Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Need for Direction Finder (DF)

Indian army has been involved in Low Intensity Conflict
Operations/Counter Insurgency Operations in various parts of the country since past 20
years. Over the years, owing to technological advancement in various fields,
equipments being used by Anti-National Elements/Insurgents have undergone a
dramatic change. To maintain a constant edge, armed forces have also been equipping
the field army with state of art weapons and electronic equipments. Radio Direction
finders has been one such equipment being purchased of the shelf from the world
market. This equipment has proved to be a very effective Force Multiplier in the hands
of field army and is being effectively employed to monitor and detect hostile
transmission being undertaken by ANEs.
Direction Finder is a device for finding the direction to a radio source. Due
to radio's ability to travel very long distances and "over the horizon", it makes a
particularly good navigation system for ships, small boats, and aircraft that might be
some distance from their destination. This can refer to radio or other forms of wireless
communication. By combining the direction information from two or more suitably
spaced receivers (or a single mobile receiver), the source of a transmission may be
located in space via triangulation method.

1.2 Project Goal

This Project envisages carrying out a detailed study of various Direction
Finding Techniques prevalent. Detailed analysis of various parameters which influence
the system design of a Direction Finder (DF) system will then be carried out.
Thereafter, a comparison of different DF techniques, then the best amongst the all will
be utilised to develop the prototype, which may form a start point for any further
development of an indigenous DF system. Before this project is concluded, reference
will be made to current Trends in DF systems to include development work being
undertaken by DRDO, DLRL and trends in the world market.
 2

1.3 Method of Data Collection

The primary source of data collection has been through books, periodicals
and articles. An attempt was made to tap some material on the internet and relevant
issues have been included in the text. A reference of sources has been appended at the
end of this report. An interaction with other agencies viz BEL, MAG No 5, Sig Gp
Wksps, Directorate of EME (Electronics) was also carried out to collect relevant info
on the subject.

1.4 Organization of the report

Chapter 2 of the report deals with brief overview on historical background
of DF technology. This chapter covers brief description of the different DF techniques
and a comparative analysis between the main DF technologies. At the end of this
chapter a brief on the principle of Interferometry has been covered which has been
utilised for designing of DF system.
Chapter 3 focuses on a general DF system. It gives out the major application
areas for DF system. It gives an overview of the requirements to be kept in mind while
designing the DF system. At the end it discusses the basic building blocks of DF
system and gives out separately the main requirements of the basic blocks like Antenna
system, Receiver system etc.
Chapter 4 deals in detail with the proposed DF system and also gives out a
flowchart which tells about the DF algorithm used in the proposed system. This chapter
also discusses the individual modules design, development, simulation results and test
results in the proposed system.
Chapter 5 shall describe the complete system in an integrated mode. The
entire hardware and software overview has been described vividly. It also discusses the
mathematical model of the DF algorithm used for this prototype and at last it discusses
the results obtained during the project.
Chapter 6 deals with the advance DF algorithm for multiple signal
classification. The complete details of Music algorithm including the mathematical
model and simulation results have been described. A short overview of range
calculation is also presented along with simulation results for three DF base systems.
 3

Chapter 7 finally summarises the complete project work. The chapter also
presents improvements which can be incorporated in future designs. The entire work
has been finally concluded.

Chapter 2
Overview of DF

2.1 Historical Background

Radio direction finding is nearly as old as radio itself. The earliest
commercially manufactured DF systems were built in Great Britain just after the turn of
the century when vacuum tubes became commercially available as radio frequency
amplification devices[1],[2]. These early systems generally employed two or more bi-
directional loop antenna arrays. Their outputs were then amplified and fed to the
deflection coils of a “goniometer” (a typical goniometer was a two- or three-phase
mechanical resolver that employed an electromagnetically-driven pointer). A prominent
DF system employed in those early years was the Bellini-Tosi system, followed
somewhat later by the Watson-Watt “twin-channel” system [2] (named after its
inventor Sir R. A. Watson-Watt of Great Britain, who is perhaps better remembered for
his key role in the development of the early British radar technology that proved so
decisive in the Battle of Britain in 1940).
Loop-based DF systems were used for many years, but suffered from what
was known as the “night-effect” [3]. Although these systems worked reasonably well
for vertically-polarized signals during daylight hours, the horizontally-polarized signal
components received at night as a result of skywave reception (which did not occur at
these low frequencies during daylight hours) resulted in very erratic and unreliable
bearings.
This problem was solved by Adcock, an Englishman who developed and
patented (British Patent No. 130490) the Adcock DF antenna in 1919 [2],[3].
Essentially, the Adcock antenna relied upon suitably spaced difference-phased vertical
elements (aerials) to obtain the desired bidirectional antenna gain pattern with circular
lobes. Since these vertical elements could be made nearly immune to the effects of
horizontally-polarized signal components, good bearings could be obtained even on
skywave signals. The invention of the Adcock DF Antenna was a major breakthrough
in DF technology.
 4

Watson-Watt DF systems further improved in tandem with the rapid

improvement of radio technology in general after World War I [4]. When cathode ray
tubes became available, CRTs eventually replaced the mechanical pointer displays used
until that time (at least in the more sophisticated systems). The incorporation of the
real-time polar CRT bearing display was another major breakthrough in DF
technology, since the CRT trace length allowed the DF operator to much more easily
discriminate between desired legitimate signals and undesired noise and multi-path.
Both single- and multi-channel Watson-Watt DF systems were built during this time,
some operating at frequencies well into the VHF range.
Doppler and pseudo-Doppler DF systems did not come into prominence
until after World War II. The concept was first formally introduced in a 1947 paper
written by Earp and Godfrey of Standard Telephones & Cables, Ltd. (a then-prominent
British DF company). Pseudo- Dopplers are actually special single-channel
implementations of interferometer DF systems (multi-channel interferometers did exist
before World War II) [2], [5]. The primary advantage of the pseudo-Doppler over the
Adcock cited by that paper was the ability of the pseudo-Doppler antenna to be
implemented as a wide-aperture device capable of reducing site errors induced by
multi-path reception. With the passage of over 50 years, many studies have been
carried out to establish ascendancy of each of the above mentioned technique over the
other but discussion has always proved to be non conclusive. Analogy of the above can
be established while trying to compare CDMA technology with GSM technology.
However an attempt has been made in later part of the study report to compares these
two technologies.

2.2 DF Technology
In the most general sense, all non-rotating radio direction finding systems
employ a DF antenna having an array of spatially-displaced aerials (also referred to as
“elements”, three or more being required for non-ambiguous operation) that are
illuminated by the received wavefront [2]. The resulting output voltages produced by
these aerials exhibit characteristics (phase, amplitude, or both) that are then measured.
Since these characteristics are unique for every received azimuth in a properly designed
DF antenna, the wavefront angle-of-arrival (bearing) can be ascertained by
appropriately processing and analyzing the aerial output voltages.
 5

To be somewhat more specific, modern non-rotating DF systems tend to fall

into one of two broad categories. In phase-comparison DF systems [4][5], three or more
aerials are configured in such a fashion that the relative phases of their output voltages
are unique for every wavefront angle-of-arrival. Bearings can then be computed by
appropriately analyzing the relative phases of these output voltages. Phase-comparison
DF systems include pseudo-Dopplers and interferometers.
In amplitude-comparison DF systems [3], [5], two or more directive antenna
arrays are configured in such a fashion that the relative amplitudes of their outputs are
unique for every wavefront angle-of-arrival. Bearings can then be computed by
appropriately analyzing the relative amplitudes of these output voltages. Amplitude-
comparison DF systems include Watson- Watts and Wullenwebers.
Although there are many different DF techniques available to the DF system
designer, the only two that are truly capable of meeting the minimum performance
requirements of a truly professional-quality DF system at low- to-moderate cost are the
single-channel Adcock/Watson-Watt and pseudo-Doppler techniques (when properly
implemented).

2.2.1 Watson-Watt DF Technique

The Watson-Watt DF technique falls into the amplitude-comparison DF

technique category [2], [3]. A basic single-channel Watson-Watt DF system is
illustrated in block diagram form in Figure 2.1 below.

DF DF DF BEARING DF BEARING
ANTENNA RECEIVER PROCESSOR DISPLAY

Fig. 2.1 Functional block diagram Watson Watt DF

A standard Watson-Watt DF system [3] employs either Adcock or loop DF

antennas, with Adcock usually preferred because of their superior performance.
Actually, the DF antenna is really an array of three or more separate but co-located
 6

antennas. Referring to a 4-aerial Adcock configuration, the first of these antennas is the
N-S bi-directional array comprising the north and south aerials. As illustrated in Figure
2.2 below, the resulting figure-of eight azimuthal gain patterns consists of circular
lobes with maximum sensitivity to the north and south and nulls to the east and west.
This figure-of-eight gain pattern is obtained by applying the N and S aerial voltages to
a differencing network that vectorially subtracts them (N-S) to produce what will
ultimately become the “Y-axis” voltage.

N-S
E-
W

SENS
E

Fig. 2.2 Adcock DF antenna Azimuthal Gain Pattern

The
second of these
antennas is the E-W
bi-directional array
comprising the east
and west aerials.
Again as illustrated in
Figure 2.1, its
azimuthal gain pattern is identical to that of the NS bi-directional array, but
perpendicularly oriented (as a consequence of the fact that the two arrays are physically
at right angles to each other). This pattern is again obtained by applying the E and W
aerial voltages to a differencing network that vectorially subtracts them (E-W) to
 7

produce what will ultimately become the “X-axis” voltage. The fig 2.3 below shows
how these aerials are placed in an array.

Fig. 2.3 Adcock antenna and distribution network

The third of these antennas is the omni-directional sense antenna [6]. This
omni-directional sense azimuthal gain pattern is also illustrated in Figure 3.2. The sense
antenna is required to resolve a 180° ambiguity that would otherwise result. Since the
Watson-Watt DF technique falls into the amplitude-comparison category as discussed
above, the purpose of the remaining elements of the DF system (i.e., the DF receiver,
DF bearing processor, and DF bearing display) is simply to measure the X- and Y-axis
voltages and then compute and display the bearing. As mentioned above in amplitude-
comparison DF systems, the relative amplitudes of these two voltages are unique for
every wave front angle-of-arrival. They can therefore be “mapped” into a
corresponding bearing using an appropriate algorithm that performs a computation
based on their ratio.

In order to produce the DOA estimate, the voltage output from both antenna
pairs of Adcock antenna is compared [3]. The same can be expressed:

πd πd
j sin φ −j sin φ πd  (2.1)
VNS = VN − VS = e λ
−e λ
= j 2sin  sin φ 
 λ 

j
πd
cos φ −j
πd
cos φ πd  (2.2)
VEW = VE − VW = e λ
−e λ
= j 2sin  cos φ 
 λ 
 8

Where d is the spacing between antenna elements. As the spacing is much

less then half a wavelength at the frequency of the signal of interest, the above equation
can be simplified to:

2π d (2.3)
VNS ≈ sin φ
λ
2π d (2.4)
VEW ≈ cos φ
λ

The north-south pair can be treated as generating the y-axis voltage while
the east-west pair creates the x-axis voltage for the array’s coordinate system. This
operation essentially uses the two voltage measurements to locate a point in an
abstracted plane, the angle of this point corresponding to the DOA of the received
signal. The arctangent of the quotient of the north-south voltage and east-west voltage
can be expressed as:

V 
φˆ = tan −1  NS  (2.5)
 VEW 

2.2.2 The Pseudo-Doppler DF Technique

The Doppler and derivative Pseudo-Doppler algorithms are single-channel
algorithms that produce a AOA estimate based on phase of the received signal [7].
Originally, the Doppler method used a single antenna that moved about the
circumference of a circle at a fixed angular velocity as shown below in fig 3.4.
 9

Fig. 2.4 Basics of Doppler Principle

The Pseudo-Doppler method [8] was developed using a multi-element

circular array with a commutating switch that selects the antennas sequentially around
the circle to approximate the circular motion of the Doppler antenna as shown below in
figure 3.5. This algorithm seeks to measure the Doppler shift induced on the received
signal due to either the rotation of the single antenna or commutation of the switched
antenna array. The received signal is modeled as:

 2πr
r (t ) = +
A cos 2 ftπ cos 2πf 
t ( ) (2.6)

0
λ r

Where fr is the
inverse of the time taken to sample around the entire antenna array. The Doppler shift
imposed on the signal will be directly proportional to the rate of sampling around the
array. When the sampling approaches the AOA of signal of interest as well as 180
degree away, the measured Doppler shift will cross zero. If the array is sampled at 90
or 270 degree from true AOA then measured Doppler shift will be at a negative and
positive maximum respectively.

M- ZERO
ELEMENT RF FRONT FREQUENCY
ARRAY CROSSING
END DISCRIMINATOR DETECTOR

Fig. 2.5 Pseudo-Doppler DF system

Therefore, the DOA estimation function can consist of a simple FM

demodulator consisting of frequency discriminator followed by a zero crossing detector
as shown above. The phase of the signal at the output of zero crossing detector will be
 10

directly proportional to the DOA. One of the major drawbacks to this system is
decreased listen-through capability due to FM and AM artifacts in the signal due to
sampling.

2.3 Comparative Analysis

2.3.1 Pseudo-Doppler DF Technique

The primary comparative advantages of the pseudo-Doppler DF technique
over its Watson- Watt counterpart are site error suppression, DF antenna economy, and
extended high frequency performance [3], [4], [7]. These advantages are conditional,
however, and require an evaluation of the underlying assumptions before being
accepted at face value. These advantages are described in subsequent paras.

2.3.1.1 Site Error Suppression Site errors are fundamentally the result of
anomalous conditions at or near the DF antenna that result in various distortions in the
apparent angle-of-arrival of the received wavefront. As a result, the apparent angle-of-
arrival may be different than the true angle-of-arrival. The biggest contributors to site
errors are usually reflecting objects causing multi-path reception.
Unlike an Adcock-based Watson-Watt DF system whose maximum DF
antenna aperture (Adcock aerial pair spacing) can be no greater than 1.22 wavelengths
at the highest operating frequency, there is no theoretical limit to the aperture of a
pseudo-Doppler DF antenna. The aperture can be increased without bounds provided
that additional aerials are appropriately added (theoretically, the maximum separation
between adjacent aerials must not exceed 0.5 wavelengths at the operating frequency to
avoid ambiguity, although in practice this separation should be considerably less). A
wider aperture with more aerials permits greater wavefront averaging, which in turn
tends to average out errors caused by multi-path reception.

2.3.1.2 DF Antenna Economy

The electronic circuitry required for a pseudo-Doppler DF antenna is very
straightforward, requiring at minimum only appropriate high-frequency switches and
the necessary driver circuitry. This is in sharp contrast to a single-channel Adcock
antenna, which requires carefully balanced sum-difference hybrids, balanced
modulators, phase-matched cables, phase/gain correction networks, and very careful
 11

and time-consuming testing. The simpler pseudo-Doppler DF antenna is thus more

easily and economically designed and manufactured.

2.3.1.3 Extended High Frequency Capability

The more complex electronic circuitry required by the Adcock DF antenna
is such that as a practical matter, it is not feasible to design a manufacturable wideband
DF antenna capable of good and consistent performance at frequencies over 1000 MHz
or so. The simplicity of the electronics associated with a pseudo-Doppler system is
such that there is no reason why a manufacturable wideband DF antenna with good
performance up to 2000 MHz or more should not be possible.
It is probably fair to say that the pseudo-Doppler’s strongest technical
advantage over its Watson-Watt counterpart is the site-error suppression capability that
can be obtained in its wide-aperture implementation.

2.3.2 THE WATSON-WATT DF TECHNIQUE

The Adcock-based Watson-Watt DF system [3], [4] has many significant
performance advantages over its pseudo-Doppler counterpart, particularly for mobile or
transportable DF applications where size constraints force the use of compact narrow-
aperture DF antennas. These advantages are described in subsequent paras

2.3.2.1 DF Sensitivity - In order to obtain good DF sensitivity, pseudo-Doppler

systems must employ a rather high commutation rate (in order to achieve sufficient FM
deviation for efficient FM demodulation). Since the designer’s latitude to raise the
commutation rate is limited by various other system constraints, a compromise is
required that results in reduced DF sensitivity. Since a Watson-Watt system relies on an
AM tone encoding technique (somewhat analogous to pseudo-Doppler commutation),
demodulation efficiency is unaffected by the tone frequencies (due to the inherent
nature of AM demodulation). The designer is therefore free to set the tone frequencies
to more favorably meet other system design constraints without compromising DF
sensitivity.
Pseudo-Doppler DF systems also suffer from bearing errors caused by aerial
reradiation. To avoid excessive bearing errors, it is necessary either to employ very
short (i.e., insensitive) aerials, or use resistive loading to reduce aerial re-radiation
(which also degrades sensitivity). The inherent symmetry of Adcock DF antennas is
 12

such that aerial re-radiation causes negligible bearing error, with the result that Watson-
Watt DF systems are capable of excellent bearing accuracy even at the resonant
frequency of the aerials. Adcock DF antennas thus do not require shortened aerials or
other measures that compromise sensitivity to preserve bearing accuracy.

2.3.2.2 Bearing Accuracy - As mentioned in the discussion of DF sensitivity

above, pseudo-Doppler DF systems suffer from bearing errors induced by aerial re-
radiation. Recalling that the pseudo-Doppler DF system ascertains the apparent
wavefront angle-of-arrival by examining the relative phase of the aerial output
voltages, it is not difficult to visualize how inter-aerial shadowing and re-radiation can
result in phase perturbations that degrade bearing accuracy. In fact, pseudo-Doppler DF
systems almost invariably trade-off significant bearing accuracy to help mitigate the
loss in sensitivity. Adcock DF antennas, in sharp contrast, do not suffer from this
problem and therefore require no such trade-off.

2.3.2.3 Listen-Through Capability - In many DF applications, it is important that

the operator be able to monitor signal audio as well as obtain a line-of-bearing. The
ability of a DF system to simultaneously perform these two functions is known as its
“listen-through” capability. The general problem with single-channel DF systems is
that the modulation technique employed in the DF antenna to facilitate the DF process
(i.e., commutation or axis tone encoding) can interfere with voice or other modulation
that may reside on the received signal. This problem is very serious in pseudo-Doppler
DF systems, which are well-known for their “commutation noise”. As mentioned, the
commutation rate needs to be high to obtain good DF sensitivity, which places it in the
voice audio range. FM voice audio is therefore badly distorted (recalling that the
commutation process creates FM modulation at the commutation rate). AM audio
usually sounds equally bad as a consequence of the fact that the soft-commutation
aerial switches also impart AM modulation to the received signal as well as FM. Most
pseudo-Doppler DF systems require that the operator disable DF antenna commutation
(and thus DF capability) in order to obtain audio listen-through capability. The Watson-
Watt DF technique, in sharp contrast, provides far better listen-through capability.

2.3.2.4 Vulnerability To Resident Signal Modulation - Another general problem

with single channel DF systems is their potential vulnerability to bearing interference
 13

caused by resident modulation on the received signal. In a pseudo-Doppler DF system,

for example, signal modulation components falling on the commutation frequency
“confuse” DF bearing processor. In a Watson-Watt DF system, a similar problem
occurs if resident signal modulation falls on either of the axis encoding tone
frequencies. In both cases, bearing “jitter” results.
The problem is especially serious for pseudo-Doppler DF systems for two
reasons [4]. First, these systems typically employ high commutation rates (to improve
DF sensitivity) that fall in the voice frequency range. Voice modulation therefore
causes interference. Second, voice modulation in the VHF/UHF range is mostly FM.
Since the pseudo- Doppler DF technique is also essentially FM in nature, it is highly
vulnerable to such interference.
Watson-Watt DF systems handle the bearing interference problem much
better, again for two reasons. First, the axis tone encoding frequencies are normally
well below 250 Hz, thus placing them well below the voice frequency range where they
are less subject to interference. Second, since the Watson-Watt technique relies on AM
(rather than FM) DF antenna tone encoding, the bearing interference problem is further
reduced by the fact that the preponderant voice modulation technique at VHF/UHF is
FM rather than AM.

2.4 INTERFEROMETRY
The Interferometry DF [1], [9] determines the angle of incidence of a wave by
directly measuring the phase difference between the signals picked up at different
points on the received wavefront by the elements of antenna array as shown below in
figure 3.6.
 14

Fig. 2.6 Base line Interferometry

Unambiguous determination of the azimuth with the aid of three antenna
elements is only possible if the spacing between the antennas is not greater then half a
wavelength. In practice, the 3-antenna configuration is usually enhanced by further
antenna elements so that the antenna spacing can be optimally adapted to the operating
frequency range and it also increases the accuracy of small-aperture DF systems.
Triangular arrays are usually restricted to frequencies below 30 MHz. At higher
frequencies it is recommended to use circular arrays since these ensure the following:
(a) Equal radiation coupling between the antenna elements.
(b) Minimum coupling with the antenna supporting mast.
(c) Direction-independent characteristics at different positions due to the
symmetry about the center point.

2.4.1 Mathematics of Interferometry [1] Interferometers are considered as

specific cases of array antennas. The linear array in which all antenna elements lie in a
straight line at equal spacing, with DOA estimation done by the phase shift network.
The same concept can be extended to circular array which covers 360 degree of
azimuth from an mounted at one point. A single baseline of two antenna interferometer
has been shown in fig 3.7 utilized to derive the phase difference equation and show the
operation in first quadrant.
 15

INPUT
SIGNAL

D cos φ

D
ANT 1 ANT 2
V1 V2

Fig. 2.7 Interferometry principle

The voltage received by antenna 2 is expressed in exponential form as follows:

 2π  (2.7)
V2 = V exp  jwt − X
 λ 
Where
V = the initial transmitted signal amplitude
X = the distance traveled
2π
λ = free space propagation constant
Antenna 1 the voltage will be:
 2π  (2.8)
V1 =V exp jwt
− +
X D cos φ
Where D cos φ  λ  Represents the

additional path length to antenna 1 as referenced to antenna 2. Assume ( 2π λ ) X to be

(2.9)
reference zero at antenna 2 then:
V2 = exp (jwt )
 2π  (2.10)
V1 = exp jwt+ D cos  φ
 λ 

Taking natural on both sides and then subtracting we obtain:

(2.11)
 16

ln V2 − ln V1 = jwt − jwt+ jD cos φ

V2 2π (2.12)
ln = j Dcos φ
V1 λ
Let ψ be defined as this difference or the real part of above equation then:

2π
This above equation can ψ= φ
D cos be solved and AOA can be
expressed in terms of
λ frequency:

cos φ = 30Vψ
(2.13)
2π Df

where Vψ = the phase difference in radians

f = the frequency in GHz

D = the spacing measured in cm

φ = the angle of arrival

2.4.2 Correlative Interferometry

In this section of the Project report a brief overview of Correlative
Interferometry direction finding technique is presented which will be utilised to
develop the prototype DF station. The basic principle of the correlative interferometer
[9], [10] entails a comparison of the measured phase differences with those obtained for
a DF system of known configuration at given wave angle. The comparison is done
either by calculating the quadratic error or forming the correlation coefficient of the
two data sets. If different azimuth values of the comparison data set are used, the
bearing is obtained from the data for which the correlation is at a maximum. This
procedure is better explained using a figure given below:
 17

Fig. 2.8 Principle of Correlation Evaluation

Figure 2.8 illustrates correlation by the example of a 5-element antenna
circular array. Each column of the lower data matrix corresponds to a wave angle α and
forms a comparison vector. The elements of the comparison vectors represent the
expected phase differences between the antenna elements for this direction of
incidence. The upper 5x1 data matrix contains the currently measured phase differences
(measurement vector). To determine the unknown direction of incidence, each column
of the lower reference matrix is correlated with the measurement vector by multiplying
and adding the vectors element by element. The result is the correlation function K (α),
which reaches its maximum with the optimum coincidence of comparison vector and
measurement vector. The angle associated with the comparison vector is the wanted
bearing.
All DF techniques have both strong and weak points, and it is important that
users understand these comparative advantages and disadvantages and weigh them
appropriately for their intended application.
The pseudo-Doppler is certainly the best known and most widely used DF
technique, its major technical strength is its site-error suppression capability when
implemented as a wide aperture fixed-site DF system. The probable explanation for this
 18

pseudo-Doppler dichotomy is twofold, first the simplicity of the pseudo-Doppler DF

technique and second, the extended frequency of operation. The correlative
Interferometry DF algorithm has the advantage of site error suppression as we can
calculate error respective to the site and the same can be incorporated in the system.
Even design of the antenna system is also simpler as compare to amplitude comparison
DF system and its frequency range can also be extended based on the practical
requirement. The DF system which will be designed will be based on correlative
interferometry algorithm.

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DF SYSTEMS

3.1 Radio Direction-Finding Systems

 19

A radio direction-finding (DF) system is basically an antenna-receiver

combination arranged to determine the azimuth of a distant transmitter [5]. In practice,
however, the objective of most DF systems is to determine the location of the
transmitter. Virtually all DF systems derive emitter location from an initial
determination of the arrival angle of the received signal. The determination of emitter
location by using azimuth angles measured at two or more DF systems is known as
Triangulation.

Fig. 3.1 Essential Components of a RDF System

3.2 Applications of Direction-Finding Systems

There are three principal applications for DF systems [5] which influence
the details of their design:-
(a) DF systems that are designed to determine the unknown location
of an emitter. Such systems may be fixed or movable.
(b) Navigation systems designed to determine the location of
the DF system itself with respect to emitters of known location.
(c) Homing systems that are designed to guide a vehicle carrying a DF
system toward an emitter which may be either a beacon of known
location or an emitter of unknown location.

3.3 Direction-Finding System Planning

Planning a DF system [2], [5] (which may comprise a single station or a
network of stations) must take into account a number of factors of major importance:-
(a) Geographic area in which the emitters are located in relation to the DF
stations.
 20

(b) Frequencies of the emitters.

(c) Number of DF stations necessary to ensure adequate accuracy of
measurement.
(d) Response time (the minimum time in which a measurement must or
can be made).
(e) Physical limitations of the system. These may include the space
available for antennas, the need (or not) for a movable system, and
limitations on equipment size, weight, and complexity.

3.4 System Approach to Direction Finding

The essential components of any DF system are shown in Fig 5.1 they
comprise of:-
(a) An antenna system to collect energy from the arriving signal.
(b) A receiving system to measure the response of the antenna system to the
arriving signal.
(c) A processor to derive the required DF information (for example,
azimuth and elevation angles and emitter location) from the output of the
receiver.
(d) An output device to present the required DF information in a form
convenient to the user.

DF ANTENNA

RECEIVING DF OUTPUT
SYSTEM PROCESSOR DEVICE

Fig. 3.2 Essential Components of a DF System

 21

3.4.1 Direction Finding Antenna Arrays In general, a DF antenna [6], [11]

is an array of individual antenna elements arranged to provide the responses required
by the particular system. The antenna elements and arrays are of standard types that
are used in other radio-communications applications. Most of the reported algorithms
are based on the uniform linear array (ULA) and uniform rectangular array (URA)
architectures as shown below in fig 5.2.

Fig. 3.3 ULA & URA

Factors to be considered in the selection of antenna arrays [5], [6], [11] are:-
1. Coverage (the range and azimuth sector over which the target emitters
are located). This will determine the form of the array.
2. Expected propagation modes of the arriving signals. These will
determine the required elevation response of the antenna array and the type
of antenna elements to be used.
3. Combination of measurement speed and measurement accuracy. These
will determine the required aperture of the antenna array.
4. Physical requirements of the DF system (fixed or movable). These will
affect the physical form of the elements and the size of the array.
 22

3.4.2 Receivers They comprise the measuring equipment of a DF system.

They are used as RF voltmeters to measure antenna responses and to provide
responses to the DF processor [12], [13]. In systems in which the azimuth angle is
determined by observation of a null or a beam maximum, a single receiver can be
used, since the processor will require only information concerning the amplitude of
the response pattern of the antenna system. However, in any system in which
measurement is based on an amplitude and / or phase comparison, a number of
alternative receiver arrangements are possible. (Fig: 3.4(a) & (b))

ANTENNA ANTENNA

SWITCH

SINGLE CHANNEL
RECEIVER

TO DF PROCESSOR

Fig. 3.4(a) Single channel Receiver Configuration

ANTENNA ANTENNA ANTENNA

N - CHANNEL
RECEIVER

TO DF PROCESSOR

Fig. 3.4 (b) N-channel Receiver Configuration

 23

Dual-channel and multi-channel receivers are usually arranged to operate

from a common frequency-synthesizer source, so that the phases of the output signals
will be in the same relationship as the phases of the incoming signals. Dual-channel
and multi-channel receivers may also be matched in gain and/or phase. Alternatively,
they may be made gain-and phase-stable over their measurement bandwidth and their
relative gain and phase normalized for each measurement.

3.4.3 Direction-Finding Processor The function of the processor is to

calculate the required DF and emitter location on the basis of the signal voltages at the
output of the receiver system. The complexity of processor varies with nature of the
calculations required to reduce emitter location. At the one extreme, the processor may
be as simple as an angle scale on a rotating loop. At the other extreme, a digital
processor such as in a multiport WFA system may be required. Processors for WFA
systems usually consist of small digital computers having sufficient speed and memory
for their applications. The software for such systems is usually modular, so that a
variety of antenna systems can be accommodated and optional capabilities such as
networking, signal acquisition, and signal monitoring can be provided.

3.4.4 Output Display Arrangements The purpose of output-display equipment

is to provide the required DF information in a form suitable to the user.
 24

Fig. 3.5 Computer-Emulated DF Bearing Display

CHAPTER 4
DF SYSTEM DESIGN AND RESULTS

4.1 Proposed DF System

It is based on Correlative Interferometry principle [9], [15]. The block
diagram of prototype DF system is shown in figure 6.1. The system is developed in
module form i.e. all the modules like antenna system, power divider, phase detector,
filter and DF processor are developed separately and then integrated. The simulation
and experimental results of the modules developed during the first stage are given in
subsequent paragraphs.
 25

DF ANTENNA
PHASE
DETECTOR
FILTER 2- WAY POWER
DIVIDER
2.4 - 2.5 GHz

FILTER 2- WAY POWER PHASE

2.4 - 2.5 GHz DIVIDER DETECTOR

FILTER 2 - WAY POWER

2.4 - 2.5 GHz DIVIDER
PHASE
DETECTOR
PROTOTYPE DF
SYSTEM
(BASED ON CORRELATIVE INTERFEROMETRY)

AMPLIFIER
DF PROCESSOR
DISPLAY

Fig. 4.1 Prototype DF system

The DF system employs three omni directional antennas (monopoles) and

the output of the each antenna is given to a separate power divider through a band pass
filter. The output of power divider is then given to phase detector as shown in fig 4.1.

4.2 Proposed DF Algorithm

The flow chart of the DF algorithm which will be developed during the
second stage is given below in figure 4.2.
 26

START

PLACE TRANSMITTER
0
AT 0

MEASURE VOLTAGE O/P

OF PHASE DETECTOR
Fig. 4.2 Flow chart of DF algorithm

The DF algorithm shown above has to be implemented in two phases. First

CONVERT THE VOLTAGE
phase deals with making of lookup table. In this phase the signal source is kept in the
known direction and corresponding phase data is measured and stored and then the
INTO
source is rotated for all 360 degrees DEGREE
and the data is stored. This process isUSING
repeated at

CALIBRATION TABLE
different time and location and finally the lookup table is developed after averaging all
the readings. Once the lookup table is developed, the test phase starts. During this
phase the source is placed in any direction randomly and again the phase differences
are measured and the correlated with the lookup table data and where maximum

STORE THE PHASE

correlation is found, corresponding DOA is given as output.
This same algorithm can also include method of interpolation so that the DF

GIVE
accuracy can be increased based NAME
on requirement. The method of 0 DEGREE
interpolation has been
discussed in depth in next chapter.
4.3 Experimental Results

INCREMENT THE
DIRECTION BY 1 DEGREE
 27

4.3.1 Antenna system design A uniform circular array (UCA) which provides
360 degree azimuthal coverage has been designed and fabricated for this project and
steps under taken in the designing and various result are as under:
(a) Theoretically a monopole antenna was designed which will act as each
element in the UCA. The design equation is as given below

Fig. 4.3 Monopole antenna

(6.1)
h + a = 0.24λ0
where
h = height
a = diameter
λ0 = wavelength

This equation is valid for infinite ground plane and hence when the
monopole is placed in a UCA along with the finite ground plane then
optimization is required to be done to get desired results.
Optimization formula is straight forward and is as given below:

(6.2)
f1l1 = f 2 l2

(b) Theoretical design was then simulated on IE3D software. Basically all
three antennas were simulated together in a UCA as shown below and also
the radiation pattern is given below in figure 6.4 & 6.5. The antenna was
fabricated and then tested on network analyzer.
 28

Fig 4.4 DF antenna system along with finite ground plane

Top View

3- D
side view
 29

Fig 4.5 Radiation pattern when all three monopoles are excited

Individual monopole antenna and the circular array of antenna were then
tested on network analyzer and the results are as given below.

Fig 4.6 Result for individual monopole antenna

 30

Fig 4.7 Antenna testing on Network analyzer

 31

Fig 4.8 Result of Monopole antenna in UCA after optimization

4.3.2 Phase detector design

 32

Phase detector module is designed using IC AD 8302 [Data Sheet Attached]

which is a fully integrated system for measuring gain and phase in numerous receive,
transmit and instrumentation application. The AD8302 comprises a closely matched
pair of demodulating logarithmic amplifiers, each having a 60 dB measurement range.
The AD8302 includes a phase detector of the multiplier type, but with precise phase
balance driven by the fully limited signals appearing at the outputs of the two
logarithmic amplifiers. Thus, the phase accuracy measurement is independent of signal
level over a wide range.
(a) Phase detector module circuit diagram is shown in Figure 4.9

Fig. 4.9 Basic connection of Phase Detector module

(b) PCB design of phase detector module was done using Eagle software
and is shown in Figure 4.10.

Fig. 4.10 PCB Phase

Detector module

(c) Phase Detector module was tested using RF transmitter as shown in figure 4.11
 33

PHASE
DETECTOR
MODULE

Fig. 4.11 Phase Detector module testing

4.3.3 Power divider design Wilkinson power divider [14] model has been
utilized to design the equal split power divider to divide the antenna output and feed it
to the phase detector module. Circuit configuration of N-way Wilkinson power divider
is as shown below in fig 4.12. The N-way Wilkinson power divider/combiner provides
matching of all ports, low loss and high isolation between input and output ports due to
additional ballast resistors.

Fig. 4.12 N-way Power Divider

(a) The Wilkinson power divider for 2.45 GHz was designed and
simulated using IE3d software. The diagram (not to scale) and simulation
result are shown below.
 34

Fig 4.13 PCB of Wilkinson power divider

Fig. 4.14 S-parameter of Wilkinson power divider

4.4 Amplifier
The main functionality of the power amplifier is to amplify the output of
phase detector. The output range of the phase detector is from 30 mV to 1.8 V for 180
 35

degree to 0 degree phase difference respectively. The amplifier increases the margin for
the ADC of Atmega 16 microcontroller by 2.47 times and this even helps in the final
correlation algorithm. The amplifier has been designed using a general purpose J-FET
quad operational amplifier TL 084 which is a low noise operational amplifier. Three
out of four amplifiers of TL 084 has been utilized in non-inverting configuration as
shown below. The value of R2 is 10k and R1 is 6.8k.

Fig. 4.15 Pin diagram – TL 084

Fig. 4.16 PCB Amplifier module

4.5 DF Processor
 36

The DF processor has been designed using Atmega 16 microcontroller to

run the DF algorithm of correlative interferometry. Visha kit has been utilized to
develop a microcontroller board for Atmega 16. The main features and internal block
diagram of Atmega 16 has attached as appendix to this project report. The inbuilt ADC
of Atmega 16 has been utilized to convert the voltage output of phase detector and store
the same in the internal memory of the same microcontroller.

Fig. 4.17 Microcontroller board development

The codes develop for correlative interferometry DF algorithm was first

tested by developing a MATLAB code and feeding the details manually. Then C-code
was developed for the Atmega 16 microcontroller and the details of the complete work
have been discussed in succeeding paras. The developed microcontroller board is as
shown above. The details of the code and its implementation have been discussed in the
next chapter.

CHAPTER-5
 37

ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT
& IMPLEMENTATION

The final part of this work was concerned with the proof-of-concept
implementation of the DF algorithm discussed in previous chapter. Initially the DF
algorithm was simulated on matlab by taking readings manually and this provided the
starting point for the implementation of the algorithm on a fully integrated system. In
this chapter, we present the implementation of the algorithm including both hardware
and software platforms, the test environment, as well as the success and failures
encountered in the process.

5.1 Hardware overview

5.1.1 Antenna array
The antenna array shown in figure 5.1 is a uniform circular array of 3
monopole antennas with a diameter of approximately 12 cm. The antennas are placed
in an equilateral triangle with a phase difference of 120 degree, it is important to note
the inter antenna spacing and phase difference because if we change this data then we
have to change the lookup table accordingly. The circular array arrangement fulfills all
necessary requirements as discussed in chapter 3 and it also removes the 180 degree
ambiguity which may exist in case of linear array. Details of antenna fabrication and
testing have been discussed in chapter 4.

Fig. 5.1 Circular antenna array

5.1.2 Phase detector and amplifier module
 38

The phase detector module has been developed using IC AD 8302 and the
details have been discussed in chapter 4. The output of the phase detector is a phase
internally calibrated in terms of voltage and the calibration is given in figure 5.2.

Fig. 5.2 Phase output V/s input phase difference

The phase detector unit measures gain/loss and phase up to 2.7GHz and
accurate phase measurement scaling is 10mV/degree. It operates from supply voltage
of 2.7 V-5.5 V and also provides stable 1.8 V reference voltage output. The phase
output varies from 0 degree (1.8 V) to 180 degree (30mV). The developed module is
shown in figure 5.3. The output of phase detector is utilized in the voltage form itself
i.e. it is not being converted to degrees. This output is given to DF processor via
amplifier unit made using TL 084 whose design have been discussed in previous
chapter.

Fig. 5.3 Phase detector module

 39

5.2 Software Overview

5.2.1 Test setup
The test setup consists of a transmitter unit, receiver unit and a DF
processor. The transmitter unit is a VCO generating 2.4 GHz frequency signal and its
frequency can be varied by varying the control voltage input. Even any signal generator
or a wireless LAN module can also serves a purpose of transmitter. The receiver unit
consists of a circular antenna array, power divider, phase detector and the amplifier
unit. The DF processor consists of Atmega 16 microcontroller board and a LCD display
unit. The block diagram of complete setup is as shown below in figure----.

Tx
2.4GHz
Power Phase DF
Amplifier
Divider Detector P
R
O
Phase C LCD
Antenna Power
Detector Amplifier E Display
Base Divider
S
S
O
R
Power Phase
Amplifier
Divider Detector

Fig. 5.4 DF Test setup

5.2.2 Algorithm Overview

The DF algorithm is based on correlative interferometry principle as
discussed in chapter 3. The circular antenna array is able to provide a constant phase
shift for an RF signal coming from a fixed direction and the phase shift varies as the
direction of the incoming signal is changed. As discussed in chapter 3 even this
prototype which has been developed works in the same manner, it finds out the phase
difference between various antennas for a common signal and stores that in the
processor memory. This stored data is then correlated with the lookup table data and
DOA for which it gets a maximum correlation will be displayed as direction of the
transmitter. Before we start testing we need to build up a lookup table which can work
in any environment and at any time of the day.
 40

Actually the lookup table has to be developed in the location which is free
from EMI and even environmental radiations and for this the best suited place is an
anechoic chamber with a turntable which can rotate the DF for 360 degree and the
phase difference data can be stored in the memory as lookup table. But for this project
as we were developing a prototype with just three monopole antenna a simpler method
was adopted to develop the lookup table. Also the readings were taken only in the first
quadrant and at gap of 5 degrees. The complete system was setup in the Antenna lab
and the transmitter was moved manually. The different sets of readings were taken at
different time of the day and then averaging was done to build the lookup table and the
readings along with the lookup table is attached as appendix to this report.
The complete algorithm was simulated on matlab by loading the developed
lookup table and then feeding the phase data for the transmitter direction manually. The
matlab code of the same is attached as appendix. The system was giving 85 % accuracy
in the manual DF; this might be because of the environmental and human error.

5.2.3 Mathematical Model

The mathematical model discussed in the section 2.4 forms the basis of
development of the prototype DF system. The phase which was found taking the
natural log ratio of the two input signal, in our system it is found using the phase
detector which gives the voltage output based on the phase value and its conversion
ratio has been discussed in section 5.1.2. As we are only interested in correlating the
phase data so need of converting the voltage output of phase detector to corresponding
degrees does not arise. The lookup table which has been discussed in the pervious
section contains the voltage values of corresponding degrees and these values are then
correlated with the test data.
Let’s consider the uniform array of our system and develop the
mathematical model of the complete setup. The three monopole antennas will receive
the same signal with fixed phase difference based on there physical placement.
V1 = A exp ( jwt )
V2 = A exp ( jwt + φ1 ) (5.1)
V3 = A exp ( jwt + φ2 )

The output of the three antennas is given to power divider unit and then
given to the phase detector unit as shown in figure 5.4 and the output of phase detector
is as given below.
 41

phase(V1 − V2 ) = θ12
phase(V2 − V3 ) = θ23 (5.2)
phase(V3 − V1 ) = θ31
During the training phase this phase data is stored in the memory in the
lookup table at respective location based on the direction of training source. If it is the
test phase this data is stored in memory and correlation is performed with the lookup
table. The correlation algorithm is as given below for M directions.

 ϕ12 ϕ23 ϕ31   0 

0

 
TLOOKUP =  M M M   M  (5.3)
ϖ 12 ϖ 23 ϖ 31  M *3 900 
M *1

θ12 θ 23 θ31 
TTEST =  M M M (5.4)
θ12 θ 23 θ31  M *3

 ( ϕ −θ ) 2 + ( ϕ −θ ) 2 + ( ϕ −θ ) 2 
 0 
0
 12 12 23 23 31 31

TCORR = M   M (5.5)
   0
 ( ϖ − θ ) 2 + ( ϖ − θ ) 2 + ( ϖ − θ ) 2  90  M *1
 12 12 23 23 31 31  M *1

DOA = angle(min(TCORR )) (5.6)

The above result is based on finding the Euclidean distance between the
lookup table data and the test data and where the distance is minimum the respective
degree is the DOA of the source. The same algorithm has been simulated on matlab and
tested by manually feeding the data out from the phase detector. After testing this
algorithm on matlab, a c code has been developed for the microcontroller i.e. the DF
processor shown in figure 5.4. Both the matlab and c code are attached as appendix to
this report.

5.3 Method of Interpolation for increasing DF accuracy

Interpolation is a method of constructing new data points within the range of
discrete set of known data points. The DF algorithm which has been discussed in the
previous section refers to a lookup table for finding out correlation which means that
DOA is limited to only those degrees for which data exists in the lookup table. This
 42

limitation will also give rise to reduced DF accuracy dependent on the resolution of the
lookup table. Now to remove this dependence of DF accuracy method of interpolation
has been used to provide higher resolution for our DOAs.
Interpolations are of different types like linear, polynomial, piecewise
constant, etc. Method of linear interpolation has been utilized in our DF system for
increasing the accuracy. It is the simplest method of getting values at positions in
between the data points. The points are simply joined by straight line segments and
each segment can be interpolated independently based on requirement. The method of
interpolation is required if the minimum Euclidean distance found using equation 5.5 is
not zero because if it is zero then perfect correlation and it will give out exact DOA. If
it non zero then the value and the index i.e. degree shown in equation 5.5 has been
utilized for doing interpolation.
y0 = array (index)
y1 = array (index 2)
d0 = 0
(5.7)
d1 = euclidean _ dist (index 2)
d 2 = euclidean _ dist (index )
y2 = degree output
The above data is required for performing linear interpolation. This data is
then fed in the equation of interpolation to find out the required degree output (DOA).

y −y 
y 2 = y1 +  0 1  ( d1 − d2 ) (5.8)
 d1 − d0 
The method of interpolation has been implemented on matlab and the code
is attached as appendix to this report for future development.

5.3 Results Obtained

The prototype DF system which has been developed during the project can
form basis for development of a fully operational system which can be deployed in
operations. The system is able to explain the concept of correlative interferometry DF
algorithm which is being successfully implemented in this system. The following
results can be well utilized in development of first indigenized DF system.

1. The phase detector module designed using AD 8302 can be well

utilized to find out phase difference between two analog signals of
 43

frequency range dc to 2.7 GHz. Other alternative can be converting the

analog signals to digital and then finding out phase difference.
2. The antenna base which has been design and developed for this
system is just for a prototype and for a small frequency band of 2.4-2.5
GHz, but in an actual system a high gain and a broad band antenna can be
utilized. Even one can also increase the number of antenna elements in the
circular array to increase the accuracy of DOA.
3. Filter units can also be utilized before the power divider so that
unwanted signals can be removed at RF stage itself. Even this will also not
affect the output of phase detector further it will not affect the DF accuracy.
4. The correlative interferometry algorithm has been tested
successfully first by simulating it on matlab and then implementing it on the
proposed DF system. The correlation between the test data and the lookup
table has been done by finding the minimum Euclidian distance; the same
can be done by some more stringent correlation algorithm based on number
of antenna elements and accuracy required.
5. The triangulation algorithm has been successfully simulated on
matlab and the same can be practically implemented once a proper three DF
base has been formed in a master-slave configuration. The simulation results
have been discussed in the chapter 6 in detail.
6. MUSIC algorithm for multiple signal classification has been
successfully simulated on matlab and have been described in the chapter 6
in detail.
 44

Chapter 6
Advance DF algorithms for multiple signal classification and
Range finding

6.1 MUSIC Algorithm

The MUSIC, Multiple signal classification is a popular high resolution
technique for estimating the DOA of multiple plane waves in noisy environment, using
an array of multiple sensors. The algorithms, first proposed in 1979 by R. O. Schmidt []
falls into a class of superresolution DF algorithms. This algorithm involves eigen
decomposition of the covariance matrix derived from the input data model. The eigen
values of the covariance matrix are further divided into two sets called signal and noise
subspaces. The signal subspace consists of vectors correspond to signals received at an
array and vectors of noise subspace are completely orthogonal to the signal subspace.
The block diagram shown in figure ---- describes the algorithms in depth and same can
be summarized in as follows []:

Fig. 6.1 Music algorithm block diagram

1. Estimate the spatial covariance matrix.

2. Compute the eigenvectors in signal and noise subspaces.
3. Remove all the information about the signal subspace like power,
phase etc.
4. Find steering vectors that are orthogonal to the basis vectors for
the noise subspaces.
5. The peaks in the pseudo-spectrum will be located at the wave
numbers which corresponds to the DOAs.
 45

6. The width and height of the peak does not bear any relation to any
relevant property of the signal.

6.1.1 Data model and Music algorithm

Consider a uniform linear array of M antennas (Sensors) with intersensor
spacing of d. If signal waves from different sources arrive at angles Q1, Q2… QN with
respect to the array normal, then the output of any sensor can be written as
n
ym ( t ) = ∑ bp ( t ) e + nm ( t )
jwt + j ( m −1) kd sin(θ p )
(6.1)
p =1

In the above equation bp is slowly varying amplitude, w is the center

frequency of the signal, k wavenumber and nm is zero mean additive white complex

Gaussian noise of variance σ 2 . The output of all the sensors forms a matrix Y which is
given as
Y = ( y1 ( t ) y2 ( t ) L L L L ym ( t ) )T (6.2)
Y = As + n (6.3)
where A, the steering vector, s, the signal vector and w the phase delay between two
sensors are as given below
s = [b1 ( t ) e jwt b2 ( t ) e jwt L L L bn ( t ) e jwt ]T (6.4)

A = [a ( w1 ) a ( w2 ) L L L L a ( wn ) ] (6.5)

a ( w1 ) = [1 e jw1 e j 2 w1 L L L e j ( M −1) w1 ]T

wl = kd sin ( θl ) (6.6)
It is assumed that the signal and noise are uncorrelated. The covariance
matrix of data vector would then be
R = E YY H  (6.7)

R = AE  ss H  AH + E  nnH 

R = APAH + σ 2 I
Now carrying eigen decomposition of matrix R we can partition the signal
subspace and noise subspace eigen vector matrix which is as given below
 Λ 0  U H 
R = [U V ]  2  H  (6.8)
 0 σ I  V 
 46

vi + σ 2 L L L i = 1, 2,K K n
λi = 2
σ L L L L i = n + 1,K K m
where U and V are signal and noise subspace vectors respectively. By eigen analysis
we can represent the smallest eigen vectors as
Rvi = σ 2 vi L L L i = n + 1,K K m (6.9)

APAH vi = 0L L i = n + 1,K K m

at all true DOAs, AV H = 0

An estimate of R is obtained from N samples of data vectors as,
N
1
Rˆ =
N
∑ y( t) y ( t)
t =1
H
(6.10)

If R̂ is eigen decomposed then we would find estimate of noise subspace eigen vector

matrix but Vˆ would only be an estimate hence AV H = 0 would not be true but it will
be the minimum at true DOAs and by utilizing this fact the DOAs can be plotted using
the equation given below.
 1 
Pmusic =  H
ˆ ˆ a ( w) 
 a ( w)VV
H (6.11)

the above data model and result of eigen decomposition has been simulated on matlab
and the results are discussed in succeeding paras.

6.1.2 Simulation results and discussion

The music algorithm was simulated on matlab by generating the source data
and noise data and then performing eigen value decomposition, finally plotting the cost
function as given in previous section. While simulation it is assumed that each antenna
is perfectly spaced relative to other antenna in the array. But this is very difficult to
achieve when the algorithm is actually implemented even with modern construction
techniques. Suitable modification has to be done as an when required. []
The results showed in figure 6.2, 6.3 & 6.4, shows that the incoming signals
are clearly identified even as the separation between the two signals is well below the
conventional main lobe width. It is seen that if number of snapshots are less then it
increases the covariance matrix estimation error and corresponding increase in the
DOA estimation. This estimation error can be reduced by increasing number of
snapshots but speed imposes an upper limit on permissible value of N.
 47

Fig. 6.2 Music spectrum with two signal sources at 20 & 60 degrees

Fig. 6.3 Music spectrum with three signal sources at 20, 60 & 100 degrees
 48

Fig. 6.4 Music spectrum of two near by signal sources at 50 & 54 degrees

The simulation results of the MUSIC algorithm show the following results.
1. The capability to resolve multiple targets with separation angles
smaller then the main lobe width of the antenna array.
2. The estimation errors can be reduced by increasing the number of
snap shots, but there has to be a trade off between the speed and number of
snap shots.
3. The estimation error increases as the angle separation becomes
smaller between signals.
4. Spacing error has to be taken into account during the practical
implementation of the algorithm.
5. The number of signal sources should be less then number of
antenna elements.
6. The performance of MUSIC estimator suffers a progressive
degradation as the SNR is reduced as it causes increase in the covariance
matrix estimation error and corresponding increase in DOA estimation
error.[]
 49

6.2 Range Calculation

The localization of a signal source is the primary task for most of the DF
systems. Location of the source is generally specified in terms of distances and angles
from a known reference site. Angle information i.e. DOA can be found using a single
DF system but the exact location of the signal source can only be determined by using
at least two direction finders. Bearing of the source from each DF site are plotted on a
map from the known location, to find the exact position of the source which is the
intersection of the line of bearings (LOBs). The bearings are obtained either from the
multiple, dispersed DF sites or from a single DF site moving relative to the subject
source. The coordinates of the DF locations are known before or determined relative to
bearings.
DOA estimates the location of a transmitter/source using triangulation by
measuring the angle of arrival of the received signal at two/three base stations.
Triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by measuring angles
to it from known points at either end of a fixed baseline, rather than measuring
distances to the point directly. It is basically finding the length of one side of a triangle,
given measurements of angles and sides of the triangle formed by that point and two
other reference points.

Area of
Location
uncertainty

φ1 φ2

DF DF
SITE SITE
(I) (II)
 50

Fig. 6.5 DF based source localization

Figure 6.5 illustrates a location finding system composed of two direction
finders. The DOA measurement restricts the location of the source to a line. The two
DOA measurements from two DF sites are used in a triangulation process to estimate
the location of the source that lies on the intersection of these lines. If DF sites estimate
AOA perfectly (no error), the source lies exactly at the intersection point. But in
practice DF measurements always contain some error due to many factors like
sampling effects for digital DF systems, mutual coupling of antennas, multipath
propagation, site errors etc. Thus, the estimated location of the source is actually an
area of uncertainty. While only two DOA estimates are required to estimate the
location of a source, multiple DOA estimates are commonly used to improve the
estimation accuracy. Increasing the number of measurements can decrease the area of
the error region.

6.2.1 Simulation results and discussion

The localization of the source and range calculation has been simulated on
matlab and the code is attached as appendix to this report. For simulation purpose a
map of IIT Powai has been utilized for implementation of the localization algorithm.
Figure 6.6 shows the location of the DF site and source whose coordinates has been
utilized to run the algorithm.

SOURCE 1

SOURCE 2

DF 3

DF 2

DF 1
 51

Fig. 6.5 IIT Powai Map showing DF site and source

As shown in figure 6.5 a three DF base has been form and DOA of the
source is measured. The DOA data from all DF station is then transferred to the master
DF station where the localization algorithm runs to find out the exact location and
range of the source. With two DF station exact location can only be found if the DOA
measurement is error free but practically it is not possible. Figure 6.6(a), (b) & (c)
shows both the exact localization of the source and also if DOA is not error free.

Fig. 6.6(a) Result showing exact location with two DFs with error free DOAs

Area
Area of
of Location
Location
uncertainty
uncertainty
 52

Fig. 6.6(b) Result showing Area of uncertainty with three DF base

Target
Target

Fig. 6.6(c) Result showing exact location with three DFs with error free DOAs

Fig. 6.6(d) Result showing exact location of target 2 with three DFs

The above results show that DF accuracy is the most important parameter to
be kept in mind before designing a DF system. Based on operational requirement this
 53

parameter can be decided because higher the accuracy means higher cost, design
difficulties, etc and lower accuracy will lead to false target localization.

CHAPTER: 7
Conclusion and Future Work

7.1 Conclusions
The basic principle of Direction finders has been studied. The initial
literature survey covers the various types of DF techniques, pros and cons with
different algorithms. Due to certain disadvantages of amplitude comparison technique
such as complexity in antenna design, limited frequency range (up to 1 GHz), poor site
error suppression, and etc. phase comparison DF technique has been chosen for
implementation. The design parameters and requirements have been studied and
described briefly and the same has been used for further hardware design.
The DF system has been designed for the frequency range 2.4-2.5 GHz.
Being just a prototype the azimuth coverage is only 90 degrees and also the lookup
table has been made for 0 to 90 degree with 5 degree resolution. The modular design of
DF system has been presented in this project report which can be integrated on a single
PCB in future, based on requirement. The monitoring section has not been included in
this DF system due to paucity of time, there are various receivers available in the
market so based on the frequency requirement any receiver can form the monitoring
section of the DF system.
The DF algorithm used for the system has been tested for consistency and
correctness by simulation on matlab and then implemented on the actual system. All
the matlab codes and c codes have been attached as appendix and results have been
included in the report. To increase the DF accuracy, method of interpolation has been
utilized and the same has been tested by developing an algorithm and implementing it
on matlab. Even the range calculation and localization of the source algorithm has been
developed and implemented on matlab and codes attached with the report for future
developments.

7.2 Improvements and future work

The complete DF system for frequency range 2.4-2.5 GHz has been
discussed in previous chapter. This system is just a prototype hence there is a large
 54

scope of improvements and future work required for developing an indigenous DF

system which can be practically employed and used in real operational environment.
This DF system has been developed in a modular fashion and also
algorithm like range calculation, multiple signal classification, interpolation, etc are
developed on matlab so that this all can form a base for development of fully integrated
DF system. Continuing with the work done in this project the following things can be
implemented in future.

1. The first thing which has to be changed in the system is to increase

the frequency range of the system. This will require a rugged and broadband
antenna system. We may divide the required band into sub part and use
different antenna array for each band.
2. Current work was focused on implementing the correlative
interferometry algorithm for a fixed signal source. The new system can be
developed for multiple signals as shown in the MUSIC algorithm.
3. The system which was developed during the project was modular
but in the new system power divider, phase detector, amplifier, etc can be
developed on a single PCB which will provide strength to the system.
4. Number of antenna elements in a circular can be increased based
on the DF accuracy required.
5. Monitoring section can be included with the DF system if needed.
6. DSP board can be utilized instead of microcontroller card.
7. A front end interface can be developed for DF system and the DF
board can be integrated with computer so that proper planning for DF task
can be done based on requirements, also the data of signal intelligence can
be stored for future reference.
 55

REFERENCES

1. Stephen E. Lipsky, “Microwave Passive Direction Finding” A Wiley-

Interscience Publication Jhon Wiley & Sons.Inc 1987.

2. RF Products, Web Note WN-001 “Basic of the Radio Direction Finding

Technique.” www.rdfproducts.com

3. RF Products, Web Note WN-002 “Basic of the Watson-Watt Radio Direction

Finding Technique.” www.rdfproducts.com

4. RF Products, Web Note WN-004 “A Comparision of the Watson-Watt and

Pseudo-Doppler Direction Finding Techniques.” www.rdfproducts.com

5. David Adamy, “EW 101 A First Course in Electronic Warfare” Artech House

Boston London.

6. Joseph J Carr, “Practical Antenna Handbook”, Fourth Edition TAB Electronic

McGraw Hill Publication.

7. Doppler System Inc. “Web Note on Theory of Operation”, Series 5900

Direction finders based on Doppler principle.

8. Rode-Schwarz, Chapter 1, “Introduction to Theory of direction finding”

www.rohde-schwarz.com/www/downcent.nsf/file/chapter1_introduction.pdf

9. Rode-Schwarz, Chapter 3, “Classical direction finding methods” www.rohde-

schwarz.com/www/downcent.nsf/file/chapter3

10. Cheol-Sun Park, Dae Young Kim, “The Fast Correlative Interferometer DF

Using I/Q Demodulator”, Asia-Pacific Conference on Communication, Aug 2006.

11. Balanis, C. A.: Antenna Theory. New York Harper & Row 1982.

12. RF Products, Web Note WN-003 “Radio Direction Finding receiver and bearing

processor.” www.rdfproducts.com
 56

13. Donald E Allen, “Channelised receiver a viable solution for EW and ESM

systems” IEE PROC, Vol 129 June 1982.

14. David M Pozar, “Microwave Engineering” Second edition John Wiley & Sons.

Inc 1998.

15. D. Peavey and T. Ogunfunmi, “The Single Channel Interferometer Using

Pseudo-Doppler DF System,” Proc. Of 1997 IEEE Conference on Acoustic, Speech

and Signal Processing, Vol 5 pp 4129-4132, April 1997.

16 local.wasp.uwa.edu.au/~pbourke/miscellaneous/interpolation