of various batteries depending upon the
required DC voltage level. These are basically used with the ups system or a DC power
supply in case of a telecom industry.
There are various types of batteries categorized as per their construction and type of
material used. i.e. Lead acid, Nickel cadmium, Silver zinc, lithium ion etc.
 OUTSIDE BOARDCASTING
Outside broadcasting is the production of television or radio programmers (typically to cover
news and sports events) from a mobile television studio. This mobile control room is known as an
"Outside Broadcasting Van", "OB Van", "Scanner" (a BBC term), "mobile unit", "remote truck",
"live truck", or "production truck". Signals from cameras and microphones come into the OB Van
for processing and transmission.

A typical OB Van is usually divided into 5 parts.

• The first and largest part is the production area where the director, technical director,
assistant director, character generator operator (sometimes called an Aston operator) and
producers usually sit in front of a wall of monitors. This area is very similar to a
Production control room. The technical director sits in front of the video switcher. The
monitors show all the video feeds from various sources, including computer graphics,
cameras, video tapes, video servers and slow motion replay machines. The wall of
monitors also contains a preview monitor showing what could be the next source on air
(does not have to be depending on how the video switcher is set up) and a program
monitor that shows the feed currently going to air or being recorded. The dirty feed (feed
with graphics) is what is actually transmitted back to the central studio that is controlling
the outside broadcast. A clean feed (without the graphics) could be being sent to other
trucks for use in their production. The video switcher is usually operated by 1 person
called the Technical Director or Vision Mixer in Europe. That person is responsible for
putting all the video sources to air as directed to. Behind the directors there is usually a
desk with monitors for the editors to operate. It is essential that the directors and editor
 are in connection with each other during events, so that replays and slow-motion shots
can be selected and aired.

• The second part of a van is for the audio engineer; it has a sound mixer (being fed with
all the various audio feeds: reporters. commentary, on-field microphones, etc. The audio
engineer can control which channels are added to the output and will follow instructions
from the director. The audio engineer normally also has a dirty feed monitor to help with
the synchronization of sound and video.

• The 3rd part of the van is video tape. The tape area has a collection of video tape
machines (VTRs) and may also house additional power supplies or computer equipment.

• The 4th part is the video control area where the cameras are controlled by 1 or 2 people to
make sure that the iris is at the correct exposure and that all the cameras look the same.

• The 5th part is transmission where the signal is monitored by and engineered for quality
control purposes and is transmitted or sent to other trucks.

EQUIPMENT USED IN OUTSIDE BOARDCASTING

1) VIDEO CAMERA

A professional video camera (often called a television camera even though the use has spread)
is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that
records the images on film). Originally developed for use in television studios, they are now
commonly used for corporate and educational videos, music videos, and direct-to-video movies.

There are two types of professional video cameras: High end portable, recording cameras
(essentially, high-end camcorders) used for ENG and EFP image acquisition, and studio cameras
which lack the recording capability of a camcorder, and are often fixed on studio pedestals.
Portable professional cameras are generally much larger than consumer cameras and are designed
to be carried on the shoulder.

2) CONNECTOR

THERE ARE TWO TYPE OF CONNECTOR USED IN BOARDCASTING

a) XLR CONNECTOR
b) BNC CONNECTOR

a) XLR CONNETOR
 XLR connector is a such kind of audio connector by which audio signal is pass from one device
to another device for broadcasting

b) BNC CONNECTOR

BNC connector is a such kind of video connector by which video signal is pass from one device
to another device for broadcasting

THERE ARE TWO END OF CONNECTOR

a) MALE CONNECTOR
b) FEMALE CONNECTOR

3) VIDEO TAPE RECODER (VTR)

A video tape recorder (VTR) is a tape recorder that can record video material.

When video recording was first invented, video was recorded onto individual tape reels, as were
audio recordings. Loading a videotape reel required threading of the tape through rollers and
across recording and playback heads onto a take up reel. Reel-to-reel recorders have inherent
problems of tape damage from hand-threading, tape media contamination due to threading with
bare hands, and an exposed tape path contaminated by dust.

The video cassette recorder (VCR), where the videotape is enclosed in a user-friendly
videocassette shell, is the most familiar type of VTR known to consumers. The tape is pre-
attached onto two reels enclosed within the cassette, and tape loading and unloading is
automated. There is no need for the user to ever touch the tape, and the media can be protected
from dust, dirt, and tape misalignments that could foul the recording mechanism. Typically the
only time the user ever touches the tape in a videocassette is when a failure results in tape getting
stuck in the mechanism.

Prior to the invention of the video tape recorder, live video was recorded onto motion picture
film, in a process known as tape-recording. And although the first Quadruplex VTRs recorded
with good quality, the recordings could not be slowed or freeze framed, so tape-recording
processes were still used for about a decade after the development of the first VTRs.

4) ENCODER

An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, algorithm or person that

converts information from one format or code to another, for the purposes of standardization,
speed, secrecy, security, or saving space by shrinking size.

5) MODEM
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode
digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted
information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to
reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog
signals, from driven diodes to radio.

The most familiar example is a voice band modem that turns the digital data of a personal
computer into analog audio signals that can be transmitted over a telephone line, and once
received on the other side, a modem converts the analog data back into digital.

6) BLOCK UP CONVTER (BUC)

A block up converter (BUC) is used in the transmission (uplink) of satellite signals. It converts a
band (or "block") of frequencies from a lower frequency to a higher frequency. A BUC takes an
L band input and transmits it upstream to the satellite on KU or C band.

BAND USED IN BOARDCATING

a) KU BAND

b) C BAND

BAND FREQUNCY PRAMETER

KU BAND C BAND
1) Local oscillator frequency = 13050 MHZ 1) Local oscillator frequency = 4900 MHZ
2) L BAND frequency = 1484 MHZ 2) L BAND frequency = 1484 MHZ

FREQUENCY CALCULATION

FOR KU BAND

UPLINK FREQUENCY IN KU BAND = L BAND + BUC Lo of KU BAND

= 1484 + 13050

= 14534 MHZ

KU BAND set frequency = 2800 MHZ

LNB Lo frequency = 10000 MHZ

FOR C BAND

UPLINK FREQUENCY IN C BAND = L BAND + BUC Lo of C BAND

= 1484 + 4900

= 6384

C BAND set frequency = 2225 MHZ

LNB Lo frequency = 5150 MHZ

7) HIGH POWER AMPLIFIER (HPA)

A power amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier used to convert a low-power radio-frequency

signal into a larger signal of significant power, typically for driving the antenna of a transmitter.
It is usually optimized to have high efficiency, high output Power (P1dB) compression, good
return loss on the input and output, good gain, and optimum heat dissipation.

Being a high power device and having large gain it gives large output signal power while
requiring very small amount of RF power which is normally available from any commercial
signal generator. Because of this the power amplifier (or the amplifier chain) itself is commonly
known as "The RF source" or sometimes "The Transmitter".
The basic applications of RF Power Amplifier includes driving to another high power source,
Driving an transmitting antenna, Microwave heating and Exciting resonant cavity structures.
Among these applications one for driving transmitter antenna is well known because of the
growing field of communication and information technology. The transmitter receivers are not
only used for voice and data communication but are also used for weather reporting and forecast
(in the form of a RADAR). Microwave or RF heating is an industrial application which is also
benefiting our homes in the form of "Microwave Oven". Exciting cavity resonators is quite a
research lab and industrial application of an RF source. Particle accelerators utilize RF sources
extensively.

8) REFLECTOR (ANTENNA)

An antenna reflector is a device that reflects electromagnetic waves.

It is often a part of an antenna assembly.

The most common reflector types are

• corner reflector which reflects the incoming signal back to the direction it came from
• parabolic reflector which focuses a beam signal into one point, or directs a radiating
signal into a beam
• flat reflector which just reflects the signal like a mirror and is often used as a passive
repeater.
9) FEEDHORN

The feed horn is the part of a satellite dish system which gathers the reflected signal from the dish
and focuses it towards the LNB.

It is a type of horn antenna that is deployed to convey radio signals between the transceiver and
the reflector antenna. Horn antennas basically effect a transition between waves propagating
through a transmission line like a waveguide and the waves propagating in free space. The shapes
could be various, based on the final purpose of regulating some of the fundamental properties of
gain, radiation pattern and impedance.

The feed horn also does the job of attenuating unwanted signals from sources like adjacent
channels. This is done by selection of the polarity of the waves that are to be received. As an
accessory located at the focal point of a satellite dish system or a parabolic antenna, it gathers the
reflected signal from the dish and focuses it towards the Low Noise Block (LNB), which is
usually affixed in or on the dish.

An LNB with an integrated feed horn is referred to as an LNBF. Most LNBs are of this form,
with a feed horn at the front to catch high frequency satellite signals reflected from the dish.

10) LNB

An LNB - Low Noise Block (also called an LNC- Low Noise Converter), is used for
communications (broadcast) satellite reception. The LNB is usually affixed either in or on the
satellite dish.

The purpose of the LNB is to utilize the super heterodyne effect; and amplify and convert a wide
block (band) of frequencies. This helps compensate the signal loss associated with typical coaxial
cable at relatively high frequencies.

The term 'low noise' relates to the quality of the 1st stage input amplifier transistor, measured in
either called Noise Temperature units, Noise Figure units or Noise Factor units.

Both Noise Factor and Noise Figure are easily converted into Noise Temperature units. A lower
Noise Temperature rating is always better (i.e. an LNB with a Noise Temperature of 100K is 2x
as good as one rated 200K).

The term 'Block' refers to the conversion of a higher block of microwave frequencies (received
from the satellite- typically in the range 4 GHz to 21 GHz) being down-converted to a lower
block range of frequencies for the receiver.

The "low-noise" part also indicates that amplification and mixing takes place prior to cable
attenuation, in a circuit that requires no power supply or receiver.

With the high frequencies that satellites operate at, it is critical that the noise is controlled prior to
signal processing.
An LNB helps keep the overall sound and picture of satellite TV from becoming greatly
degraded, without the need of introducing a much larger dish reflector.

For wide-band satellite television carrier reception (generally 27 MHz wide band), the tolerance
(accuracy) of the LNB local oscillator frequency needs to be in the range of ±500kHz. This
makes low cost DRO's (dielectric oscillators) feasible.

However, for reception of narrow bandwidth carriers (i.e. 16-QAM)- a highly stable, low phase
noise dedicated LNB (local) oscillator is required.

They typically contain an internal crystal oscillator (or 10 MHz reference from the indoor unit)
and a PLL (Phase-Locked Loop) oscillator, and naturally tend to be noticeably more expensive.

PRODUCTION CONTROL ROOM (PCR)

Production- control room

The production control room (PCR), also known as the "gallery" or Studio Control Room (SCR),
is the place in a television studio in which the composition of the outgoing program takes place.
Facilities in a PCR include:

• A video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, VTRs, cameras, graphics and
other video sources. In some facilities, the monitor wall is a series of racks containing
physical television and computer monitors; in others, the monitor wall has been replaced
with a virtual monitor wall (sometimes called a "glass cockpit"), one or more large video
screens, each capable of displaying multiple sources in a simulation of a monitor wall.
• A vision mixer, a large control panel used to select the video sources to be seen on air
and, in many cases, in any monitors on the set. The term 'vision mixer' is primarily used
in Europe, while the term 'switcher' is usually used in North America.
• An audio mixing console and other audio equipment such as effects devices.
• A character generator, which creates the majority of the names and full screen graphics
that are inserted into the program
• Digital video effects, or DVE, for manipulation of video sources. In newer vision mixers,
the DVE is integrated into the vision mixer; older models without built-in DVE's can
often control external DVE devices, or an external DVE can be manually run by an
operator.
• A still store, or still frame, device for storage of graphics or other images. While the
name suggests that the device is only capable of storing still images, newer still stores
can store moving video clips.
• The technical director's station, with waveform monitors, vector scopes and the CCUs or
remote control panels for the CCUs.
• In some facilities, VTRs may also be located in the PCR, but are also often found in the
central machine room
• Intercom and IFB equipment for communication with talent and crew.

EQUIPMENT USED IN PRODUCTION COTROL ROOM

1) DEMODULATOR

Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated
carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit used to recover the information content from
the modulated carrier wave.

These terms are traditionally used in connection with radio receivers, but many other systems use
many kinds of demodulators. Another common one is in a modem, which is a contraction of the
terms modulator/demodulator .

2) DECODER

A decoder is a device which does the reverse of an encoder, undoing the encoding so that the
original information can be retrieved. The same method used to encode is usually just reversed in
order to decode.
In digital electronics, a decoder can take the form of a multiple-input, multiple-output logic
circuit that converts coded inputs into coded outputs, where the input and output codes are
different. e.g. n-to-2n, binary-coded decimal decoders. Enable inputs must be on for the decoder
to function, otherwise its outputs assume a single "disabled" output code word. Decoding is
necessary in applications such as data multiplexing, 7 segment display and memory address
decoding.

3) VISION MIXER

A vision mixer (also called video switcher, video mixer or production switcher) is a device
used to select between several different video sources and in some cases composite (mix) video
sources together and add special effects. This is similar to what a mixing console does for audio.

• A device used to mix multiple video sources into one or more master outputs.
• A person who operates a vision mixing device.

The main purpose of a vision mixer is to create a master output for a real-time video
recording or broadcast. Typically vision mixers are used for live events or any event
where multiple sources need to be mixed in real-time (as opposed to post-production
editing).
4) AUDIO MIXER

In professional audio, a mixing console, or audio mixer, also called a sound board,
soundboard, mixing desk, or mixer is an electronic device for combining (also called "mixing"),
routing, and changing the level, timbre and/or dynamics of audio signals. A mixer can mix analog
or digital signals, depending on the type of mixer. The modified signals (voltages or digital
samples) are summed to produce the combined output signals.

Mixing consoles are used in many applications, including recording studios, public address
systems, sound reinforcement systems, broadcasting, television, and film post-production. An
example of a simple application would be to enable the signals that originated from two separate
microphones (each being used by vocalists singing a duet, perhaps) to be heard through one set of
speakers simultaneously. When used for live performances, the signal produced by the mixer will
usually be sent directly to an amplifier, unless that particular mixer is "powered" or it is being
connected to powered speakers.

TRANSMISSION CONTROL ROOM (TCM)

Transmission Control Room (TCR) or 'Transmission Suite', or 'TX Room', or "Presentation" is
a room at broadcast facilities and television stations around the world. It's usually smaller in size,
compared to a Master Control Room. The TX Room or Presentation suite are staffed 24x7 by
Presentation Coordinators and Tape Operators and is fitted out with video play out systems often
using server based automation.

The Presentation suite is staffed 24 x 7 by On Air Presentation Coordinators or AKA; Broadcast

Technologists who are responsible for the continuity and punctual play out of scheduled
programming. Programming may be live from the studio or played off tape or video server. When
Programming is “Live” the Presentation Coordinator will override automation and manually
switch programming. The Presentation coordinator will directly coordinate live programming
going to air in consultation with Master Control and The Directors Assistant (DA). The
Presentation Coordinator will arrange program source to be allocated by master Control and
advise the DA as to the start time and count the production in from 10 seconds to First Frame of
picture and the DA will count the production out to the commercial break and so on it continues
to the end of the program. Live Programming is unpredictable and will affect the scheduled
timing of scheduled programming events; the presentation coordinator adjusts programming to
bring the schedule back on time by adding or removing fill content from the play out schedule.

For operational and content qualitative reasons, not more than two channels are managed from
one TCR. Channels with live content and production switching requirements like sports channels
have their own dedicated TCRs. A station may have several TCRs depending on the number of
channels they broadcast.

MASTER CONTROL ROOM (MCR)

Master-control room

Master control is the technical hub of a broadcast operation common among most over-the-air
television stations and networks. It is distinct from production control rooms in television studios
where the activities such as switching from camera to camera are coordinate.
The master control room houses equipment that is too noisy or runs too hot for the production
control room. It also makes sure that wire lengths and installation requirements keep within
manageable lengths, since most high-quality wiring runs only between devices in this room. This
can include:

• The actual circuitry and connection boxes of the vision mixer, DVE and character
generator devices
• camera control units
• VTRs
• Patch panels for reconfiguration of the wiring between the various pieces of equipment.

In a broadcast station in the US, master control room or "MCR" is the place where the on-air
signal is controlled. It may include controls to play back programs and commercials, switch local
or network feeds, record satellite feeds and monitor the transmitter(s). The description of an MCR
given above usually refers to an equipment rack room, which is usually separate from the MCR
itself. The term "studio" usually refers to a place where a particular local program is originated. If
the program is broadcast live, the signal goes from the production control room to MCR and then
out to the transmitter.

Master control is the final point before a signal is transmitted over-the-air or sent on to a cable
television operator or satellite provider for broadcast. Television master control rooms include
banks of video monitors, satellite receivers, videotape machines, transmission equipment, and,
more recently, computer broadcast automation equipment for recording and playback of on-air
programming.

Master control is generally staffed with one or two operators around-the-clock, every day to
ensure continuous operation. Master control operators are responsible for monitoring the quality
and accuracy of the on-air product, ensuring the transmission meets government regulations,
troubleshooting equipment malfunctions, and preparing programming for future playback.
Regulations include both technical ones (such as those against over-modulation and dead air), as
well as content ones (such as indecency and station ID).

Many television and radio station groups have consolidated facilities and now operate multiple
stations from one centralized, regional master control center. As an example of this centralized
system on a large scale, NBC's "hub-spoke project" enables "hub" cities such as New York City,
Los Angeles, and Miami to originate commercial breaks and programming for many of its
smaller individual stations, thus reducing or eliminating some responsibilities and employees of
the local master control at NBC-owned stations.