Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Material

Overview
The Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Material Overview is used at All Metals & Forge as a
training tool so that staff members gain an understanding of the metal families of their
respective properties. We hope you enjoy the content and find it useful.

Chapters on Chapters on Non-

Ferrous Metals Ferrous Metals
Aluminum
Carbon Steel
Beryllium
Alloy Steel
Copper
Stainless Steel
Magnesium
Tool Steel
Nickel
HSLA Steel
Refractory Metals
Steels for strength
Titanium
Iron-based superalloys
Zirconium

Carbon Steel
Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is a malleable, iron-based metal containing
carbon, small amounts of manganese, and other elements that are inherently present.
Steels can either be cast to shape or wrought into various mill forms from which finished
parts are formed, machined, forged, stamped, or otherwise shaped.
Cast steels are poured to near-final shape in sand molds. The castings are then heat
treated to achieve specified properties and machined to required dimensions.
Wrought steel undergoes two operations. First, it is either poured into ingots or strand
cast. Then, the metal is reheated and hot rolled into the finished, wrought form. Hot-
rolled steel is characterized by a scaled surface and a decarburized skin. Hot-rolled
bars may be subsequently finished in a two-part process. First, acid pickling or shot
blasting removes scale. Then, cold drawing through a die and restraightening improves
surface properties and strength. Hot-rolled steel may also be cold finished by metal-
removal processes such as turning or grinding. Wrought steel can be subsequently heat
treated to improve machinability or to adjust mechanical properties.
Carbon steels may be specified by chemical composition, mechanical properties,
method of deoxidation, or thermal treatment (and the resulting microstructure).
Composition: Wrought steels are most often specified by composition. No single
element controls the characteristics of a steel; rather, the combined effects of several
elements influence hardness, machinability, corrosion resistance, tensile strength,
deoxidation of the solidifying metal, and microstructure of the solidified metal.
Effects of carbon, the principal hardening and strengthening element in steel, include
increased hardness and strength and decreased weldability and ductility. For plain
carbon steels, about 0.2 to 0.25% C provides the best machinability. Above and below
this level, machinability is generally lower for hot-rolled steels.
Standard wrought-steel compositions (for both carbon and alloy steels) are designated
by an AISI or SAE four-digit code, the last two digits of which indicate the nominal
carbon content. The carbon-steel grades are:
• 10xx: Plain carbon
• 11xx: Resulfurized
• 12xz: Resulfurized and rephosphorized
• 15xx: Nonresulfurized, Mn over 1.0%
The letter "L" between the second and third digits indicates a leaded steel; "B" indicates
a boron steel. Cast-carbon steels are usually specified by grade, such as A, B, or C.
The A grade (also LCA, WCA, AN, AQ, etc.) contains 0.25% C and 0.70% Mn
maximum. B-grade steels contain 0.30% C and 1.00% Mn, and the C-grade steels
contain 0.25% C and 1.20% Mn. These carbon and manganese contents are designed
to provide good strength, toughness, and weldability. Cast carbon steels are specified to
ASTM A27, A216, A352, or A487.
Microalloying technology has created a new category of steels, positioned both in cost
and in performance between carbon steels and the alloy grades. These in-between
steels consist of conventional carbon steels to which minute quantities of alloying
elements -- usually less than 0.5% -- are added in the steelmaking process to improve
mechanical properties. Strength and hardness are increased significantly.
Any base-grade steel can be microalloyed, but the technique was first used in sheet
steel a number of years ago. More recently, microalloying has been applied to bar
products to eliminate the need for heat-treating operations after parts are forged.
Automotive and truck applications include connecting rods, blower shafts, stabilizer
bars, U-bolts, and universal joints. Other uses are sucker rods for oil wells and anchor
bolts for the construction industry.
Mechanical properties: Cast and wrought products are often specified to meet distinct
mechanical requirements in structural applications where forming and machining are not
extensive. When steels are specified by mechanical properties only, the producer is free
to adjust the analysis of the steel (within limits) to obtain the required properties.
Properties may vary with cross section and part size.
Mechanical tests are usually specified under one of two conditions: mechanical test
requirements and no chemical limits on any element, or mechanical test requirements
and chemical limits on one or more elements, provided that such requirements are
technologically compatible.
Method of deoxidation: Molten steel contains dissolved oxygen -- an important
element in the steelmaking reaction. How this oxygen is removed or allowed to escape
as the metal solidifies determines some of the properties of the steel. So in many cases,
"method of deoxidation" is specified in addition to AISI and SAE chemical compositions.
For "killed" steels, elements such as aluminum and silicon may be added to combine
chemically with the oxygen, removing most of it from the liquid steel. Killed steels are
often specified for hot forging, carburizing, and other processes or applications where
maximum uniformity is required. In sheet steel, aging is controlled by killing -- usually
with aluminum. Steels intended for use in the as-cast condition are always killed. For
this reason, steels for casting are always fully deoxidized.
On the other hand, for "rimmed" steels, oxygen (in the form of carbon monoxide)
evolves briskly throughout the solidification process. The outer skin of rimmed steels is
practically free from carbon and is very ductile. For these reasons, rimmed steels are
often specified for cold-forming applications. Rimmed steels are often available in
grades with less than 0.25% C and 0.60% Mn.
Segregation -- a nonuniform variation in internal characteristics and composition that
results when various alloying elements redistribute themselves during solidification --
may be pronounced in rimmed steels. For this reason, they are usually not specified for
hot forging or for applications requiring uniformity.
"Capped" and "semikilled" steels fall between the rimmed and killed steels in behavior,
properties, and degree of oxidation and segregation. Capped steels, for example, are
suited for certain cold-forming applications because they have a soft, ductile, surface
skin, which is thinner than rimmed-steel skin. For other cold-forming applications, such
as cold extrusion, killed steels are more suitable.
Microstructure: The microstructure of carbon and alloy steels in the as-rolled or as-
cast condition generally consists of ferrite and pearlite. This basic structure can be
altered significantly by various heat treatments or by rolling techniques. A spheroidized
annealed structure would consist of spheroids of iron and alloy carbides dispersed in a
ferrite matrix for low hardness and maximum ductility, as might be required for cold-
forming operations. Quenching and tempering provide the optimum combination of
mechanical properties and toughness obtainable from steel. Grain size can also be an
important aspect of the microstructure. Toughness of fine-grained steels is generally
greater than that of coarse-grained steels.
Free-machining steels: Several free-machining carbon steels are available as castings
and as hot-rolled or cold-drawn bar stock and plate. Machinability in steels is improved
in several ways, including:
• Addition of elements such as lead (the "leaded" steels such as 12L13 and
12L14), phosphorus and sulfur (the "rephosphorized, resulfurized" steels such as
1211, 1212, or 1213), sulfur (the "resulfurized only" steels such as 1117, 1118, or
1119), and tellerium, selenium, and bismuth (the "super" free-machining steels)
• Cold finishing
• Reducing the level of residual stress (usually by a stress-relieving heat
treatment)
• Adjusting microstructure to optimize machinability

Alloy Steel
Steels that contain specified amounts of alloying elements -- other than carbon and the
commonly accepted amounts of manganese, copper, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus --
are known as alloy steels. Alloying elements are added to change mechanical or
physical properties. A steel is considered to be an alloy when the maximum of the range
given for the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of these limits: 1.65%
Mn, 0.60% Si, or 0.60% Cu; or when a definite range or minimum amount of any of the
following elements is specified or required within the limits recognized for constructional
alloy steels: aluminum, chromium (to 3.99%), cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel,
titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium or other element added to obtain an alloying
effect.
Technically, then, tool and stainless steels are alloy steels. In this chapter, however, the
term alloy steel is reserved for those steels that contain a modest amount of alloying
elements and that usually depend on thermal treatment to develop specific properties.
With proper heat treatment, for example, tensile strength of certain alloy steels can be
raised from about 55,000 psi to nearly 300,000 psi.
Subdivisions for most steels in this family include "through-hardenable" and
"carburizing" grades (plus several specialty grades such as nitriding steels). Through-
hardening grades -- which are heat treated by quenching and tempering -- are used
when maximum hardness and strength must extend deep within a part. Carburizing
grades are used where a tough core and relatively shallow, hard surface are needed.
After a surface-hardening treatment such as carburizing (or nitriding for nitriding alloys),
these steels are suitable for parts that must withstand wear as well as high stresses.
Cast steels are generally through hardened, not surface treated.
Carbon content and alloying elements influence the overall characteristics of both types
of alloy steels. Maximum attainable surface hardness depends primarily on carbon
content. Maximum hardness and strength in small sections increase as carbon content
increases, up to about 0.7%. However, carbon contents greater than 0.3% can increase
the possibility of cracking during quenching or welding. Alloying elements primarily
influence hardenability. They also influence other mechanical and fabrication properties
including toughness and machinability.
Lead additions (0.15 to 0.35%) substantially improve machinability of alloy steels by
high-speed tool steels. For machining with carbide tools, calcium-treated steels are
reported to double or triple tool life in addition to improving surface finish.
Few exact rules exist for selecting through-hardening or surface-hardening grades of
alloy steels. In most cases, critical parts are field tested to evaluate their performance.
Parts with large sections -- heavy forgings, for example -- are often made from alloy
steels that have been vacuum degassed. While in a molten state, these steels are
exposed to a vacuum which removes hydrogen and, to a lesser degree, oxygen and
nitrogen.
Alloy steels are often specified when high strength is needed in moderate-to-large
sections. Whether tensile or yield strength is the basis of design, thermally treated alloy
steels generally offer high strength-to-weight ratios. For applications requiring maximum
ductility, alloys with low sulfur levels (<0.01%) can be supplied by producers using ladle-
refining techniques.
In general, wear resistance can be improved by increasing the hardness of an alloy, by
specifying an alloy with greater carbon content (without increasing hardness), or by
both. The surface of a flame-hardened, medium-carbon steel, for example, is likely to
have poorer wear resistance than the carbon-rich case of a carburized steel of equal
hardness. Exceptions are nitrided parts, which have better wear resistance than would
be expected from the carbon content alone.
For any combination of alloy steel and heat treatment, three factors tend to decrease
toughness: low service temperature, high loading rates, and stress concentrations or
residual stress. The general effects of these three conditions are qualitatively similar, so
low-temperature impact tests (to -50°F) are useful for many applications as toughness
indicators under various service conditions and temperatures.
Fully hardened-and-tempered, low-carbon (0.10 to 0.30% C) alloy steels have a good
combination of strength and toughness, both at room and low temperature. Care must
be taken in heat treatment of certain alloy-steel grades, however, because toughness
may be decreased substantially by temper brittleness -- a form of embrittlement
developed by slow cooling through the range of 900 to 600°F, or by holding or
tempering in this range.
When liquid quenching is impractical (because of the danger of cracking or distortion, or
because of cost), various low-carbon nickel or nickel-molybdenum steels in the
normalized-and-tempered condition can be used for low-temperature service.
Wrought alloy steels (and carbon steels) are classified by a series of AISI and SAE
numbers that designate composition and alloy type. Letters, which are used in addition
to the four-digit designations, include the suffix "H," used for steel produced to specific
hardenability limits (which allows wider composition ranges for certain alloying
elements), and the prefix "E," which indicates a steel made by the basic electric-furnace
method. Other specifications, such as those issued by ASTM, specify minimum
properties for critical structural, pressure-vessel, and nuclear applications.
ASTM specifications classify cast alloy steels by relating the steel to the mechanical
properties and intended service condition. Chemical analysis is secondary. There are
ASTM specifications for general use such as A27 or A148 when mechanical properties
are critical. For low-temperature service, A352 or A757 is recommended when
toughness is important. For weldability, A216 is specified when fabrication is critical,
and for pressure service, A217 or A389 is recommended when a number of properties
are important. Still other ASTM alloy steels are available for special applications. Other
specifications such as SAE J435 are used for cast steels in automotive applications. A
summary of steel-casting specifications is available from the Steel Founders' Society of
America, Des Plaines, Ill.

Stainless Steel
One of the features that characterize stainless steels is a minimum 10.5% chromium
content as the principal alloying element. Four major categories of wrought stainless
steel, based on metallurgical structure, are austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and
precipitation hardening. Cast stainless-steel grades are generally designated as either
heat resistant or corrosion resistant.
Austenitic wrought stainless steel are classified in three groups:
• The AISI 200 series (alloys of iron-chromium-nickel-manganese)
• The AISI 300 series (alloys of iron-chromium-nickel)
• Nitrogen-strengthened alloys
Carbon content is usually low (0.15% or less), and the alloys contain a minimum of 16%
chromium with sufficient nickel and manganese to provide an austenitic structure at all
temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy.
Nitrogen-strengthened austenitic stainless steels are alloys of chromium-manganese-
nitrogen; some grades also contain nickel. Yield strengths of these alloys (annealed)
are typically 50% higher than those of the nonnitrogen-bearing grades. They are
nonmagnetic and most remain so, even after severe cold working.
Like carbon, nitrogen increases the strength of a steel. But unlike carbon, nitrogen does
not combine significantly with chromium in a stainless steel. This combination, which
forms chromium carbide, reduces the strength and corrosion resistance of an alloy.
Until recently, metallurgists had difficulty adding controlled amounts of nitrogen to an
alloy. The development of the argon-oxygen decarburization (AOD) method has made
possible strength levels formerly unattainable in conventional annealed stainless alloys.
Austenitic stainless steels are generally used where corrosion resistance and toughness
are primary requirements. Typical applications include shafts, pumps, fasteners, and
piping in seawater and equipment for processing chemicals, food, and dairy products.
Ferritic wrought alloys (the AISI 400 series) contain from 10.5 to 27% chromium. In
addition, the use of argon-oxygen decarburization and vacuum-induction melting has
produced several new ferritic grades including 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and
29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. Low in carbon content, but generally higher in chromium than the
martensitic grades, these steels cannot be hardened by heat treating and are only
moderately hardened by cold working. Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic and retain
their basic microstructure up to the melting point if sufficient Cr and Mo are present. In
the annealed condition, strength of these grades is approximately 50% higher than that
of carbon steels.
Ferritic stainless steels are typically used where moderate corrosion resistance is
required and where toughness is not a major need. They are also used where chloride
stress-corrosion cracking may be a problem because they have high resistance to this
type of corrosion failure. In heavy sections, achieving sufficient toughness is difficult
with the higher-alloyed ferritic grades. Typical applications include automotive trim and
exhaust systems and heat-transfer equipment for the chemical and petrochemical
industries.
Martensitic steels are also in the AISI 400 series. These wrought, higher-carbon steels
contain from 11.5 to 18% chromium and may have small quantities of additional alloying
elements. They are magnetic, can be hardened by heat treatment, and have high
strength and moderate toughness in the hardened-and-tempered condition. Forming
should be done in the annealed condition. Martensitic stainless steels are less resistant
to corrosion than the austenitic or ferritic grades. Two types of martensitic steels -- 416
and 420F -- have been developed specifically for good machinability.
Martensitic stainless steels are used where strength and/or hardness are of primary
concern and where the environment is relatively mild from a corrosive standpoint. These
alloys are typically used for bearings, molds, cutlery, medical instruments, aircraft
structural parts, and turbine components. Type 420 is used increasingly for molds for
plastics and for industrial components requiring hardness and corrosion resistance.
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels develop very high strength through a low-
temperature heat treatment that does not significantly distort precision parts.
Compositions of most precipitation-hardening stainless steels are balanced to produce
hardening by an aging treatment that precipitates hard, intermetallic compounds and
simultaneously tempers the martensite. The beginning microstructure of PH alloys is
austenite or martensite. The austenitic alloys must be thermally treated to transform
austenite to martensite before precipitation hardening can be accomplished.
These alloys are used where high strength, moderate corrosion resistance, and good
fabricability are required. Typical applications include shafting, high-pressure pumps,
aircraft components, high-temper springs, and fasteners.
Cast stainless steels usually have corresponding wrought grades that have similar
compositions and properties. However, there are small but important differences in
composition between cast and wrought grades. Stainless-steel castings should be
specified by the designations established by the ACI (Alloy Casting Institute), and not by
the designation of similar wrought alloys.
Service temperature provides the basis for a distinction between heat-resistant and
corrosion-resistant cast grades. The C series of ACI grades designates the corrosion-
resistant steels; the H series designates the heat-resistant steels, which can be used for
structural applications at service temperatures between 1,200 and 2,200°F. Carbon and
nickel contents of the H-series alloys are considerably higher than those of the C series.
H-series steels are not immune to corrosion, but they corrode slowly -- even when
exposed to fuel-combustion products or atmospheres prepared for carburizing and
nitriding. C-series grades are used in valve, pumps, and fittings. H-series grades are
used for furnace parts and turbine components.
Galling and wear are failure modes that require special attention with stainless steels
because these materials serve in many harsh environments. They often operate, for
example, at high temperatures, in food-contact applications, and where access is
limited. Such restrictions prevent the use of lubricants, leading to metal-to-metal contact
-- a condition that promotes galling and accelerated wear.
In a sliding-wear situation, a galling failure mode occurs first, followed by dimensional
loss due to wear, which is, in turn, usually followed by corrosion. Galling is a severe
form of adhesive wear that shows up as torn areas of the metal surface. Galling can be
minimized by decreasing contact stresses or by the use of protective surface layers
such as lubricants (where acceptable), weld overlays, platings, and nitrided or
carburized surface treatments.
Test results from stainless-steel couples (table) indicate the relatively poor galling
resistance of austenitic grades and even alloy 17-4 PH, despite its high hardness.
Among the standard grades, only AISI 416 and 440C performed well. Good to excellent
galling resistance was demonstrated by Armco's Nitronic 32 and 60 alloys (the latter
were developed specifically for antigalling service).
Recent research findings prove that adding silicon to a high-manganese, nitrogen-
strengthened austenitic stainless alloy produces a wear-resistant stainless steel. Wear
and corrosion resistance are still considered unavoidable trade-offs in stainless, but the
new formula promises to resist both conditions.
Beating corrosion is the number one reason for choosing stainless. But in cases where
parts are difficult to lubricate, most stainless steels cannot resist wear. Under high loads
and insufficient lubrication, stainless often sports a type of surface damage known as
galling. In critical parts, galling can lead to seizure or freezing, which can shut down
machinery.
Designers typically get around galling by using cast alloys or by applying a cobalt facing
to stainless parts. Either way, the fixes can be expensive and may pose new problems
that accompany the hard-facing process. These include maintaining uniform facing
thickness and ensuring proper adhesion between facing and substrate. A new stainless
formula aims to sidestep these difficulties by offering an alternative to expensive wear-
resistant materials.
In search of a cost-effective alternative, researchers at Carpenter Technology, Reading,
Pa., looked at elemental effects of silicon, manganese, and nickel on galling resistance
of nitrogen-strengthened, austenitic stainless steels. Results of an initial test program
determined that silicon was a catalyst for galling resistance, while nickel and
manganese were not.
The silicon levels in a recently developed gall-resistant stainless alloy are between 3
and 4%. Silicon levels must remain lower than 5% to maintain the proper metallurgical
structure. In addition, too much silicon decreases nitrogen solubility. To maintain
strength, higher amounts of costly nickel would need to be added.
Researchers can now define optimum composition limits for a gall-resistant stainless
steel. To prove the new steel's validity, properties such as galling, wear, and corrosion
are evaluated and compared with commercially available stainless steels. Four alloys, a
gall-resistant austenitic alloy called Gall-Tough, another austenitic alloys with higher
nickel and manganese content (16Cr-8Ni-4Si-8Mn), and Types 304 and 430 stainless
steels are included in the comparison.
Results show the galling threshold for gall-resistant stainless is over 15 times higher
than that of conventional stainless steels. In addition, gall-resistant stainless withstands
more than twice the stress without galling compared to the 16Cr-8Ni-4Si-8Mn alloy. Yet,
the new formula sacrifices only a slight amount of corrosion resistance.
For strength and hardness, both gall-resistant stainless and the 16Cr-8Ni-4Si-8Mn alloy
beat Types 304 and 430 alloys. The new alloy also shows a uniquely high ultimate
tensile strength, possibly due to martensite formation during tensile testing. Ductility for
all four alloys is excellent. These findings indicate that gall-resistant alloys can
economically bridge the gap between corrosion, galling, and metal-to-metal wear
resistance.

Tool Steel
The same properties that qualify tool steels for tools and dies are also used for other
parts that require resistance to wear, stability during heat treatment, strength at high
temperatures, or toughness. Tool steels are increasingly being used for mechanical
parts to reduce size or weight, or to resist wear or high-temperature shock.
Tool steels are metallurgically "clean," high-alloy steels that are melted in relatively
small heats in electric furnaces and produced with careful attention to homogeneity.
They can be further refined by argon/oxygen decarburization (AOD), vacuum methods,
or electroslag refining (ESR). As a result, tool steels are often specified for critical high-
strength or wear-resistant applications. Because of their high alloy content, tool steels
must be rolled or forged with care to produce satisfactory bar products.
To develop their best properties, tool steels are always heat treated. Because the parts
may distort during heat treatment, precision parts should be semifinished, heat treated,
then finished. Severe distortion is most likely to occur during liquid quenching, so an
alloy should be selected that provides the needed mechanical properties with the least
severe quench.
Tool steels are classified into several broad groups, some of which are further divided
into subgroups according to alloy composition, hardenability, or mechanical similarities.
Water-hardening, or carbon, tool steels, designated Type W by AISI, rely solely on
carbon content for their useful properties. These steels are available as shallow,
medium, or deep hardening, so the specific alloy selected depends on part cross
section and required surface and core hardnesses.
Shock-resisting tool steels (Type S) are strong and tough, but they are not as wear
resistant as many other tool steels. These steels resist sudden and repeated loadings.
Applications include pneumatic tooling parts, chisels, punches, shear blades, bolts, and
springs subjected to moderate heat in service.
Cold-work tool steels, which include oil and air-hardening Types O, A, and D, are often
more costly but can be quenched less drastically than water-hardening types. Type O
steels are oil hardening; Type A and D steels are air hardening (the least severe
quench), and are best suited for applications such as machine ways, brick mold liners,
and fuel-injector nozzles. The air-hardening types are specified for thin parts or parts
with severe changes in cross section -- parts that are prone to crack or distort during
hardening. Hardened parts from these steels have a high surface hardness; however,
these steels should not be specified for service at elevated temperatures.
Hot-work steels (Type H) serve well at elevated temperatures. The tungsten and
molybdenum high-alloy hot-work steels are heat and abrasion resistant even at 600 to
1,000°F. But although these alloys do not soften at these high temperatures, they
should be preheated before and cooled slowly after service to avoid cracking. The
chromium grades of hot-work steels are less expensive than the tungsten and
molybdenum grades. One of the chromium grades H11, is used extensively for aircraft
parts such as primary airframe structures, cargo-support lugs, catapult hooks, and
elevon hinges. Grade H13, which is similar to H11 is usually more readily available from
suppliers.
High-speed tool steels -- Types T (tungsten alloy) and M (molybdenum alloy) -- make
good cutting tools because they resist softening and maintain a sharp cutting edge at
high service temperatures. This characteristic is sometimes called "red hardness."
These deep-hardening alloys are used for steady, high-load conditions rather than
shock loads. Typical applications are pump vanes and parts for heavy-duty strapping
machinery.
Other grades, called special-purpose tool steels, include low-cost, Type L, low-alloy
steels, often specified for machine parts when wear resistance combined with
toughness is important. Carbon-tungsten alloys (Type F) are shallow hardening and
wear resistant, but are not suited for high temperatures or for shock service.
Type P mold steels are designed specifically for plastic-molding and zinc die-casting
dies. These steels are seldom used for nontooling components.
Many steel mills have formulated their own special-purpose tool-steel alloy. Such alloys
may not match a specific AISI designation and must be specified by trade name.
Special-purpose tool steels may be superior to the standard grades when used as
intended, but they should be specified only after careful evaluation of mechanical
properties, heat-treat behavior, and availability in comparison with the standard grades.

HSLA Steel
Those steel alloys known as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels provide increased
strength-to-weight ratios over conventional low-carbon steels for only a modest price
premium. Because HSLA alloys are stronger, they can be used in thinner sections,
making them particularly attractive for transportation-equipment components where
weight reduction is important. HSLA steels are available in all standard wrought forms --
sheet, strip, plate, structural shapes, bar-size shapes, and special shapes.
Typically, HSLA steels are low-carbon steels with up to 1.5% manganese, strengthened
by small additions of elements, such as columbium, copper, vanadium or titanium and
sometimes by special rolling and cooling techniques. Improved-formability HSLA steels
contain additions such as zirconium, calcium, or rare-earth elements for sulfide-
inclusion shape control.
Since parts made from HSLA steels can have thinner cross sections than equivalent
parts made from low-carbon steel, corrosion of an HSLA steel can significantly reduce
strength by decreasing the load-bearing cross section. While additions of elements such
as copper, silicon, nickel, chromium, and phosphorus can improve atmospheric
corrosion resistance of these alloys, they also increase cost. Galvanizing, zinc-rich
coatings, and other rust-preventive finishes can help protect HSLA-steel parts from
corrosion.
Grades known as "improved-formability" HSLA steels (sheet-steel grades designated
ASTM A715, and plates designated ASTM A656) have yield strengths up to 80,000 psi,
yet cost only about 24% more than a typical 34,000-psi plain-carbon steel. Because
these alloys must compete with other structural metals such as AISI 1010 steel and
aluminum, they must be as inexpensive as possible. However, formulating and rolling a
steel that meets this cost requirement is not easy, and the finished product presents a
number of trade-offs. For example, the increase in strength from 35,000 to 80,000 psi
may be accompanied by a 30 to 40% loss in ductility.
Improved-formability HSLA steels were developed primarily for the automotive industry
to replace low-carbon steel parts with thinner cross-section parts for reduced weight
without sacrificing strength and dent resistance. Typical passenger-car applications
include door-intrusion beams, chassis members, reinforcing and mounting brackets,
steering and suspension parts, bumpers, and wheels.
Trucks, construction equipment, off-highway vehicles, mining equipment, and other
heavy-duty vehicles use HSLA sheets or plates for chassis components, buckets,
grader blades, and structural members outside the body. For these applications, sheets
or light-gage plates are specified. Structural forms (alloys from the family of 45,000 to
50,000-psi minimum yield strength HSLA steels) are specified in applications such as
offshore oil and gas rigs, single-pole power-transmission towers, railroad cars, and ship
construction.
In equipment such as power cranes, cement mixers, farm machinery, trucks, trailers,
and power-transmission towers, HSLA bar, with minimum yield strengths ranging from
50,000 to 70,000 psi is used. Forming, drilling, sawing, and other machining operations
on HSLA steels usually require 25 to 30% more power than do structural carbon steels.
Most HSLA alloys have directionally sensitive properties. For some grades, formability
and impact strength vary significantly depending on whether the material is tested
longitudinally or transversely to the rolled direction. For example, bends parallel to the
longitudinal direction are more apt to cause cracking around the outside, tension-
bearing surface of the bend. This effect is more pronounced in thick sheets. This
directional characteristic is substantially reduced in HSLA steels that have been treated
for sulfide shape control.

Steels for Strength

Developed primarily for high-strength applications, these steels are usually heat-treated
alloys that provide strengths at least equal to those of as-rolled steel. Heat-treated
constructional alloy steels and the ultrahigh-strength steels are used in applications
where high strength can be converted to a weight-saving advantage over other steels.
High-yield-strength, quenched-and-tempered constructional alloy steels are
usually heat treated at the mill to develop their properties so they require no further heat
treatment by the fabricator. Although these heat-treated alloy steels are available in all
conventional product forms, they are most common in plate products. Some grades are
also available as abrasion-resistant (AR) modifications. In these conditions, high
hardness is the desired property, with some toughness being sacrificed. Over 20 types
of these proprietary high-strength alloy steels are produced. Some have been
developed to combine improved welding characteristics along with high strength. Most
have good impact properties in addition to high strength. An example of the high-yield-
strength grades in this class is HY-80/100, which is used for naval vessels. This
material combines high strength and toughness with weldability.
Ultrahigh-strength steels start with grade 4340 and are modifications of this alloy.
When these steels are used for aerospace components, they are usually produced by
the vacuum-arc-remelt (VAR) process. Steels commonly considered to be in the
ultrahigh-strength category have yield strengths greater than 180,000 psi. They are
classified into several broad categories based on chemical composition or metallurgical-
hardening mechanisms.
Medium-carbon alloy steels are generally modifications of grade 4330 or 4340
(usually with increased molybdenum, silicon, and/or vanadium). These grades provide
excellent hardenability in thick sections.
Modified tool steels of the 5% Cr, 1% Mo, 1% V hot-work die-steel variety (H11
modified, H13) provide the next step in increased hardenability and greater strength.
Most steels in this group are air hardened in moderate to large sections and, therefore,
are not likely to distort or quench crack. Structural uses of these steels are not as
widespread as they once were, mainly because of the development of other steels
costing about the same but offering greater fracture toughness.
Maraging steels contain 18% nickel, along with appreciable amounts of molybdenum,
cobalt, and titanium, and almost no carbon. These alloys can be strengthened
significantly by a precipitation reaction at a relatively low temperature. They can be
formed and machined in the solution-annealed condition but not without difficulty.
Weldability is excellent. They can be heat treated to 250 to 300-ksi yield strength with a
simple 900°F aging treatment. Fracture toughness of the maraging steels is
considerably higher than that of the conventional high-strength steels.
Maraging steels are used in a variety of high-performance applications, and most
extensively in aircraft and tooling components.
The 9% Ni, 4% Co alloys were designed to provide high strength and toughness at
room temperature as well as at moderately elevated temperatures -- to about 800°F.
Weldability and fracture toughness are good, but the alloys are susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement. These steels are used in airframes, gears, and large aircraft parts.

Iron-based superalloys
Iron, nickel, and cobalt-based alloys used primarily for high-temperature applications
are known as superalloys. The iron-based grades, which are less expensive than cobalt
or nickel-based grades, are of three types: alloys that can be strengthened by a
martensitic type of transformation, alloys that are austenitic and are strengthened by a
sequence of hot and cold working (usually, forging at 2,000 to 2,100°F followed by
finishing at 1,200 to 1,600°F), and austenitic alloys strengthened by precipitation
hardening.
Some metallurgists consider the last group only as superalloys, the others being
categorized as high-temperature, high-strength alloys. In general, the martensitic types
are used at temperatures below 1,000°F; the austenitic types, above 1,000°F.
The AISI 600 series of superalloys consists of six subclasses of iron-based alloys:
• 601 through 604: Martensitic low-alloy steels.
• 610 through 613: Martensitic secondary hardening steels.
• 614 through 619: Martensitic chromium steels.
• 630 through 635: Semiaustenitic and martensitic precipitation-hardening
stainless steels.
• 650 through 653: Austenitic steels strengthened by hot/cold work.
• 660 through 665: Austenitic superalloys; all grades except alloy 661 are
strengthened by second-phase precipitation.
Iron-based superalloys are characterized by high temperature as well as room-
temperature strength and resistance to creep, oxidation, corrosion, and wear. Wear
resistance increases with carbon content. Maximum wear resistance is obtained in
alloys 611, 612, and 613, which are used in high-temperature aircraft bearings and
machinery parts subjected to sliding contact. Oxidation resistance increases with
chromium content. The martensitic chromium steels, particularly alloy 616, are used for
steam-turbine blades.
The superalloys are available in all conventional mill forms -- billet, bar, sheet, and
forgings -- and special shapes are available for most alloys. In general, austenitic alloys
are more difficult to machine than martensitic types, which machine best in the
annealed condition. Austenitic alloys are usually "gummy" in the solution-treated
condition and machine best after being partially aged or fully hardened.
Crack sensitivity makes most of the martensitic steels difficult to weld by conventional
methods. These alloys should be annealed or tempered prior to welding; even then,
preheating and postheating are recommended. Welding drastically lowers the
mechanical properties of alloys that depend on hot/cold work for strength.
All of the martensitic low-alloy steels machine satisfactorily and are readily fabricated by
hot working and cold working. The martensitic secondary-hardening and chromium
alloys are all hot worked by preheating and hot forging. Austenitic alloys are more
difficult to forge than the martensitic grades.
Non-Ferrous Metals

Aluminum
Though light in weight, commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of about
13,000 psi. Cold working the metal approximately doubles its strength. In other attempts
to increase strength, aluminum is alloyed with elements such as manganese, silicon,
copper, magnesium, or zinc. The alloys can also be strengthened by cold working.
Some alloys are further strengthened and hardened by heat treatments. At subzero
temperatures, aluminum is stronger than at room temperature and is no less ductile.
Most aluminum alloys lose strength at elevated temperatures, although some retain
significant strength to 500°F. Besides a high strength-to-weight ratio and good
formability, aluminum also possesses its own anticorrosion mechanism. When exposed
to air, aluminum does not oxidize progressively because a hard, microscopic oxide
coating forms on the surface and seals the metal from the environment. The tight
chemical oxide bond is the reason that aluminum is not found in nature; it exists only as
a compound.
Aluminum and its alloys, numbering in the hundreds, are available in all common
commercial forms. Aluminum-alloy sheet can be formed, drawn, stamped, or spun.
Many wrought or cast aluminum alloys can be welded, brazed, or soldered, and
aluminum surfaces readily accept a wide variety of finishes, both mechanical and
chemical. Because of their high electrical conductivity, aluminum alloys are used as
electrical conductors. Aluminum reflects radiant energy throughout the entire spectrum,
is nonsparking, and nonmagnetic.
Wrought aluminum: A four-digit number that corresponds to a specific alloying
element combination usually designates wrought aluminum alloys. This number is
followed by a temper designation that identifies thermal and mechanical treatments.
To develop strength, heat-treatable wrought alloys are solution heat treated, then
quenched and precipitation hardened. Solution heat treatment consists of heating the
metal, holding at temperature to bring the hardening constituents into solution, then
cooling to retain those constituents in solution. Precipitation hardening after solution
heat treatment increases strength and hardness of these alloys.
While some alloys age at room temperature, others require precipitation heat treatment
at an elevated temperature (artificial aging) for optimum properties. However, distortion
and dimensional changes during natural or artificial aging can be significant. In addition,
distortion and residual stresses can be introduced during quenching from the solution
heat-treatment cycle. These induced changes can be removed by deforming the metal
(for example, stretching).
Wrought aluminum alloys are also strengthened by cold working. The high-strength
alloys -- either heat treatable or not -- work harden more rapidly than the lower-strength,
softer alloys and so may require annealing after cold working. Because hot forming
does not always work harden aluminum alloys, this method is used to avoid annealing
and straightening operations; however, hot forming fully heat-treated materials is
difficult. Generally, aluminum formability increases with temperature.
Recently developed aluminum alloys can provide nearly custom-engineered strength,
fracture toughness, fatigue resistance, and corrosion resistance for aircraft forgings and
other critical components. The rapid-solidification process is the basis for these new
alloy systems, called wrought P/M alloys. The term wrought P/M is used to distinguish
this technology from conventional press-and-sinter P/M technology. Grades 7090 and
7091 are the first commercially available wrought P/M aluminum alloys. These alloys
can be handled like conventional aluminum alloys on existing aluminum-fabrication
facilities.
Other significant new materials are the aluminum-lithium alloys. These lightweight
metals are as strong as alloys now in use and can be fabricated on existing
metalworking equipment. Although impressive structural weight reductions (from 7 to
10%) are possible through direct substitution, even greater reduction (up to 15%) can
be realized by developing fully optimized alloys for new designs. Such alloys would be
specifically tailored to provide property combinations not presently available. Producing
an alloy that will provide these combinations is the object of second and third-generation
low-density alloy development efforts.
Operating economy is still an important consideration in vehicle design despite
fluctuating fuel prices. Downsizing to save fuel has reached its practical limits; now,
reducing the weight of individual components is taking over. One significant change
being implemented by designers of automobiles and military vehicles today is
converting driveshafts, radiators, cylinder heads, suspension members, and other
structural components to aluminum.
Cast aluminum: Aluminum can be cast by all common casting processes. Aluminum
casting alloys are identified with a unified, four-digit (xxx.x) system. The first digit
indicates the major alloying element. For instance, 100 series is reserved for 99% pure
aluminum with no major alloying element used. The second and third digits in the 100
series indicate the precise minimum aluminum content. For example, 165.0 has a
99.65% minimum aluminum content. The 200-900 series designate various aluminum
alloys, with the second two digits assigned to new alloys as they are registered. The
fourth digit indicates the product form. Castings are designated 0; ingots are designed 1
or 2.
Letter prefixes before the numerical designation indicate special control of one or more
elements or a modification of the original alloy. Prefix X designates an experimental
composition. The material may retain the experimental designation up to five years.
Limits for the experimental alloy may be changed by the registrant.
Commercial casting alloys include heat-treatable and nonheat-treatable compositions.
Alloys that are heat treated carry the temper designations 0, T4, T5, T6, and T7. Die
castings are not usually solution heat treated because the temperature can cause
blistering.
Permanent-mold casting technology involves several variations having to do with how
the metal gets into the mold cavity. Initially, molds were simply gravity filled from ladles,
in the same manner as sand molds. Subsequently, low pressure on the liquid-metal
surface of a crucible was used to force the metal up, through a vertical tube, into the
mold cavity. This refinement produces castings with higher mechanical properties and is
more economical than gravity filling because extensive gates and risers are
unnecessary.
More recently, the process was modified to use a low level of vacuum drawn on the
mold cavity, causing atmospheric pressure to force the molten metal up into the mold.
This process variation, together with controlled and rapid solidification, increases
properties further because it produces castings that are almost entirely free of porosity.
Although both variations improve properties and speed casting cycles, the added
equipment complexities limit the casting size that can be handled. Consequently, all
three permanent-mold processes are in use today, turning out aluminum castings
weighing from less than one pound to several hundred pounds.
Aluminum matrix composites: Metal matrix composites (MMCs) consist of metal alloys
reinforced with fibers, whiskers, particulates, or wires. Alloys of numerous metals
(aluminum, titanium, magnesium and copper) have been used as matrices to date.
Recent MMC developments, however, seem to thrust aluminum into the spotlight. In the
NASA space shuttle, for example, 240 struts are made from aluminum reinforced with
boron fibers. Also, aluminum diesel-engine pistons that have been locally reinforced
with ceramic fibers are eliminating the need for wear-resistant nickel-cast iron inserts in
the automotive environment.
Fabrication methods differ for both products. Monolayer tapes in the space shuttle struts
are wrapped around a mandrel and hot isostatically pressed to diffusion bond the
layers. For the pistons, a squeeze-casting process infiltrates liquid metal into a fiber
preform under pressure. Other fabrication methods for MMCs include: hot pressing a
layer of parallel fibers between foils to create a monolayer tape; creep and superplastic
forming in a die; and spraying metal plasmas on collimated fibers followed by hot
pressing.
Superplastic aluminum: Superplastic forming of metal, a process similar to vacuum
forming of plastic sheet, has been used to form low-strength aluminum into
nonstructural parts such as cash-register housings, luggage compartments for
passenger trains, and nonload-bearing aircraft components. New in this area of
technology is a superplastic-formable high-strength aluminum alloy, now available for
structural applications and designated 7475-02. Strength of alloy 7475 is in the range of
aerospace alloy 7075, which requires conventional forming operations. Although initial
cost of 7475 is higher, finished part cost is usually lower than that of 7075 because of
the savings involved in the simplified design/assembly.

Beryllium
Among structural metals, beryllium has a unique combination of properties. It has low
density (two-thirds that of aluminum), high modulus per weight (five times that of
ultrahigh-strength steels), high specific heat, high strength per density, excellent
dimensional stability, and transparency to X-rays. Beryllium is expensive, however, and
its impact strength is low compared to values for most other metals. Available forms
include block, rod, sheet, plate, foil, extrusions, and wire. Machining blanks, which are
machined from large vacuum hot pressings, make up the majority of beryllium
purchases. However, shapes can also be produced directly from powder by processes
such as cold-press/sinter/coin, CIP/HIP, CIP/sinter, CIP/hot-press and plasma
spray/sinter. (CIP is cold-isostatic press, and HIP is hot-isostatic press.) Mechanical
properties depend on powder characteristics, chemistry, consolidation process, and
thermal treatment. Wrought forms, produced by hot working, have high strength in the
working direction, but properties are usually anisotropic.
Beryllium parts can be hot formed from cross-rolled sheet and plate as well as plate
machined from hot-pressed block. Forming rates are slower than for titanium, for
example, but tooling and forming costs for production items are comparable.
Structural assemblies of beryllium components can be joined by most techniques such
as mechanical fasteners, rivets, adhesive bonding, brazing, and diffusion bonding.
Fusion-welding processes are generally avoided because they cause excessive grain
growth and reduced mechanical properties.
Beryllium behaves like other light metals when exposed to air by forming a tenacious
protective oxide film that provides corrosion protection. However, the bare metal
corrodes readily when exposed for prolonged periods to tap or seawater or to a
corrosive environment that includes high humidity. The corrosion resistance of beryllium
in both aqueous and gaseous environments can be improved by applying chemical
conversion, metallic, or nonmetallic coatings. Beryllium can be electroless nickel plated,
and flame or plasma sprayed.
All conventional machining operations are possible with beryllium, including EDM and
ECM. However, beryllium powder is toxic if inhaled. Since airborne beryllium particles
and beryllium salts present a health hazard, the metal must be machined in specially
equipped facilities for safety. Machining damages the surface of beryllium parts.
Strength is reduced by the formation of microcracks and "twinning." The depth of the
damage can be limited during finish machining by taking several light machining cuts
and sharpening cutting tools frequently or by using nonconventional metal-removal
processes. For highly stressed structural parts, 0.002 to 0.004 in. should be removed
from each surface by chemical etching or milling after machining. This process removes
cracks and other surface damage caused by machining, thereby preventing premature
failure. Precision parts should be machined with a sequence of light cuts and
intermediate thermal stress reliefs to provide the greatest dimensional stability.
Beryllium typically appears in military-aircraft and space-shuttle brake systems, in
missile reentry body structures, missile guidance systems, mirrors and optical systems,
satellite structures, and X-ray windows. The modulus-to-density ratio is higher than that
of unidirectionally reinforced, "high-modulus" boron, carbon, and graphite-fiber
composites. Beryllium has an additional advantage because its modulus of elasticity is
isotropic.

Copper
Copper conducts electricity at a rate 97% that of silver, and is the standard for electrical
conductivity. Copper provides a diverse range of properties: good thermal and electrical
conductivity, corrosion resistance, ease of forming, ease of joining, and color. In
addition, however, copper and its alloys have relatively low strength-to-weight ratios and
low strengths at elevated temperatures. Some copper alloys are also susceptible to
stress-corrosion cracking unless they are stress relieved.
Copper and its alloys -- the brasses and bronzes -- are available in rod, plate, strip,
sheet, tube shapes, forgings, wire, and castings. These metals are grouped according
to composition into several general categories: coppers, high-copper alloys, brasses,
leaded brasses, bronzes, aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes, copper nickels, and nickel
silvers.
Copper-based alloys form adherent films that are relatively impervious to corrosion and
that protect the base metal from further attack. Certain alloy systems darken rapidly
from brown to black in air. Under most outdoor conditions, however, copper surfaces
develop a blue-green patina. Lacquer coatings can be applied to retain the original alloy
color. An acrylic coating with benzotriazole as an additive lasts several years under
most outdoor, abrasion-free conditions.
Although they work harden, copper and its alloys can be hot or cold worked. Ductility
can be restored by annealing or heating incident to welding or brazing operations. For
applications requiring maximum electrical conductivity, the most widely used copper is
C11000, "tough pitch," which contains approximately 0.03% oxygen and a minimum of
99.0% copper. In addition to high electrical conductivity, oxygen-free grades C10100
and C10200 provide immunity to embrittlement at high temperature. The addition of
phosphorus produces grade C12200 -- the standard water-tube copper.
High-copper alloys contain small amounts of alloying elements that improve strength
with some loss in electrical conductivity. In amounts of 1%, for example, cadmium
increases strength by 50%, with a loss in conductivity to 85%. Small amounts of
cadmium raise the softening temperature in alloy C11600, which is used widely for
printed circuits. Tellurium or sulfur, present in small amounts in Grades C14500 and
C14700, has been shown to increase machinability.
Copper alloys do not have a sharply defined yield point, so yield strength is reported
either as 0.5% extension under load, or as 0.2% offset. On the most common basis
(0.5% extension), yield strength of annealed material is approximately one-third the
tensile strength. As the material is cold worked or hardened, it becomes less ductile,
and yield strength approaches tensile strength.
Copper is specified according to temper, which is established by cold working or
annealing. Typical levels are: soft, half-hard, hard, spring, and extra-spring. Yield
strength of a hard-temper copper is approximately two-thirds of tensile strength.
For brasses, phosphor bronzes, or other commonly cold-worked grades, the hardest
available tempers are also the strongest and represent approximately 70% reduction in
area. Ductility is sacrificed, of course, to gain strength. Copper-beryllium alloys can be
precipitation hardened to the highest strength levels attainable in copper-base alloys.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code should be used for designing critical
copper-alloy parts for service at elevated temperatures. The code recommends that, for
a specific service temperature, the maximum allowable design stress should be the
lowest of these values as tabulated by the code: one-fourth of the ultimate tensile
strength, two-thirds of the yield strength, and two-thirds of the average creep strength or
stress-rupture strength under specified conditions. Silicon bronzes, aluminum brasses,
and copper nickels are widely used for elevated-temperature applications.
All copper alloys resist corrosion by fresh water and steam. Copper nickels, aluminum
brass, and aluminum bronzes provide superior resistance to saltwater corrosion.
Copper alloys have high resistance to alkalies and organic acids, but have poor
resistance to inorganic acids. One corrosive situation encountered, particularly in the
high-zinc alloy, is dezincification. The brass dissolves as an alloy, but the copper
constituent redeposits as a porous, spongy metal. Meanwhile, the zinc component is
carried away by the atmosphere or deposited on the surface as an insoluble compound.
Designating alloys: Originally developed as a three-digit system by the U.S. copper
and brass industry, the designation system for copper-based alloys has been expanded
to five digits preceded by the letter C as part of the Unified Numbering System for
Metals and Alloys (UNS). The UNS designations are simply an expansion of the former
designation numbers. For example, Copper Alloy No. 377 (forging brass) becomes
C37700. Numbers C10000 through C79900 are assigned to wrought compositions, and
numbers C80000 through C99900 to casting alloys.
The designation system is not a specification; rather, it is a method for identifying and
defining the chemical composition of mill and foundry products. The precise
requirements to be satisfied by a material and the temper nomenclature that applies are
defined by the relevant standard specifications (ASTM, Federal, and Military) for each
composition.
There are approximately 370 commercial copper and copper-alloy compositions. Brass
mills make wrought compositions in the form of rod, plate, sheet, strip, tube, pipe,
extrusions, foil, forgings, and wire. Foundries supply castings. The following general
categories apply to both wrought and cast compositions.
Coppers, high-copper alloys: Both wrought and cast compositions have a designated
minimum copper content and may include other elements or additions for special
properties.
Brasses: These alloys contain zinc as the principal alloying element and may have
other designated elements. The wrought alloys are comprised of copper-zinc alloys,
copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses), and copper-zinc-tin alloys (tin brasses). The
cast alloys are comprised of copper-zinc-tin alloys (red, semired and yellow brasses),
manganese bronze alloys (high-strength yellow brasses), leaded manganese bronze
alloys (leaded high-strength yellow brasses), and copper-zinc-silicon alloys (silicon
brasses and bronzes).
Bronzes: Wrought bronze alloys comprise four main groups: copper-tin-phosphorus
alloys (phosphor bronzes), copper-tin-lead-phosphorus alloys (leaded phosphor
bronzes), and copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes). Cast alloys also have four main
families: copper-tin alloys (tin bronzes), copper-tin-lead alloys (leaded and high-leaded
tin bronzes), copper-tin-nickel alloys (nickel-tin bronzes), and copper-aluminum alloys
(aluminum bronzes).
Copper-nickels: These are either wrought or cast alloys containing nickel as the
principal alloying element.
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys: These are known as nickel silvers, from their color.
Leaded coppers: These are cast alloys containing 20% lead or more.

Magnesium
As the lightest structural metal available, magnesium's combination of low density and
good mechanical strength results in a high strength-to-weight ratio.
Because of their low modulus of elasticity, magnesium alloys can absorb energy
elastically. Combined with moderate strength, this provides excellent dent resistance
and high damping capacity. Magnesium has good fatigue resistance and performs
particularly well in applications involving a large number of cycles at relatively low
stress. The metal is sensitive to stress concentration, however, so notches, sharp
corners, and abrupt section changes should be avoided.
Magnesium parts are generally used from room temperature to about 200°F or, in some
cases, to 350°F. Some alloys can be used in service environments to 700°F for brief
exposures.
Magnesium is widely recognized for its favorable strength-to-weight ratio and excellent
castability, but deeply ingrained misconceptions often prevent designers from specifying
it as a die-cast material. However, what is true of magnesium as a generic material is
not true of today's die-casting alloy. The new high-purity alloy, combined with advances
in fluxless, hot-chamber die-casting processing, has altered the traditional guidelines for
evaluating the cost and performance of magnesium die castings.
Fabrication: Magnesium alloys are the easiest of the structural metals to machine. They
can be shaped and fabricated by most metalworking processes, and they are easily
welded. At room temperature, magnesium work hardens rapidly, reducing cold
formability; thus, cold forming is limited to mild deformation or roll bending around large
radii. Pure magnesium is usually alloyed with other elements to develop sufficient
strength for structural purposes. Some alloys are heat treated to further improve
properties.
Cast magnesium alloys are dimensionally stable to about 200°F. Some cast
magnesium-aluminum-zinc alloys may undergo permanent growth if used above that
temperature for long periods. Permanent-mold castings are as strong as sand castings,
and they generally provide closer dimensional tolerances and better surface finish.
Typical applications of magnesium gravity castings are aircraft engine components and
wheels for race and sports cars.
Design of die-cast magnesium parts follows the same principles established for other
die-casting metals. Maximum mechanical properties in a typical alloy are developed in
wall thicknesses ranging from 0.078 to 0.150 in. Chain-saw and power-tool housings,
archery-bow handles, and attache-case frames are typical die-cast applications.
Magnesium is easy to hot work, so fewer forging steps are usually required than for
other metals. Bending, blocking, and finishing are usually the only operations needed.
Typical magnesium forgings are missile fuselage connector rings.
Standard extruded shapes include round, square, rectangular, and hexagonal bars;
angles, beams, and channels; and a variety of tubes. Luggage frames and support
frames for military shelters are examples of magnesium extrusions.
Methods used for joining magnesium are gas tungsten-arc (TIG) and gas metal-arc
(MIG) welding, spotwelding, riveting, and adhesive bonding. Mechanical fasteners can
be used on magnesium, provided that stress concentrations are held to a safe
minimum. Only ductile aluminum rivets should be used, preferably alloy 5056-H32, to
minimize galvanic-corrosion failure at riveted joints.
Specification: Magnesium alloys are designated by a system established by the ASTM
that covers both chemical compositions and tempers.
The first two letters of the designation identifies the two alloying elements specified in
the greatest amount. The letters are arranged in order of decreasing percentages or
alphabetically if the elements are present in equal amounts. The letters are followed by
respective percentages rounded off to whole numbers, followed by a final serial letter.
The serial letter indicates some variation in composition of minor alloying constituents or
impurities.
The letters that designate the more common magnesium alloying elements are
A -- Aluminum
E -- Rare earths
H -- Thorium
K -- Zirconium
L -- Lithium
M -- Manganese
Q -- Silver
S -- Silicon
Z -- Zinc

For example, magnesium alloy AZ31B contains 3% aluminum (code letter A) and 1%
zinc (code letter Z).
Resisting corrosion: A problem with magnesium has been its lack of sufficient corrosion
resistance for many applications, particularly in the alloys used for die and sand casting.
The problem has been solved by the two major supplies, Dow and AMAX; both have
developed corrosion-resistant, high-purity AZ91 alloys for die casting, and both also
offer a sand-casting grade.
The die-casting grade is now designated by ASTM as AZ91D and will, for all practical
purposes, replace AZ91B. The sand-casting grade received the designation AZ91E
from ASTM. The high-purity alloys are said to be as much as 100 times more corrosion
resistant than standard magnesium alloys, and more resistant to saltwater than die-cast
380 aluminum alloy or cold-rolled steel, tested according to ASTM B117. Research in
magnesium metallurgy has shown that the ability of magnesium to resist corrosion in a
service environment of salt-laden air or spray depends heavily on keeping contaminants
(iron, nickel, copper) below their maximum tolerance limits during all production
operations.
The high-purity magnesium die-casting alloy has already replaced other metals as well
as a number of plastics in a variety of U.S. passenger-car and lightweight-truck
components. Examples include valve and timing-gear covers, brackets, clutch and
transfer-case housings, grille panels, headlamp doors, windshield-wiper motor
housings, and various interior trim parts.

Nickel
Structural applications that require specific corrosion resistance or elevated temperature
strength receive the necessary properties from nickel and its alloys. Some nickel alloys
are among the toughest structural materials known. When compared to steel, other
nickel alloys have ultrahigh strength, high proportional limits, and high moduli of
elasticity. Commercially pure nickel has good electrical, magnetic, and magnetostrictive
properties.
Common nickel alloy families include: commercially pure nickel; binary systems, such
as Ni-Cu, Ni-Si, and Ni-Mo; ternary systems, such as Ni-Cr-Fe and Ni-Cr-Mo; more
complex systems, such as Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo-Cu (with other possible additions); and
superalloys. Nickel content throughout the alloy families ranges from 32.5 to 99.5%.
At cryogenic temperatures, nickel alloys are strong and ductile. Several nickel-base
superalloys are specified for high-strength applications at temperatures to 2,000°F.
High-carbon nickel-base casting alloys are commonly used at moderate stresses above
2,200°F.
Alloy characteristics: Commercial nickel and nickel alloys are available in a wide range
of wrought and cast grades; however, considerably fewer casting grades are available.
Wrought alloys tend to be better known by tradenames such as Monel, Hastelloy,
Inconel, Incoloy, etc. Casting alloys are identified by Alloy Casting Institute and ASTM
designations. Wrought and cast nickel alloys are often used together in systems built up
from wrought and cast components. The casting alloys contain additional elements,
such as silicon and manganese, to improve castability and pressure tightness.
Commercially pure nickels and extrahigh nickel alloys: Primary wrought materials in this
group are Nickel 200 and 201, both of which contain 99.5% Ni. The cast grade,
designated CZ-100, is recommended for use at temperatures above 600°F because its
lower carbon content prevents graphitization and attendant ductility loss. Both wrought
grades are particularly resistant to caustics, high-temperature halogens and hydrogen
halides, and salts other than oxidizing halides. These alloys are particularly well suited
for food-contact applications.
Duranickel 301, a precipitation-hardened, 94% nickel alloy, has excellent spring
properties to 600°F. During thermal treatment, Ni3AlTi particles precipitate throughout
the matrix. This action enhances alloy strength. Corrosion resistance is similar to that of
commercially pure wrought nickel.
Binary nickel alloys: The primary wrought alloys in this category are the Ni-Cu grades
known as Monel alloy 400 (Ni-31.SCu) and K-500 (Ni-29.SCu), which also contain small
amounts of Al, Fe, and Ti. The Ni-Cu alloys differ from Nickel 200 and 201 because
their strength and hardness can be increased by age hardening. Although the Ni-Cu
alloys share many of the corrosion characteristics of commercially pure nickel, their
resistance to sulfuric and hydrofluoric acids and brine is better. Handling of waters,
including seawater and brackish water, is a major application. Monel alloys 400 and K-
500 are immune to chloride-ion stress-corrosion cracking, which is often considered in
their selection.
Other commercially important binary nickel compositions are Ni-Mo and Ni-Si. One
binary type, Hastelloy alloy B-2 (Ni-28Mo), offers superior resistance to hydrochloric
acid, aluminum-chloride catalysts, and other strongly reducing chemicals. It also has
excellent high-temperature strength in inert atmospheres and vacuum.
Cast nickel-copper alloys comprise a low and high silicon grade. M-35-1 and QQ-N-288,
Grades A and E (1.5% Si), are commonly used in conjunction with wrought nickel-
copper in pumps, valves, and fittings. A higher silicon grade, QQ-N-288, Grade B (3.5%
Si), is used for rotating parts and wear rings because it combines corrosion resistance
with high strength and wear resistance. Grade D (4.0% Si) offers exceptional galling
resistance.
Two other binary cast alloys are ACI N-12M-1 and N-12M-2. These Ni-Mo alloys are
commonly used for handling hydrochloric acid in all concentrations at temperatures up
to the boiling point. These alloys are produced commercially under the tradenames
Hastelloy alloy B and Chlorimet 2.
Ternary nickel alloys: Two primary wrought and cast compositions are Ni-Cr-Fe and Ni-
Cr-Mo. Ni-Cr-Fe is known commercially as Haynes alloys 214 and 556, Inconel alloy
600, and Incoloy alloy 800. Haynes new alloy No. 214 (Ni-16Cr-2.5Fe-4.5Al-Y) has
excellent resistance to oxidation to 2,200°F, and resists carburizing and chlorine-
contaminated atmospheres. Haynes patented alloy No. 556 (Fe-20Ni-22Cr-18Co)
combines effective resistance to sulfidizing, carburizing, and chlorine-bearing
environments with good oxidation resistance, fabricability and high-temperature
strength. Inconel alloy 600 (Ni-15.5Cr-8Fe) has good resistance to oxidizing and
reducing environments. Intended for severely corrosive conditions at elevated
temperatures, Incoloy 800 (Ni-46Fe-21Cr) has good resistance to oxidation and
carburization at elevated temperatures, and it resists sulfur attack, internal oxidation,
scaling, and corrosion in many atmospheres.
A cast Ni-Cr-Fe alloy CY-40, known as Inconel, has higher carbon, Mn, and Si contents
than the corresponding wrought grade. In the as-cast condition, the alloy is insensitive
to the type of intergranular attack encountered in as-cast or sensitized stainless steels.
Significant additions of molybdenum make Ni-Cr-Mo alloys highly resistant to pitting.
They retain high strength and oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures, but they
are used in the chemical industry primarily for their resistance to a wide variety of
aqueous corrosives. In many applications, these alloys are considered the only
materials capable of withstanding the severe corrosion conditions encountered.
In this group, the primary commercial materials are C-276, Hastelloy alloy C-22, and
Inconel alloy 625. Hastelloy alloy C-22 (Ni-22Cr-13Mo-3W-3Fe) has better overall
corrosion resistance and versatility than any other Ni-Cr-Mo alloy. Alloy C-276 (57Ni-
15.5Cr-16Mo) has excellent resistance to strong oxidizing and reducing corrosives,
acids, and chlorine-contaminated hydrocarbons. Alloy C-276 is also one of the few
materials that withstands the corrosive effects of wet chlorine gas, hypochlorite, and
chlorine dioxide. Hastelloy alloy C-22, the newest alloy in this group, has outstanding
resistance to pitting, crevice corrosion, and stress-corrosion cracking. Present
applications include the pulp and paper industry, various pickling acid processes, and
production of pesticides and various agrichemicals.
Two grades of cast Ni-Cr-Mo alloys, ACI CW-12M-1 and CW-12M-2, are used in severe
corrosion service, often involving combinations of acids at elevated temperatures. The
two versions of CW-12M are also produced as Hastelloy C and Chlorimet.
Complex alloys: Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo-Cu is the basic composition in this category of nickel
alloys. They offer good resistance to pitting, intergranular corrosion, chloride-ion stress-
corrosion cracking, and general corrosion in a wide range of oxidizing and reducing
environments. These alloys are frequently used in applications involving sulfuric and
phosphoric acids.
Important commercial grades include Hastelloy alloys G-30 and H, Haynes alloy No.
230, Inconel alloys 617, 625, and 718, and Incoloy alloy 825.
Haynes alloy No. 230 (Ni-22Cr-14W-2Mo) has excellent high-temperature strength,
oxidation resistance, and thermal stability, making it suitable for various applications in
the aerospace, airframe, nuclear, and chemical-process industries.
Hastelloy alloy G-30 (Ni-30Cr-6Mo-2.5W-15Fe) has many advantages over other
metallic and nonmetallic materials in handling phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, and
oxidizing acid mixtures. Hastelloy alloy H (Ni-22Cr-9Mo-2W-18Fe) is a patented alloy
with localized corrosion resistance equivalent or better to alloy 625. Alloy H also has
good resistance to hot acids and excellent resistance to stress-corrosion cracking. It is
often used in flue gas desulfurization equipment.
Inconel alloy 617 (Ni-22Cr-12.5Co-9Mo-1.5Fe-1.2Al) resists cyclic oxidation at 2,000°F,
and has good stress-rupture properties above 1,800°F.
Inconel alloy 625 (Ni-21.5Cr-2.5Fe-9Mo-3.6Nb+Ta) has high strength and toughness
from cryogenic temperatures to 1,800°F, good oxidation resistance, exceptional fatigue
strength, and good resistance to many corrosives. Furnace mufflers, electronic parts,
chemical and food-processing equipment, and heat-treating equipment are among a
few of the many applications for alloy 615.
Inconel alloy 718 (Ni-18.5Fe-19Cr-3Mo-5Nb+Ta) has excellent strength from -423 to
1,300°F. The alloy is age hardenable, can be welded in the fully aged condition, and
has excellent oxidation resistance up to 1,800°F.
Incoloy 825 (42Ni-30Fe-21.5Cr-3Mo-2.25Cu) offers excellent resistance to a wide
variety of corrosives. It resists pitting and intergranular corrosion, reducing acids, and
oxidizing chemicals. Applications include pickling-tank heaters and hooks, spent
nuclear-fuel-element recovery, chemical-tank trailers, evaporators, food-processing
equipment, sour-well tubing, hydrofluoric-acid production, pollution-control equipment,
and radioactive-waste systems.
Superalloys: One class of Ni-based superalloys is strengthened by intermetallic
compound precipitation in a face-centered cubic matrix. The strengthening precipitate is
gamma prime, typified by Waspaloy (Ni-19.5Cr-13.5Co-4.3Mo-3.0Ti-1.4Al-2.0Fe),
Udimet 700 (Ni-15Cr-18.5Co-5Mo-3.4Ti-4.3Al-<1fe), and the modern but complex Rene
95 (Ni-14Cr-8Co-3.5Mo-3.5W-3.5Nb-2.5Ti-3.5Al).
Another type of Ni-based superalloy is represented by Hastelloy alloy X (Ni-22Fe-9Mo-
22Cr-1.5Co). This alloy is essentially solid-solution strengthened, but probably also
derives some strengthening from carbide precipitation through a working-plus-aging
schedule.
A third class includes oxide-dispersion-strengthened (ODS) alloys such as IN MA-754
(Ni-20Cr-0.6yttria) and IN MA-6000 (Ni-15Cr-2Mo-4W-2.5Ti-4.5Al), which are
strengthened by dispersions such as yttria coupled (in some cases) with gamma prime
precipitation (MA-6000).
Nickel-based superalloys are used in cast and wrought forms, although special
processing (powder metallurgy/isothermal forging) often is used to produce wrought
versions of the more highly alloyed compositions (U-700, Astroloy, IN-100).
An additional dimension of Ni-based superalloys has been the introduction of grain-
aspect ratio and orientation as a means of controlling properties. In some instances,
grain boundaries have been removed. Wrought powder-metallurgy alloys of the ODS
class and cast alloys such as MAR M-247 have demonstrated property improvements
due to grain morphology control by directional crystallization or solidification. Virtually all
uses of the cast and wrought nickel-base superalloys are for gas-turbine components.
Fabrication: Most wrought-nickel alloys can be hot and cold worked, machined, and
welded successfully. The casting alloys can be machined or ground, and many can be
welded and brazed.
Nearly any shape that can be forged in steel can also be forged in nickel and nickel
alloys. However, because nickel work hardens easily, severe cold-forming operations
require frequent intermediate annealing to restore soft temper. Annealed cold-rolled
sheet, not stretcher leveled, is best for spinning and other manual work. In general,
cold-drawn rods machine much more cleanly and readily than hot-rolled or annealed
material.
Nickel alloys can be joined by shielded metal-arc, gas tungsten-arc, gas metal-arc,
plasma-arc, electron-beam, oxyacetylene, and resistance welding; silver and bronze
brazing; and soft soldering. Resistance welding methods include spot, seam, projection,
and flash welding.
Special nickel alloys, including superalloys, are best worked at about 1,800 to 2,200°F.
In the annealed condition, these alloys can be cold worked by all standard methods.
Required forces and rate of work hardening are intermediate between those of mild
steel and Type 304 stainless steel. These alloys work harden to a greater extent than
the austenitic stainless steels, so they require more intermediate annealing steps.
Both cold-worked and hot-worked Ni-Cu require thermal treatment to develop optimum
ductility and to minimize distortion during subsequent machining. Stress relieving before
machining is recommended to minimize distortion after metal removal. Stress equalizing
of cold-worked Cu-Ni increases yield strength without marked effects on other
properties.
Many Hastelloy alloys can be upset forged if the length of the piece is no greater than
twice its diameter. However, upsetting should never be attempted on a cast ingot. Cast
ingots must be reduced at least 75% before hot upsetting.
Most wrought nickel-based alloys can be formed from sheet into complex shapes
involving considerable plastic flow. These alloys are processed in the annealed
condition.

Refractory Metals
Refractory metals are characterized by their extremely high melting points, which range
well above those of iron, cobalt, and nickel. They are used in demanding applications
requiring high-temperature strength and corrosion resistance. The most extensively
used of these metals are tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum, and columbium (niobium).
They are mutually soluble and form solid-solution alloys with each other in any
proportion. These four refractory metals and their alloys are available in mill forms as
well as products such as screws, bolts, studs, and tubing.
Although the melting points of these metals are all well above 4,000°F, they oxidize at
much lower temperatures. Accelerated oxidation in air occurs at 190°C for tungsten,
395°C for molybdenum, and 425°C for tantalum and columbium. Therefore, protective
coatings must be applied to these metals if they are to be used at higher temperatures.
Tensile and yield strengths of the refractory metals are substantially retained at high
temperature.
Columbium and tantalum: These metals are usually considered together because most
of their working characteristics are similar. They can be fabricated by most conventional
methods at room temperature. Heavy sections for forging can be heated, without
protection, to approximately 425°C.
Out of several commercial-grade tantalum alloys, those containing tungsten,
columbium, and molybdenum generally retain the corrosion resistance of tantalum and
provide higher mechanical properties. Columbium is also available in alloys containing
tantalum, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, hafnium, zirconium, or carbon. Alloys
provide improved tensile, yield, and creep properties, particularly in the 1,100 to
1,650°C range.
Most sheet-metal fabrication of columbium and tantalum is done in the thickness range
of 0.004 to 0.060 in. Columbium, like tantalum, can be welded to itself and to certain
other metals by resistance welding, tungsten inert-gas (TIG) welding, and to itself by
inert-gas arc welding. Electron-beam welding can also be used, particularly for joining to
other metals. However, surfaces that are heated above 315°C during welding must be
protected with an inert gas to prevent embrittlement.
Principal applications for tantalum are in capacitor anodes, filaments, gettering devices,
chemical-process equipment, and high-temperature aerospace engine components.
Columbium is used in superconducting materials, thin-film substrates, electrical
contacts, heat sinks, and as an alloying addition in steels and superalloys.
Molybdenum: Probably the most versatile of the refractory metals, molybdenum is also
a natural resource of the United States. It is an excellent structural material for
applications requiring high strength and rigidity at temperatures to 3,000°F where it can
operate in vacuum or under inert or reducing atmospheres.
Unalloyed molybdenum and its principal alloy, TZM, are produced by powder-metallurgy
methods and by vacuum-arc melting. Both are commercially available in ordinary mill
product forms: forging billets, bars, rods, wire, seamless tubing, plate, strip, and thin foil.
Compared to unalloyed molybdenum, the TZM alloy (Mo-0.5%Ti-0.1%Zr) develops
higher strength at room temperature and much higher stress-rupture and creep
properties at all elevated temperatures. At 1,800 to 2,000°F, TZM can sustain a 30,000-
psi stress for over 100 hr, three times that for unalloyed molybdenum.
Molybdenum and TZM are readily machined with conventional tools. Sheet can be
processed by punching, stamping, spinning, and deep drawing. Some parts can be
forged to shape. Molybdenum wire and powder can be flame sprayed onto steel
substrates to salvage worn parts or to produce long-wearing, low-friction surfaces for
tools.
In nonoxidizing environments, the metal resists attack by hydrochloric, hydrofluoric,
sulfuric, and phosphoric acids. Molybdenum oxidizes at high temperatures to produce
volatile, nontoxic, molybdenum trioxide; however, parts such as gimbled nozzles have
been used successfully in rocket and missile-guidance systems when exposure time to
the very-high temperatures of ballistic gases was brief.
Molybdenum parts can be welded by inertia, resistance, and spot methods in air; by TIG
and MIG welding under inert atmospheres; and by electron-beam welding in vacuum.
The best welds are produced by inertia (friction) welding and electron-beam welding;
welds produced by the other techniques are less ductile. Generally, arc-cast metal
develops better welds than do powder-metallurgy products. Heavy sections of
molybdenum should be preheated and postheated when they are welded to reduce
thermal stresses.
Because molybdenum has a modulus of elasticity of 47 × 106 psi at room temperature, it
is used for boring bars and the quills for high-speed internal grinders to avoid vibration
and chatter. Its relatively high electrical conductivity makes unalloyed molybdenum
useful for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in the manufacture of
incandescent lamps, as substrates in solid-state electronic devices, as electrodes for
EDM equipment and for melting glass, and as heating elements and reflectors or
radiation shields for high-temperature vacuum furnaces.
Because it retains usable strength at elevated temperatures, has a low coefficient of
thermal expansion, and resists erosion by molten metals, the TZM alloy is used for
cores in die casting of aluminum, and for die cavities in casting of brass, bronze, and
even stainless steel. Dies of the TZM alloy weighing several thousand pounds are used
for isothermal forging of superalloy components for aircraft gas turbines, and die inserts
made of TZM have been used for extruding steel shapes. Piercer points of TZM are
used to produce stainless-steel seamless tubing.
Tungsten: In many respects, tungsten is similar to molybdenum. The two metals have
about the same electrical conductivity and resistivity, coefficient of thermal expansion,
and about the same resistance to corrosion by mineral acids. Both have high strength at
temperatures above 2,000°F, but because the melting point of tungsten is higher, it
retains significant strength at higher temperatures than molybdenum does. The elastic
modulus for tungsten is about 25% higher than that of molybdenum, and its density is
almost twice that of molybdenum. All commercial unalloyed tungsten is produced by
powder-metallurgy methods; it is available as rod, wire, plate, sheet, and some forged
shapes. For some special applications, vacuum-arc-melted tungsten can be produced,
but it is expensive and limited to relatively small sections.
Several tungsten alloys are produced by liquid-phase sintering of compacts of tungsten
powder with binders of nickel-copper, iron-nickel, iron-copper, or nickel-cobalt-
molybdenum combinations; tungsten usually comprises 85 to 95% of the alloy by
weight. These alloys are often identified as heavy metals or machinable tungsten alloys.
In compact forms, the alloys can be machined by turning, drilling, boring, milling, and
shaping; they are not available in mill product forms because they are unable to be
wrought at any temperature.
The heavy-metal alloys are especially useful for aircraft counterbalances and as weights
in gyratory compasses. Heavy-metal inserts are used as the cores of high-mass military
projectiles. Tungsten alloys are widely used for counterbalances in sports equipment
such as golf clubs and tennis racquets. X-ray shielding is another important application
of the tungsten alloys.
Filaments for incandescent lamps are usually coils of very fine unalloyed tungsten wire.
Electronic tubes are often constructed with tungsten as the heaters; some advanced
tubes use heaters made from a tungsten alloy containing 3% rhenium. A thermocouple
rated to 4,350°F consists of one tungsten wire alloyed with 25% rhenium and another
wire alloyed with 5% rhenium.
Nozzle throats of forged and machined unalloyed tungsten have been used in solid-fuel
rocket engines; at one time, throats were machined from porous consolidations of
tungsten powder that were infiltrated with silver for exposure to gases at temperatures
near 3,500°C. Unalloyed tungsten is used for X-ray targets, for filaments in vacuum-
metallizing furnaces, and for electrical contacts such as the distributor points in
automotive ignition systems. Tungsten electrodes form the basis for TIG welding.
Water-cooled tungsten tips are used for nonconsumable electrode vacuum-arc melting
of alloys.
Cutting tools and parts that must resist severe abrasion are often made of tungsten
carbide. Tungsten-carbide chips or inserts, with the cutting edges ground, are attached
to the bodies of steel tools by brazing or by screws. The higher cutting speeds and
longer tool life made feasible by the use of tungsten-carbide tools are such that the
inserts are discarded after one use. Tungsten-carbide dies have been used for many
years for drawing wire. Inserts of tungsten carbide are used in rotary bits for drilling oil
and gas wells and in mining operations. Fused tungsten carbide is applied to the
surfaces of mining machinery that is subjected to severe wear.

Titanium
Depending on the predominant phase or phases in their microstructure, titanium alloys
are categorized as alpha, alpha-beta, and beta. This natural grouping not only reflects
basic titanium production metallurgy, but it also indicates general properties peculiar to
each type. The alpha phase in pure titanium is characterized by a hexagonal close-
packed crystalline structure that remains stable from room temperature to approximately
1,620°F. The beta phase in pure titanium has a body-centered cubic structure, and is
stable from approximately 1,620°F to the melting point of about 3,040°F.
Adding alloying elements to titanium provides a wide range of physical and mechanical
properties. Certain alloying additions, notably aluminum, tend to stabilize the alpha
phase; that is, they raise the temperature at which the alloy will be transformed
completely to the beta phase. This temperature is known as the beta-transus
temperature.
Alloying additions such as chromium, columbium, copper, iron, manganese,
molybdenum, tantalum, and vanadium stabilize the beta phase by lowering the
temperature of transformation from alpha to beta. Some elements, notably tin and
zirconium, behave as neutral solutes in titanium and have little effect on the
transformation temperature, acting instead as strengtheners of the alpha phase.
Alpha alloys: The single-phase and near-single-phase alpha alloys of titanium have
good weldability. The generally high aluminum content of this group of alloys ensures
good strength characteristics and oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures (in the
range of 600 to 1,100°F). Alpha alloys cannot be heat treated to develop higher
mechanical properties because they are single-phase alloys.
Alpha-beta alloys: The addition of controlled amounts of beta-stabilizing alloying
elements causes the beta phase to persist below the beta transus temperature, down to
room temperature, resulting in a two-phase system. These two-phase titanium alloys
can be strengthened significantly by heat treatment consisting of a quench from some
temperature in the alpha-beta range, followed by an aging cycle at a somewhat lower
temperature. Beta-phase transformation, which would normally occur on slow cooling, is
suppressed by the quenching. The aging cycle causes the precipitation of some fine
alpha particles from the metastable beta, imparting a structure that is stronger than the
annealed alpha-beta structure. Although heat-treated alpha-beta alloys are stronger
than the alpha alloys, their ductility is proportionally lower.
Beta alloys: The high percentage of beta-stabilizing elements in these alloys results in
a microstructure that is substantially beta. The metastable beta can be strengthened
considerably by heat treatment.
Titanium is used in corrosive environments or in applications that require light weight,
high strength-to-weight ratio, and nonmagnetic properties. While commercially available
in many alloys, most requirements can be met by a grade of commercially pure titanium,
titanium-0.2% palladium alloy, or by the high-strength Ti-Al-V-Cr (beta type) alloys.
These grades, which are available in most common wrought mill forms, are covered by
ASTM-AMS specifications and, in most cases, by a similar ASME specification.
Beta-21S is a new beta alloy developed as an oxidation-resistant aerospace material
and as a matrix for metal-matrix composites. Composition is Ti-15Mo-2.7Nb-3Al-0.2Si,
with molybdenum and niobium working synergistically to raise corrosion resistance to
very high levels. It also offers one of the lowest hydrogen uptake efficiency levels of any
titanium alloy. The combination of high strength and high corrosion resistance make it
an ideal candidate for orthopedic implants, deep sour oil wells, and geothermal brine
wells.
Like stainless steel, titanium sheet and plate work harden significantly during forming.
Minimum bend-radius rules are nearly the same for both, although springback is greater
for titanium. Commercially pure grades of heavy plate are cold formed or, for more
severe shapes, warm formed at temperatures to about 800°F. Alloy grades can be
formed at temperatures as high as 1,400°F in inert-gas atmospheres. Tube can be cold
bent to radii three times the tube OD, provided that both inside and outside surfaces of
the bend are in tension at the point of bending. In some cases, tighter bends can be
made.
Despite their high strength, some alloys of titanium have superplastic characteristics in
the range of 1,500 to 1,700°F. The alloy used for most superplastically formed parts is
the standard Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Several aircraft manufacturers are producing components
formed by this method. Some applications involve assembly by diffusion bonding.
Titanium plates or sheets can be sheared, punched, or perforated on standard
equipment. Titanium and Ti-Pd alloy plates can be sheared subject to equipment
limitations similar to those for stainless steel. The harder alloys are more difficult to
shear, so thickness limitations are generally about two-third those for stainless steel.
Titanium and its alloys can be machined and abrasive ground; however, sharp tools and
continuous feed are required to prevent work hardening. Tapping is difficult because the
metal galls. Coarse threads should be used where possible.
Titanium castings can be produced by investment or graphite-mold methods. Casting
must be done in a vacuum furnace, however, because of the highly reactive nature of
titanium in the presence of oxygen. Typical applications for titanium castings are
surgical implants and hardware for marine and chemical equipment such as
compressors and valve bodies.
Generally, titanium is welded by gas-tungsten arc (GTA) or plasma-arc techniques.
Metal inert-gas processes can be used under special conditions. Thorough cleaning and
shielding are essential because molten titanium reacts with nitrogen, oxygen, and
hydrogen, and will dissolve large quantities of these gases, which embrittles the metal.
In all other respects, GTA welding of titanium is similar to that of stainless steel.
Normally, a sound weld appears bright silver with no discoloration on the surface or
along the heat-affected zone.

Zirconium
In addition to resisting HCl at all concentrations and at temperatures above the boiling
temperature, zirconium and its alloys also have excellent resistance in sulfuric acid at
temperatures above boiling and concentrations to 70%. Corrosion rate in nitric acid is
less than 1 mil/year at temperatures above boiling and concentrations to 90%. The
metals also resist most organics such as acetic acid and acetic anhydride as well as
citric, lactic, tartaric, oxalic, tannic, and chlorinated organic acids.
Relatively few metals besides zirconium can be used in chemical processes requiring
alternate contact with strong acids and alkalis. However, zirconium has no resistance to
hydrofluoric acid and is rapidly attacked, even at very low concentrations.
Zirconium alloys can be machined by conventional methods, but they have a tendency
to gall and work harden during machining. Consequently, tools with higher than normal
clearance angles are needed to penetrate previously work-hardened surfaces. Results
can be satisfactory, however, with cemented carbide or high-speed steel tools. Carbide
tools usually provide better finishes and higher productivity.
Mill products are available in four principal grades: 702, 704, 705, and 706. These
metals can be formed, bent, and punched on standard shop equipment with a few
modifications and special techniques. Grades 702 (unalloyed) and 704 (Zr-Sn-Cr-Fe
alloy) sheet and strip can be bent on conventional press-brake or roll-forming equipment
to a 5t bend radius at room temperature and to 3t at 200°C. Grades 705 and 706 (Zr-Cb
alloys) can be bent to a 3t and 2.5t radius at room temperature and to about 1.5t at
200°C.
Zirconium has better weldability than some of the more common construction metals
including some alloy steels and aluminum alloys. Low distortion during welding stems
from a low coefficient of thermal expansion. Zirconium is most commonly welded by the
gas-tungsten arc (GTAW) method, but other methods can also be used, including gas
metal-arc (GMAW), plasma-arc, electron-beam, and resistance welding.
Welding zirconium requires proper shielding because of the metal's reactivity to gases
at welding temperatures. Welding without proper shielding (argon or helium) causes
absorption of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen from the atmosphere, resulting in brittle
welds. Although a clean, bright weld results from the use of a proper shielding system,
discoloration of a weld is not necessarily an indication of its unacceptability. However,
white deposits or a black color in the weld area are not acceptable. A bend test is
usually the best way to determine acceptability of a zirconium weld.
Major uses for zirconium and its alloys are as a construction material in the chemical-
processing industry. Applications include heat exchangers (for producing hydrogen
peroxide, rayon, etc.), drying columns, pipe and fittings, pump and valve housings, and
reactor vessels.