ABSORPTION & EXTRACTION

• Absorption:
o when two contacting phases are a gas & a liquid
o transfer of material is from a gaseous phase to a
liquid phase
o involves molecular & turbulent diffusion or mass
transfer of solute A through a stagnant
nondiffusing gas B into a stagnant liquid C
o e.g.: NH3 → H2O, SO2 from flue gases by
absorption in alkaline solutions
o when a gas is pure air and liquid is pure water Æ
humidification

• Extraction:
o one or more components of a liquid or a solid are
transferred to another liquid
o e.g.: separation of certain components of
petroleum-based oils by the use of acetone
ƒ oil dissolve in acetone
ƒ an immiscible layer with acetone solution

• Diffusion:
o transfer or movement of individual molecules
through a fluid by means of the random,
individual movements of the molecules
o involves mass transfer
o ammonia vapor is absorbed in water, the
ammonia particles or molecules must diffuse
through the gas to the surface of the liquid water

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 1

Gas-Liquid Equilibrium
• Gas-liquid equilibrium data: pressure, composition

• Henry’s law:
o The concentration of a component in a liquid
solution is directly proportional to the
equilibrium partial pressure of the component
over the liquid solution

pA = H.xA

H = Henry’s law constant in atm/mole fraction

o Henry’s law is a liquid law and is followed only

under certain conditions:
ƒ The concentration of a volatile component in
a solution must be low
ƒ The constant H depends on
o the components of the solution
o the temperature of the solution
ƒ H value must be determined experimentally

o Example:
What will be the concentration of oxygen dissolved
in water at 298 K when the solution is in
equilibrium with air at 1 atm total pressure? The
Henry’s law constant is 4.38 x 104 atm/mol fraction.

pO = 0.21
0.21 = HxA = 4.38 x 104 xA
xA =4.80 x 10-6 mol fraction

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 2

Methods of Calculation for Absorption Columns
• The no of theoretical stages required for a
continuous-absorption operation can be determined
by a graphical method (analogous to the McCabe-
Thiele method)

Gm = kilogram moles of inert gas passing through 1

m2 of cross section of the absorption tower in unit
time (kg mol s-1 m-2)

Lm = kilogram moles of pure absorbing liquid

passing through 1 m2 of cross section of the
absorption tower in unit time (kg mol s-1 m-2)

x = kilogram moles of dissolved absorbable material

per kilogram mole of pure absorbing liquid

y = kilogram moles of gaseous absorbable material

per kilogram mole of pure inert gas

• Material balance:

Lm(x1 – x2) = Gm(y1 – y2)

• Plate b:
Lm(xb – xa) = Gm(yc – yb)
Lm(∆x) = Gm(∆y)

Lm
∴ ∆y = ∆x
Gm

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 3

• Example:
A bubble cape plate absorption column is to be used
to absorb ammonia in water.
Gaseous mixture (bottom): 20 % NH3, 80 % air
A total of 50 kg moles of gaseous NH3 enters the
tower per hour
4000 kg pure water enter the top of the absorption
tower per hour
The equipment is operated at atmosphere pressure
with a constant temperature of 18oC
The overall plate efficiency for the tower is 60 %
Determine the actual number of bubble cap plates
required to absorb 90 % of the entering NH3.

Solution:
On 1 hour basis
Moles of gaseous NH3 per mole of inert gas at the
entrance of the tower:
y1 = 20 / 80 = 0.25

Total moles of NH3 absorbed by water:

(50)(0.90) = 45 kg moles

Moles of absorbed NH3 per mole of water:

x1 = 45 / (4000/18) = 0.202

Moles of absorbed NH3 per mole of water at liquid

entrance to tower:
x2 = 0.00

Moles of gaseous NH3 per mole of inert gas at gas

exit from tower:
y2 = 0.25 – (0.25 x 0.9) = 0.025

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 4

 Total moles of inert gases passing through tower:
(80 / 20) 50 = 200

Lm 4000
= = 1.11
G m (18)(200)

The operating line is represented by a straight line

between y1, x1 and y2, x2

o It can be seen that 4.4 theoretical stages are

required to absorb 90 % of the entering NH3
under the given conditions
o The overall efficiency for the absorption tower is
60 % Æ the total number of plates necessary is
4.4 / 0.6 = 7.33 plates
o 8 actual bubble-cap plates

Application of Absorption Coefficients

• the rate of absorption varies widely with different
mixtures
• use of absorption coefficient to find the rate of
absorption

• absorption coefficient:

N = KGA(PaG – Pai)

N = rate of which component is transferred through

gas film (kg mol s-1)

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 5

 KG = gas-film absorption coefficient (kg mol s-1 m-2
atm-1)
A = surface-contact area available for mass transfer
(m2)
PaG = partial pressure of component in main body of
the gas (atm)
Pai = partial pressure of component at vapor-liquid
interface (atm)

• the rate of which a component is transferred through

a liquid film:

N = KLA(Cai – CaL)

KL = liquid-film absorption coefficient

(kgmol s-1 m-2)
Cai = concentration of component in liquid at vapor-
liquid interface (kg mol m-3)
CaL =concentration of component in main body of
liquid (kg mol m-3)
• an overall absorption coefficient may be used for
calculation

N = KG’A(PaG – PaL)
N = KL’A(CaG – CaL)

KG’ = overall absorption coefficient (gas)

KL’ = overall absorption coefficient (liquid)

PaL = partial pressure of component if it were in

equilibrium with a solution having same
concentration as main body of liquid (atm)

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 6

 CaG = concentration of component if it were in a
solution in equilibrium with a gas having same
component as main body of gas (kg mol m-3)

• gas film & liquid film represent resistances in series

Æ the rate of material passing through each film
must be the same

N = KGA(PaG – Pai) = KLA(Cai – CaL)

= KG’A(PaG – PaL) = KL’A(CaG – CaL)

Henry’s law:
Cai = H.Pai
CaL = H.PaL
CaG = H.PaG

1 1 1
= +
K 'G K G H.K L

1 1 H
= +
K 'L KL KG

if a = A/V
V = total volume of the absorption tower
a = interfacial area per unit volume of the absorbing
apparatus

1 1 1
= +
K 'G a K G a H.K L a

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 7

 1 1 H
= +
K 'L a K La K Ga

Methods of Calculation Using Overall Absorption

Coefficients

• only mixtures that follow the Henry’s Law will be

considered

N = KG’aV(PaG – PaL)

• If KG’a values are available Æ the size of absorption

tower can be calculated
• Example:
Gas: 1 mol SO2 for every 100 mol of inert gas is to
pass through an absorption tower counter-currently to
a water – sodium sulphate solution
Exit gases: 0.05 mol of SO2 per 100 mol of inert gas
A total of 10,000 kg mol of inert gas is to pass per
hour
KG’a = 11.3 x 10-2 kg mol s-1 m-2 atm-1
The height of the tower ~ 6 m
What is the diameter of the tower? (P = 1 atm)

Solution:
P = 1 atm

PaG (at bottom of tower) = xP

PaG = [1 / (100 + 1)] P = (1 / 101) 1 = 0.00990 atm

PaG (at top of tower) = xP

PaG = [0.05 / (100 + 0.05)] 1 = 0.0005 atm

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 8

 According to the available equilibrium data, the
solubility of SO2 in the liquid is so great that the
pressure of SO2 in equilibrium with the liquid ~ 0.0
at all the concentration
∴ PaL (at bottom and top of tower) = 0.0 atm

(0.0099 − 0) − (0.0005 − 0)
(PaG – PaL)logmean =
(0.0099 − 0)
2.3 log
(0.0005 − 0)
Æ 0.00315 atm

(PaG − PaL ) bottom − (PaG − PaL ) exit

(PaG − PaL ) log mean =
(P − PaL ) bottom
2.3 log aG
(PaG − PaL ) exit

N = the rate at which the component being absorbed

The value of N corresponds to an overall logmean

driving force:

N = (moles of absorbable materials entering

absorption tower per hour) – (moles of absorbable
materials leaving absorption tower per hour)

N = (0.01 – 0.0005)(10,000) = 95 kg mol / h

N = 95 kg mol /h = 95 / 3600 kg mol / s

N 95 / 3600
V= =
K 'G (PaG − PaL ) log mean (0.11)(0.00315 )

V = 74.1 m3

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 9

 Cross-sectional area of column = 74.1 / 6 = 12.35 m2

(12.35)(4) 12.35 x 4
R= =
π 3.14

R = 3.96 m

Methods of Calculation for Extraction Operations

(Single Extraction Stage)
• Liquid-liquid extraction is often employed to
separate 2 mutually soluble liquids

• Case where the solvent is immiscible with one of the

solution components. Example:
To extract a part of acetaldehyde from a dilute
solution of acetaldehyde in toluene
Water = extracting solvent

(1): acetaldehyde + water = extract

(2): acetaldehyde + toluene raffinate

xo = kg acetaldehyde per kg of toluene in the initial

solution
So = kg of water
Ho = kg of toluene (initial solution)
y1 = kg of acetaldehyde per kg of water
x1 = kg of acetaldehyde per kg of toluene

At equilibrium conditions: the following overall

material balance

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 10

 xoHo = Hox1 + soy1

• Example:
A solution of acetaldehyde (11 kg) & toluene (100
kg) + water (80 kg)
At equilibrium: y1 = 2.2x1

y1 = kg of acetaldehyde per kg of water

x1 = kg of acetaldehyde per kg of toluene

if equilibrium is obtained between the phase in a

single (one stage) extraction process, how many kg
acetaldehyde will be removed by the water?

Solution:
y1 = 2.2x1
11 = 100x1 + 80y1
y1 = 0.0877 kg acetaldehyde per kg of water
Total kg of acetaldehyde extracted by water
Æ 0.0877 x 80 = 7.02 kg

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 11

 EVAPORATION
• Example: exposing a large area of liquid area to the
sun’s ray Æ to obtain salt by the evaporation of
seawater
• Heat transfer in evaporators:

q = UA∆T

q = rate at which heat is transferred through the

heating surface
U= overall heat-transfer coefficient
A = heat-transfer area

• The temperature-difference driving force Æ ∆T

∆T = the difference in temperature between the

condensing steam and the boiling solution at the
liquid-vapor interface

• In the majority of cases in evaporation, the thermal

properties of the solution may differ from those of
water (dilute solution) Æ boiling-point rise due to
material (solutes) in the solution

The boiling-point rise (BPR) = actual surface

temperature of the mixture minus the temperature of
the pure solvent if it is exerted the same vapor
pressure as the mixture

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 12

• Usually cannot be predicted
• Use of Dühring’s Rule

Dühring’s Rule
• Useful empirical law
• To determine the boiling-point rise due to material in
solution
• A plot of the temperature of a constant-concentration
solution vs the temperature of a reference substance,
where the reference substance and the solution exert
the same pressure results in a straight line
• Pure water is often used as reference material

• Example:
30 % by weight NaOH in water
Use the steam-table temperature of water

The boiling point of water at 25.6 kPa is 65.6oC

For 65.6oC and 30 % NaOH, the boiling point of the
NaOH solution is 79.5oC
The boiling-point rise = 79.5 – 65.6 = 13.9oC

Standard Overall Coefficient

• To calculate the standard overall coefficient (U) Æ
the general equation of heat transfer is used:

Q = UA∆T

∆T is called a standard temperature difference Æ

equals to the apparente temperature difference minus
the BPR due to material in solution:
∆T = ∆Ta – BPR

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 13

• Example:
30 % NaOH in water

pressure in the evaporator vapor space is 3.718 lb/in2

absolute
steam chest pressure is 25 lb/in2
the actual BPR due to material in solution = 25oF
From the steam-table temperature, for saturated
water vapor:
3.718 → 150oF
25 → 20oF
∆T = 240 – (150+25) or
∆T = (240 – 150) – 25 = ∆Ta – BPR

Heat and Material Balance for Evaporators

• The basic equation for solving the capacity of a
single-effect evaporator:

q = UA∆T

• The feed to the evaporator: F kg/h Æ solids content

of xF mole fraction, temperature TF and the enthalpy
hF J/kg
• Coming out: liquid, L kg/h Æ a solids content of xL,
temperature T1 and enthalpy hL
• Vapor V kg/h Æ pure solvent having solids content
of yV = 0, T1 and Hv
• Saturated steam entering: S kg/h, TS, HS
• The condensed steam Æ TS, hS

• Heat from steam Æ latent heat (λ)

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 14

 λ = HS – hS

• Total material balance:

F=L+V

• Total material balance on solids:

F.xF = L.xL

• Heat balance: total heat entering = total heat leaving

heat in feed + heat in steam = heat in liquid + heat in
vapor + heat in steam

• Assume no heat lost by radiation or convection

F.hF + S.HS = L.hL + V.HV + S.hS
F.hF + S. λ = L.hL + V.HV

• The heat q transferred in the evaporator:

Q = S(HS – hS) = Sλ

• Approximation:
o The latent heat of evaporation of 1 kg mass of
the water from the aqueous solution can be
obtained from the steam tables using T1
o The heat capacities of liquid feed (CpF) & the
product (CpL) can be used to calculate the
enthalpies

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 15

Boiling Point Rise of Solutions

• In the majority of cases in evaporation, the thermal

properties of the solution may differ from those of
water (dilute solution)
• The high concentration of the solutions Æ heat
capacity & boiling point ≠ water
• Usually cannot be predicted
• Use of Dühring’s Rule

Dühring’s Rule
• Useful empirical law
• To determine the boiling-point rise due to material in
solution
• A straight line – boiling point of a solution (oC or oF)
vs boiling point of pure water at the same pressure
for a given concentration at different pressures
• A different straight line for each given concentration
• Dühring line chart

• Example:
The pressure in an evaporator is given as 25.6 kPa
(3.72 psi) and a solution of 30 % NaOH is being
boiled. Determine the boiling temperature of the
NaOH solution and the boiling-point rise BPR of the
solution over that of water at the same pressure.

Solution:
Use the steam-table temperature of water
Æ the boiling point of water at 25.6 kPa is 65.6oC

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 16

 From Dühring line chart for aqueous solutions of
NaOH
Æ for 65.6oC (150oF) and 30 % NaOH, the boiling
point of the NaOH solution is 79.5oC, the boiling-
point of the NaOH solution is 79oC (175oF).

The boiling-point rise is

BPR = 79.5 – 65.6 = 13.9oC (25oF)

Standard Overall Coefficient

• To calculate the standard overall coefficient (U) Æ
the general equation of heat transfer is used:

Q = UA∆T = UA(TS – T1)

TS = temperature of the condensing steam in K (oF)

T1 = boiling point of the liquid in K (oF)

∆T is also called a standard temperature difference

∆T = ∆Ta – BPR
with Ta = temperature between the heat source and
vapor in evaporator

• Example:
30 % NaOH in water
Pressure in the evaporator vapor space is 3.718 lb/in2
Steam chest pressure is 25 lb/in2
The BPR due to material (NaOH) in solution = 25oF
From the Steam Table, temperature for saturated
water vapor: 3.718 → 150oF
25 → 240oF
∆T = (240 – 150) – 25 = 65oF

Absorption, Extraction & Evaporation 17