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The harmonic oscillator with damping

Definition: Summary:
• body of mass m attached to spring with spring The equation of motion is
constant k is released from position x0 (measured
from equilibrium position) with velocity v0; d 2 x(t) dx(t)
2 + 2β + ω20 x(t) = 0
• resistance due to friction F res = − bv , b = non- dt dt ,
negative constant (possibly zero) where
x(t)
b k
• β= and ω0 = .
2m m
There are three distinct kinds of motion:
Prerequisites: • β<ω0 : underdamped
• fundamentals of Newtonian mechanics • β=ω0 : critically damped
• t h e simple harmonic oscillator without resis- • β>ω0 : overdamped
tance Go to derivation.

Why study it?


• a very simple dynamical system with an exact
solution in closed form;
• occurs frequently in everyday applications Go to Java™ applet
In an earlier section, we studied the simple har- to allow the door to close in the least amount of
monic oscillator. Our example was an ideal time without slamming. Here is a movie illus-
spring with no damping force - no friction trating these three cases.
between the body and the track. Now let’s see Now let’s see how well our intuition holds up.
what happens when we relax this restriction, and Adding up the forces on the body and using
include a resistive force of the form Newton’s second law, we find
Fres = –bv ,
ma(t) = − kx(t) − bv(t) ,
where b is a positive constant and v is the where the first term on the right-hand side is the
velocity. (We considered such a force in another restoring force due to the spring, and the second
context in a previous section.) is the damping force due to friction. Rearranging,
First, we try to picture what will happen. The we find the differential equation
resistive force will act to slow the motion down, d 2 x(t) b dx(t)
and the amplitude of the oscillation will 2 + + ω20 x(t) = 0 ,
continually decrease. We might expect this dt m dt
decrease to be exponential, based on our earlier where ω0 = k / m is the natural freqency of the
experience with this form of resistive force. oscillator.
We might also expect there to be several cases, It takes some inspiration to solve this equation.
depending on the amount of damping. Imagine a The standard trick is to try a solution of the form
screen door which is released from its open
position. If the damper is worn out and doesn’t exp(αt) ,
provide enough damping, the door will slam shut. because this function just reproduces itself when
(If the door frame were not there, the door would differentiated. The value of the constant α is
oscillate back and forth a few times before determined by plugging this form back into the
stopping.) differential equation. We find
If the damper is really stiff, the door might take b
too long to shut, letting in all kinds of bugs. (α2 + α + ω 20 ) exp(α t) = 0 ,
m
Somewhere in between these two cases will be a
case where the damping is just the right amount which can only be true for all t if the first factor
is zero. Using the quadratic equation, we find
åä βx 0 + v 0 ìë
b äåå b 2 ë
1/2 x(t) = exp á − βt é åååå x 0 cos ω1 t + sin ω1 t ìììì
α=– ± åå 2 – ω20 ìììì . ã ω1 í .
2m ã 4m í
We will make the following shorthand notation: A second case occurs when

β≡
b
. 2) β=ω0 (“critically damped”)
2m In this case, there is only one value of α:
There will be three cases, depending on the size α = –ω0 .
of β (the amount of damping).
1) β<ω0 (“underdamped”) The solution is the limit of the underdamped case
as ω1 goes to zero:
This is the case of small damping. The
argument of the square root in α is negative, so α x(t) = exp á –βt é á x 0 + á βx 0 + v 0 é t é
can have either of the two complex values
α = –β ± i ω20 – β2 , The linear dependence on t is characteristic of the
case in which the two possible values of α are
where i2 =–1. (If you are weak on complex equal.
numbers, now would be the time to review.) As a
shorthand, we will write 3) β>ω0 (“overdamped”)
In this case, there are again two values of α, this
ω1 = ω –β
2
0
2
time both real:
.
α = –β ± β2 – ω20 .
One of the basic results of complex analysis is
that exp(iω 1 ) = cos ω1 + i sin ω1. Hence, our As a shorthand, we will write
solutions are linear combinations of the functions
exp á –βt é cos ω1 t and exp á –βt é sin ω1 t . ω2 = β 2 – ω20
.
The solution is easily found to be
The solution is size of β:

äå βx 0 + v 0 ëì
x(t) = exp á − βt é åååå x 0 cosh ω 2 t + sinh ω2 t ìììì
ã ω2 í

where cosh and sinh are hyperbolic functions. t


The following plot shows typical curves for each
of the three cases, all with the same x0 and with β
v0=0:
Damping: Here is a movie illustrating the three kinds of
damping.
critical
over
under 2. Damped, driven oscillator
under
You may recall our earlier treatment of the driv-
en harmonic oscillator with no damping. We
t found that if the driving frequency is equal to the
natural frequency of the system, then the
amplitude becomes arbitrarily large as time goes
on.
We see that the motion is a decaying oscillation This is unphysical, however. In practice,there is
in the underdamped case; the amplitude decays always some damping present. As the velocity
according to the envelope exp(–βt). We see that becomes larger, this damping leads to greater and
equilibrium is approached fastest for the greater energy loss from the system, as we
critically damped case, hence its name. discussed earlier. As time goes on, the rate of
energy lost due to damping balances the energy
Here is a three-dimensional plot showing how the gained due to the external driving force, and a
three cases go into one another depending on the steady-state oscillation is achieved.
Let’s see how this is reflected in the
2βω
mathematics. Newton’s law now reads tan δ =
ω20 − ω2 .
d 2 x(t) dx(t)
m 2 +b + k x(t) = F 0 cos (ω t) .
dt dt
(The quantity ω21 = ω20 − β2 was defined earlier.)
The solution is quite messy, but otherwise These are very important equations, and it is
straightforward. It can be arranged into the sum worth spending some time studying their
of two pieces, one of which is proportional to properties (rather than deriving them).
exp(–βt) and the other of which is not. The
former goes away as time becomes large, and is The amplitude of the steady-state solution is
therefore called a transient. We will ignore this F0
piece. A(ω) = .
m (ω2 − ω2R )2 + 4β2 ω21
The other piece, the steady-state solution, is the
one we are interested in. It is easy to show by For the moment, let’s regard the damping β as
direct substitution into the differential equation fixed and the driving frequency ω as variable.
that it is given by The denominator of A(ω) is smallest when the
driving frequency is equal to the resonant
F0 frequency. So A(ω) itself is a maximum for that
xs(t) = cos(ωt − δ) value of ω. This is called resonance. (In the last
m (ω2 − ω2R ) 2 + 4β2 ω21 , section, we found resonance at ω = ω0 when no
damping is present. This agrees with our present
where the resonant frequency is given by formula for the resonant frequency, when β=0.)
Looking at our formula for the resonant
ωR = ω20 − 2β2 frequency, we see that the resonance effect only
occurs when ω0 > 2 β, and we restrict ourselves
and the phase satisfies to this case.
If we plot the amplitude of the steady-state
solution versus ω, we get a curve with a peak at
the resonant frequency. The next diagram shows Now let’s plot δ, the phase by which the steady-
several such curves, each for a different value of state solution lags behind the driving force.
the damping constant β.
δ

0101010101010101010101

1001
0101
0101
0101
0101
0101
0101
0101
01
π
A(ω)

decreasing
damping β π/2

ω0 ω ω0 ω

The height and width of the peak are controlled (The curves have the same color as their partners
mainly by the value of β. The height of the peak in the previous plot.)
is We see that there is always a delay between the
F0 action of the driving force and the response of the
,
2mω 1 β system. When the system is being forced at its
natural frequency ω0 , the phase lag is π/2. You
and its width is proportional to might be familiar with this if you have ever
played on a swingset. You can increase your
2ω 1 β .
amplitude the fastest by leaning back right at the
The smaller the damping β, the higher and bottom of your swing, one-quarter cycle behind
narrower the peak gets, and the closer the your maximum amplitude.
resonant frequency gets to the natural frequency If the driving frequency is much smaller than the
ω0. natural frequency, the driving force and the
response are in phase. This makes sense,
because the system can adjust itself to match the
slow driving force. On the other hand, if the
driving frequency is much higher than the natural
frequency, the driving force and the response are
out of phase (phase lag π).

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