Safety in pressure
testing
This guidance is issued by the Health and Safety Executive.
Following the guidance is not compulsory and you are free
to take other action. But if you do follow the guidance you
will normally be doing enough to comply with the law.
Health and safety inspectors seek to secure compliance
with the law and may refer to this guidance as illustrating
good practice.
INTRODUCTION
1 This guidance note gives advice to employers,
managers and supervisors of pressure testing
teams/operators and self-employed persons. It provides
guidance on how pressure testing can be safely carried
out by means of risk assessment, a safe system of work
and suitable precautions. Its technical appendix gives
advice on the design of protective barriers if there is a risk
of pressure equipment rupture or detachment of a
component while under test.
2 The appendix to this guidance note is based upon a
research report commissioned by HSE and published as
HSE Contract Research Report No CRRI 68 Pressure test
safety. Its reference is given in ‘Further information’ at the
end of this note. The report was prepared by G Saville and
S M Richardson, Imperial College of Science, Technology
and Medicine and B J .%illerne de Bristowe, BJS
Research. Its 165 pages describe, in detail, a method for
the quantification of the hazards associated with the
conduct of pressure tests and with the sizing of protective
barriers to prevent injury. It will be particularly useful to
pressure testing sub-contractors and organisations
specializing in the design and construction of barriers to
contain blast and fragments.
DEFINITIONS
3 In this document the term ‘pressure equipment’ means
a pressure vessel, pipework, systems comprising one or
more pressure vessels and associated pipework, and any
other container of pressure, that need to be pressure tested.
Guidance Notes are published under five
subject headings:
Medical
Environmental Hygiene
Chemical Safety
Plant and Machinery
General
4 Pressure equipment is normally pressure or leak
tested after manufacture, repair or modification. It may
also need to be periodically pressure tested as part of a
routine inspection regime.
5 The term ‘pressure test’ in this document includes
the following:
(a) Proof pressure test: this is carried out when the
required thickness of all the pressure parts has not
been accurately calculated or is in doubt. Its
objective is to demonstrate the integrity of the
pressure equipment. Proof pressure testing should
only be carried out hydraulically and the pressure
applied gradually until the specified test pressure is
reached or until significant yielding of any part of the
pressure equipment occurs. A method to determine
significant yield is contained in British Standard
5500:1997, amended 1998 Specification for unfired
fusion- welded pressure vessels.
(b) Standard pressure test: this test is used when the
required thickness of all pressure parts has been
calculated. Its objective is to prove the quality of
materials used and the construction of the pressure
equipment before it enters or re-enters service. This
test is carried out at a specified pressure above the
design pressure, typically 1.25 to 1.5 times the
design pressure.
(c) Leak test: this test may be carried out at a pressure
not exceeding 10 Y. of the design pressure on
pressure equipment which has not been subjected
to a standard pressure test. It may also be
 performed at a higher pressure, not exceeding 11OO/.
of the design pressure, on pressure equipment which
has satisfactorily passed the standard pressure test.
(d) Functional test: this test is carried out using a
suitable test medium at design pressure, or working
pressure if this is lower, to check that the pressure
equipment and its components function properly. It
may include the actuation of moveable parts, such
as the opening and closing of valves.
Hydraulic and pneumatic testing
6 Although pressure testing using a liquid as the
pressurizing medium (usually referred to as hydraulic
testing) is not without risks, it is by far the safer method
and should be used wherever practicable. Pressure
testing using air, steam or gas as the pressurizing
medium (usually referred to as pneumatic testing) is
potentially more dangerous because of the higher energy
levels involved. For example, the energy released during
a total failure of pressure equipment containing
compressed air at pressures frequently used in pressure
testing is more than 200 times the energy released by the
same volume of water compressed to the same pressure,
7 Pneumatic testing should only be carried out when
hydraulic testing is not practicable, for instance where the
interior of the pressure equipment will be contaminated by
the hydraulic test medium, or when the pressure
equipment supports and/or foundations are not capable of
supporting the weight of the equipment filled with the
medium.
8 A pneumatic leak test within the limitations set out
in paragraph 5(c) above can be used to find small but
significant leaks, especially in equipment which will
contain flammable gases and/or fluids.
RISK ASSESSMENT
9 The first step to take before carrying out any
pressure test is to perform a risk assessment of the
operation. Risk assessment guides the judgement of the
employer or the self-employed person as to the measures
they need to take to carry out their legal obligations when
pressure testing. It relies on the identification of all
relevant hazards and dangers, and consists of an
estimation of the risks arising from them with a view to
their control or avoidance, For further guidance on risk
assessment see the relevant HSE publications listed in
‘Further information’ at the end of this document.
10 As pressure testing is sometimes undertaken by
specialist sub-contractors there is a need for co-operation
and co-ordination between them and the pressure
equipment manufacturer and/or owner to ensure that all
risks are taken into account.
11 A risk assessment will indicate the extent and
content of the safe system of work that needs to be in
place before any pressure testing is carried out. A safe
system of work is necessary to ensure the safety of
testing personnel and other people in the vicinity,
including the general public.
12 The assessment should also indicate whether or not
pressure equipment needs to be placed behind a barrier
when it is tested, bearing in mind that pressure equipment
pneumatically tested will contain considerably more energy
than the same equipment subject to hydraulic testing.
Hazards
13 The main hazard when pressure testing is the
unintentional release of stored energy. In the case of
pneumatic testing this can lead to a blast wave and
missiles. However in the case of hydraulic testing, blast
has little energy and it can be assumed that all expansion
energy goes into missile energy.
14 The hazards presented by the compressibility,
flammability and toxicity of the testing medium should also
be considered.
Stored energy
15 Risk assessment of pressure testing activities
should take account of the energy stored in the pressure
equipment being tested and dangers arising when this
stored energy is suddenly and unintentionally released,
creating blast waves and missiles. The release of stored
energy can be due to:
(a) rupture of pressure equipment due to brittle
fracture;
(b) rupture of pressure equipment due to ductile
fracture;
(c) detachment or removal of blanking plates and their
clamps/attachment bolts, screwed plugs, isolation
valves etc;
(d) detachment of temporary welds on plugs, at pipe
ends and nozzles.
16 Calculation of the stored compressed energy in the
pressure equipment will indicate the extent of possible
blast and missile formation if it ruptures or if components
become detached under test pressure, Formulae for
calculating stored energy in gas and liquid filled systems
are shown in the appendix to this document. Further
detailed information is available in HSE Contract
Research Repotl No CRR168 Pressure test safety.
Blast and its effects
17 Blast and its effects on structures are briefly
described in the appendix, The Research Report
Pressure test safety reviews the physics of blast wave
formation, discusses the response of structures to
dynamic loads imposed by blast waves and missiles and
gives some worked examples.
Missile formation
18 The appendix describes how the mass, size, shape
and speed of each fragment can be determined. It also
gives formulae for calculating the thickness of
containment walls. Fuller explanations and worked
examples are contained in Pressure test safety.
19 Possible modes of failure and hence fragment size
should be the subject of discussions between the
manager/supervisor of the pressure testing team /operators
and the pressure equipment designer. In situations where
pressure tests are carried out by sub-contractors they
should obtain sufficient information from the designer and
manufacturer for this assessment to be made.
Brittle fracture
20 The risk of rupture of the pressure equipment due to
brittle fracture under the test conditions should be
assessed at the design stage. This may affect the choice
of materials of construction and the temperature at which
tests will be carried out.
SAFE SYSTEM OF WORK
21 A risk assessment should indicate the extent and
content of the safe system of work that needs to be in
place before any pressure testing is carried out.
Permit-to-work system
22 An important element of this safe system will be the
written permit-to-work system. This should require:
(a) Recorded positive verification by a competent
person that safe working conditions are in place
before each pressure test commences.
(b) Recorded authorisation by a competent person that
the pressure equipment is isolated from pressure
sources, fully de-pressurised and vented (or, if
justified by a risk assessment, to any other safe
level) before dismantling of the pressure equipment,
its components or any remedial work takes place.
Training
23 The safe system of work should also require that all
persons involved in pressure/leak testing are adequately
and properly trained.
Written testing instructions and procedures
24 Written testing instructions should be available
which include procedures for pressurising, de-
pressurisation and venting. These should be drawn up by
a competent person. Any changes in the instructions or
procedures should be agreed in writing with the
competent person. The instructions should define:
(a) the test pressure, the test duration and testing
medium to be used;
(b) where the testing medium supply line is to be
attached to the pressure equipment;
(c) the position and specification of safety valves and
pressure gauges;
(d) the position of isolation valves; and
(e) the sequence for opening vent valves when more
than one venting position is to be used.
25 If appropriate, an up-to-date piping and
instrumentation drawing showing the position of all
isolation valves, safety valves, non return valves, pressure
gauges, testing medium supply points, vent valves and
blanking plates should accompany these instructions.
26 Tables may also be needed as a checklist to show if
valves are in the normally open or normally closed
condition during pressurisation and de-pressurisation. This
should ensure that when the pressure equipment is handed
back for subsequent remedial or other work there is no
residual pressure left in it. Any reference to the checking of
valves should include remotely operated valves.
27 Depending upon the complexity of the pressure
equipment under test, the system of work should include
the following requirements:
(a) the dimensions of the designated test area,
including minimum safe distances from the pressure
equipment under test;
(b) the designated test area should be isolated as a no
go area and testing should not start until all persons
are in a safe place;
(c) only those persons essential for the operation of the
test equipment should be allowed in the vicinity of
the test after pressurisation has begun;
(d) checks to ensure that all test equipment used
during the test is capable of withstanding the full
test pressure;
(d) the pressure should be applied gradually or increased
by steps of approximately 10O/.until the required test
pressure is reached. It maybe necessary to record
test pressure at suitable intervals;
(e) pressure equipment at pressure should not be
approached for close examination until a
reasonable period of time has elapsed. The
pressure at which it can be approached for close
examination should be specified in the testing
procedure. For the safety of testing personnel it
may be necessary to consider remote viewing
procedures rather than close physical examination;
(f) unauthorised persons should not be allowed to
approach the pressure equipment until it has been
de-pressurised and vented; and
(9) the pressure should be recorded after the
equipment has been isolated from its pressure
source and de-pressurisation/venting has been
completed. This will indicate if there are any
instances of re-pressurisation or failure to de-
pressurise and vent before any work on the
equipment takes place.
Venting
28 There should be sufficient venting positions to
prevent the testing medium being trapped behind non-
return valves, in dead legs or between isolation valves.
Instruction should be provided on how the pressure
equipment can be safely tested and vented in discrete
3
sections, if this is the intended method of testing. Where
the section under test terminates at a valve it should not
be possible for pressure to build up inside an adjacent
closed section if this valve leaks.
29 Before remedial or other work is to be carried out on
the pressure equipment it should be vented and the
pressure testing medium supply line disconnected. If it is
unreasonable to disconnect the supply line then the
isolation valve should be locked in the closed position.
Clamps and bolts
30 Clamps or bolts on bolted flanges must not be
loosened or tightened while the pressure equipment is
under pressure. The pressure equipment should be
isolated from pressure sources, de-pressurised and
vented before clamps or bolts are adjusted or removed,
31 Clamps should be fitted and tightened in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommended
procedures. Flanged joints should be fitted with the
appropriate bolts and gaskets and tightened in
accordance with written procedures.
Test equipment
32 Pressure gauges should be fitted at or near each
venting and pressurizing medium supply point where they
can easily be seen by the operator. Further pressure
gauges should be incorporated to detect any residual
pressure if there is a risk that pressurizing medium can be
trapped by check valves and similar equipment.
33 All pressure gauges used for pressure testing
should be compared regularly with a calibrated gauge and
records of the comparison kept. Any gauges used during
the test should have a current certificate of calibration.
34 It may also be necessaty to provide temperature
gauges to check the testing medium temperature, if this is
a relevant factor.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS FOR PRESSURE TEST
35 Care should be taken not to over-stress the
pressure equipment during the test. Test pressures
should be limited to ensure that the weakest part is not
subjected to stresses greater than those specified in the
appropriate standard or code,
36 Pressure equipment should not be subjected to any
form of shock loading when under pressure.
37 To avoid brittle fracture the temperature of the
medium entering the pressure equipment should not be
lower than the test temperature stated in the testing
procedure.
Evaluation and inspection prior to test
38 To minimise the risk of failure while under test, the
pressure equipment should be evaluated and inspected
before it is tested, The evaluation should include
consideration of the design criteria, material specification
and construction methods. The inspection may need to
include visual and other non-destructive testing (NDT)
methods to ensure that there are no significant defects
which could lead to failure during the test.
39 Special attention should be given to the testing of
pressure equipment which has been refurbished or repaired
after a period of service. Such equipment may have been
subjected to cyclic loading and/or corrosive environments.
NDT maybe necessary before the test to ensure that metal
thickness meets specified design requirements and that
there are no significant defects which may lead to failure
during the test. Repair records should also be checked to
ensure that any repairs were correctly carried out.
Protection against blast waves and missiles
40 Protection against blast waves and rocketing
fragments can be provided by placing the pressure
equipment behind a suitable barrier or in a properly designed
pit, Formulae to calculate the thickness of barriers are shown
in the appendix but more detailed information is given in
HSE Contract Research Report Pressure test safety
Safety valves
41 Safety valves of adequate size and marked with the
set pressure should be installed in or close to the test
supply line to prevent the test pressure being exceeded. It
should not be possible to isolate these valves from the
testing medium pressure. It is vital that safety valves are
supplied and maintained in proper working order. They
should be regularly stripped, cleaned and examined, and
the set pressure checked before re-use.
Flexible pipes
42 Flexible pipes and their connections should be
regularly examined to reduce the risk of them bursting or
coming apart, Safety restraints should be attached so as
to prevent flexible pipes flailing about in the event of them
coming apart.
Personal protection
43 There is a risk of injury from particles of dirt and
high velocity jets ejected during a hydraulic test at high
pressure. A much greater risk exists during a pneumatic
test. Personal protection including eye protection should
be provided and used by persons working within the
pressure test facility.
PNEUMATIC TESTING PRECAUTIONS
44 Where possible, steps should be taken to reduce to a
minimum the internal volume of pressure equipment to be
pneumatically tested e.g. by means of non-compressible
material. This will reduce the amount of energy stored and
so reduce the consequences of a rupture. it may be
possible to isolate sections of the equipment and test them
separately, followed by re-assembly and leak testing.
Large pressure systems
45 If the risk assessment of a pressure test indicates
the pressure equipment should be placed behind barriers
but it is too large or heavy to do so, then any persons in
the test danger zone, including nearby buildings, public 53
roads or open areas, should be kept clear until the test is
over. It may be possible to carry out this test at night (a)
when it will cause the least disruption to the general public
and normal production.
Safeguards should be provided which ensure that:
the equipment is completely immersed to its
specified depth while the standard pressure test is
being carried out, and

Flow regulation (b) access into the designated danger zone is

prevented.
46 The testing medium pressure should be controlled
by reducing valves and flow control valves. 54 Close observation of the equipment for leaks should
only be permitted under the following conditions:
Test temperature
(a) when the leak test pressure is less than or equal to
47 Local chilling during filling and emptying of the 10% of the design pressure, or
equipment when pneumatically testing can lead to brittle
fracture. This risk should be minimised by avoiding (b) after a successful standard pressure test, when the
sudden changes in flow rate across inlet and exhaust leak test pressure does not exceed the design
control valves or nozzles, pressure.

HYDRAULIC TESTING PRECAUTIONS 55 It is recommended that the water temperature and

depth be controlled.
48 Pressure equipment being hydraulically tested
should be totally filled with liquid and properly vented to
exclude air pockets. In some cases the equipment may be FURTHER INFORMATION FROM HSE BOOKS
so constructed that it cannot be fully flooded for a hydraulic
test and the stored energy of the trapped air or gas creates Permits-to-work in the chemica/ industry INDG 98 (free
a hazard, In these circumstances precautions suitable for leaflet)
pneumatic testing should be considered.
Guidance on permit-to-work systems in the petroleum
49 The effect on the test pressure of static head of industry HSE Books 1997 ISBN O 71761281 3
hydraulic test medium should be considered and taken
into account if necessary. Guide to risk assessment requirements: common
provisions in hea/th and safety/awINDG218 (single
50 To avoid ice damage to the pressure equipment copies free; ISBN O 71761211 2 for priced packs of five
when hydraulically testing with water, the temperature copies)
during the test should not be less than 7“C. Heating may
need to be provided when there is a risk of the water 5 steps to risk assessment INDG 163 (single copies free;
freezing. ISBN O 717609049 for priced packs of ten copies)

UNDERWATER PNEUMATIC TESTING Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations

7992 Approved Code of Practice L21 HSE Books 1992
51 Underwater pneumatic testing is often used to ISBN O 717604128
combine a standard pressure test with a leak test for
small, batch-produced pressure equipment. HSE Contract Research Report Pressure test safety
CRR168 HSE Books 1998 ISBN 0717615421
52 The test tank should be properly designed and
tested to withstand any sudden release of pressure The future availability and accuracy of the references
safely. Deep immersion of pressure equipment in water listed in this publication cannot be guaranteed,
will not provide enough protection if the test tank is
incapable of withstanding the hydraulic shock of a
pressure release.

5
APPENDIX
SAFETY IN PRESSURE TESTING
1 Introduction
All types of equipment which operate at pressures above
ambient need to be tested in order to check that they
function correctly and, more importantly, that they are safe
to use. All pressure testing has the potential for failure of
the pressure system, and an assessment of both the risk
and consequences of failure is essential.
A recent report, commissioned by HSE, has considered
the procedures needed to carry out pressure testing
safely. It includes comprehensive advice on calculation of
stored energy, assessment of fragment size and velocity,
assessment of blast and the shielding needed to contain
both fragments and blast. The report is Saville G et al
Pressure test safety. 1
(b) use of empirical equations based on
thermodynamic data;
(c) assume the gas is an ideal or perfect gas; and/or
(d) use the pressure-volume product.
These are listed in order of preference and are discussed
in more detail below:
(a) For real gases, Table 2 in Pressure test safety
provides a list of pure substances for which
thermodynamic properties are available in tabular or
chart form. A bibliography of the known sources of
these data is also provided along with guidance on
how it should be used. For convenience, these are
included here as Table 1. The references will be
found at the end of this annex.
Table 1 Pure substances for which the thermodynamic
properties are available in tabular or chart form

This guidance is based on the above report and provides Substance Reference No (see paqe 11)
information on how to:
Acetylene (6)(llk)(19)
Ammonia (6)(17) (18a)(19)
(a) assess the amount of energy stored in a Argon (2)(6)(17)(21 )(23)(30)
pressurised system; Benzene (111)(33)
I- Butane (l)llf)(19)
(b) assess the potential for fragment generation and n - Butane (1)(1 ld)(l 7)(19)
missiles; and 1 - Butane (5)(llj)(19)
Carbon dioxide (2)(4)(5)(6)(1 7)(18b)(19)(20)
(c) assess the thickness of materials needed to contain Carbon monoxide (2)(6) (13)( 18c)(19)
Carbon tetrafluoride (17)
a pressure system failure.
Cyclopropane (27)
n - Decane (1)
An important general point is that the amount of energy
Dichlorodifluoromethane (17)
stored in gas-filled systems is always considerably higher
Dichloromonofluoromethane (17)
than in liquid-filled systems at the same pressure. The use of Dichlorotetrafluoroethane (17)
liquid as a pressurizing medium is always the safer option. Ethane (l)(6) (llb)(17)(19)(29)
Ethylene (3)(6)(1 1h)(l 7)(1 9)(35)
2 Stored energy Helium (7)(1 0)(17)(32)
n - Hexane (llg)(19)
Total system energy for a pressurised system will be the n - Hydrogen (2)(15) (17)( 18d)(19)
p - Hydrogen (12)(17)
sum of the fluid expansion energy, the strain energy in the
Hydrogen sulphide (5)
vessel and any chemically released energy. The release
Methane (1)(6)(8)(1 1a)(17)(l 9)(24)(28)
of chemical energy can normally be avoided by choosing
Methyl chloride (17)
a suitable test fluid and is not considered here. Strain Monochlorodifluoromethane (17)
energy is normally low by comparison with other energy Monochlorotrifluoromethane (17)
sources, especially in gas-filled systems. This annex Neon (16)(17)
therefore concentrates on fluid expansion energy. Neopentane (33)
Nitrogen (l)(6) (9)(17) (18e)(19)(23)
In estimating energy release it is normal to assume that Nitrous oxide (17)
the fluid expansion process is thermodynamically n - Nonane (5)
reversible and sufficiently rapid for heat transfer to the Oxygen (2)(17) (18f)(19)(23)(25) (31)
n - Pentane (l)(lle)(19)
surroundings to be negligible. The expansion is, therefore,
Perfluorocyclobutane (14)
isentropic and we can assume that the expansion energy,
Propane (1)(6 )(11c)(17)(19)
Ex, the change in internal energy of the closed system, Propylene (5)(1 1i)(17)(19)
AU, and the work done on the system, W, are of equal Sulphur dioxide (17)( 18g)(19)
magnitude ie Trichloromonofluromethane (17)
Trichlorotrifluroethane (17)
EX= -AU =-W Water (2)(1 8h)(19)(22)(26)

Gas-filled systems (b) For many substances, thermodynamic data can be

represented by equations of state which can be
For gas-filled systems the following methods can be used used, with other thermodynamic relationships, to
for estimating internal energy: calculate expansion energy. Reviews of those in
current use can be found in Reid et al (1987)2 and
(a) use of experimental data on fluid expansion; Sandier (1994 ).3 Computer software is also
 Fluid expansion energy (MJn13 ) 7
Fluid expansion energy (MJm-3 )
z“
NJ w
0 .
0

.................

, .,, , .,...{...

u ,...:,,. ...... .
?s
m
0)
5:
ma

~ ,. .,.. . ., ...:...,.
~

..:.
m
0
0
g
0-
0 W
-1

Fluid expansion energy (MJm-3 )

T
0 -.
N a 4 in
0 m 0 m 0
h!
0 t 1 I I I

1
,.. , :.

I I ,,
0
 available which will perform isothermal and
isentropic expansion calculations for a wide range
of substances and mixtures. Their proper use,
however, requires a knowledge of thermodynamic
and fluid properties. In the case of nitrogen, Saville
et al have evaluated fluid expansion energy from
the IUPAC equations of state (Angus et al, 19794).
Figures 1 and 2 are the resulting plots of fluid
expansion energy against pressure.
(c) We assume an ideal (perfect) gas for which
pV = nRT where p =
system pressure (Pa)
V =
internal volume (m3)
produced. Where substances have had their pVT
properties measured to very high pressures, it is possible
to develop an equation of state to represent the pVT
properties of the liquid. This has been done for water and
a small number of other common substances. Saville et
al have used these to produce the plots of fluid expansion
energy against pressure shown here at Figures 3 and 4.
For liquid-filled systems, it maybe necessary to take
account of strain energy, for example, when the
pressurizing liquid has low compressibility. Strain energy
Es for a cylindrical vessel can be calculated from

[3(1-2V)+N
2
n =
amount of fluid (mol)
R =
universal gas constant
(8.314 J/K.mol)
T = absolute temperature (“K)
where E is the Young’s modulus of the vessel
The energy released on expansion depends upon the material (Pa)
thermodynamic path taken during expansion: v is Poisson’s ratio for the vessel
material
for isothermal expansion, Ex = pi Vi In (pf /pi) K is the ratio of outside to internal
y-l diameter of the vessel
for isentropic expansion, Ex=+pi Vi (fi)~ -1
Pj Examples
[1

Saville et al provide a number of examples of the use of

where pf = final pressure (Pa), pi = initial pressure (Pa) the methods summarised here for estimating stored
Vi = initial volume (m3), y = ratio of heat energy.
capacities c~cv
3 Fragmentation

In practice, no expansion is either completely reversible or
entirely adiabatic and the real thermodynamic pathway
will lie between the two. Isothermal expansion has been
recommended by some authors as conservative.
However, no real gas obeys the perfect gas equation and
the effect of these imperfections can produce greater
errors than the error involved in the assumptions about
the expansion process.
When a pressure system fails, accident statistics suggest
that every conceivable type of failure can occur, with the
most common being the loss of plugs or closures and
failure of the vessel itself, usually at welded seams.
Although brittle failure of the vessel should not occur if
pressure vessels are manufactured from the correct
materials, it can be used to provide an upper band to
fragment speed and is recommended for that reason.

(d) If all else fails, it is possible to use the pressure-
volume product as a measure of expansion energy.
Although simple, it does significantly underestimate
expansion energy in most cases because it ignores
the nature of the gas and the type of expansion
process. If it must be used we recommend a safety
factor of 1.5 for all pressures <50 MPa (500 bar) ie
Ex =qpV whereq = 1.5
Liquid filled systems
Conservative values for the expansion energy of a liquid
can be produced using the equation
Failure due to brittle fracture
Experimental work suggests it is reasonable to assume
that, for gas-filled systems, 400/. of the expansion energy
goes into fragment energy and 600/0 into blast. For liquid-
filled systems, blast has little comparative energy and it
should be assumed that all expansion energy goes into
fragment energy. An upper band to fragment speed can
be obtained by setting the total energy available (E) equal
to the kinetic energy of the whole vessel ie
E=+ m V2 where m is the vessel mass (kg)
V is initial fra ment
speed (m/s7

AU =~V kt (pf2 - pi2) This speed can then be used for the main vessel
fragments. Where additional mass is present, due to
features such as flanges etc, the kinetic energy of the
where kt is the isothermal compressibility which can be fragment will be the same as that of the area of vessel
found from pVT data. which it replaces. As a result of the increase in mass,
therefore, the fragment velocity will be reduced.
More accurate calculations are possible but are complex.
Pressure test safetyl gives further advice on how more As a working procedure, we consider it reasonable to
accurate estimates of expansion energy of liquids can be assume that fragments will be between 1Y. and 20% of
the shell area and that identifiable features will be ejected Reinforced concrete
intact eg end caps, closures, manhole covers, nozzles.
The mass, size, shape and speed of each fragment will The following formulae are recommended:
need to be determined.
2.55 X 10-9 KNMVr8
G(x/d) =
Failure due to ductile fracture d 2.8

For ductile fracture, failure modes need to be identified by where G(x,@ = (x/2d)z if G(tid) s 1(ie
inspection by assuming fracture along lines of weakness G@@ = (id) -1 if G(x/cf) 2 I(ie.
such as welds. The force on the ejected fragment should
be calculated from the pressure-area product and a 1500
K=-
period of acceleration assumed to take place until the ~: 5

fragment is clear by a distance equal to the diameter of

the hole it leaves behind. The fragment speed (V) can be
~c= ultimate compressive strength of
calculated from concrete (Pa)
N= 0.72 for flat-nosed missiles
2dpiA
v2=— where d = diameter of hole left 0.84 for blunt-nosed missiles
mf 1.00 for hemispherical-nosed missiles
behind (m)
A = area of ejected 1.14 for sharp-nosed missiles
fragment (r+’)
M= mass of missile (kg)
mf = mass of fragment (kg)
v= speed of missile (m/s)
d= diameter of missile (m)
x= depth of penetration into an infinitely
Alternatively the fragment speed can be calculated on the
thick concrete block (m)
assumption that it is given all the energy in the vessel,
using
Perforation thickness is then calculated from
E= ~mV2
t/d = 3.19 (M@ -0.718 (x& fortid s 1.35
ffd = 1.32 + 1.24 (X/d) for xJd 21.35
The lower velocity from these two methods should be
used for calculating containment thicknesses.
The scabbing thickness, the thickness which first resists
scabbing, is calculated from
For small fragments such as plugs and small closures, it
should be assumed that d= twice the diameter of the hole
left behind. sld = 7.91 (xld) -5,06 (x@F for tid 50,65
s/d= 2.12 +1.36 (x/dj for X/d 20.65
4 Containment of fragments
Use s for a plain reinforced wall. If a scab plate is used,
This advice on containment results from a review of clata on the thickness of concrete can be reduced tot.
missile penetration of targets. The advice produced is
Po/ycarbonate
considered relevant for fragments with speeds of less than
500 m/s, a speed rarely exceeded by fragments produced
by pressure vessel failures. Formulae for thickness of Using typical values for bulk modulus (K) = 4 x 10g Pa
Young’s modulus (E)= 2,4 x 109 Pa
containment walls are generally empirical and those
Yield strength (oY) = 100 x IOG Pa
presented produce the best fit to existing experimental data.
ultimate shear
Formulae are for perforation, that is, the missile or fragment
appears on the non-input side of the target but does not strength (Tu) =65x 10GPa
completely go through the target and continue on its way,
we can use t = 1.61#A (V—: In(l + b+))
Mild steel

The following formula is recommended: t = target thickness

b = 0.25 (Kp)05
t= 4.9 x 10-7 (M Vp) 0GG7 a =2 z,, In (2z)
d
where

t = thickness of containment for 5070 perforation

‘= (+)’(1+29”
M = missile mass (kg)
(m)
A = presented area of missile fragment (mz)
M= mass of missile (kg)
V = speed of missile (m/s)
V= speed of missile (m/s)
p = density of target material (kg/ins)
d = diameter of missile (m)

A safety factor of 1,25 is recommended in order to stop [See Figure 3.11 in Pressure test safety]
perforation of all missiles and, since the formula
underestimates thickness for the thinnest shields, a
minimum thickness of 3 mm is recommended.
soil
For compact missiles with a length to diameter ratio of
1:1, the following formula is recommended:
x = 0.4S Moss In (1 + 5.4 x 10-4 V2)
where x = soil penetration (m)
S = soil parameter (0.5 for sand, 10 for
average soil, 2.0 for soft soil)
M = mass of missile (kg)
V = speed of missile (m/s)
An alternative formula for missiles with length to diameter
ratio >10 is included in Pressure test safety.
Examples
Again, Saville et al provide examples of how fragment
size and velocity can be assessed and of how
containment thicknesssess can be calculated for common
containment materials.
5 Blast and its effect on structures
In comparison with the behaviour of missiles, our
knowledge of blast waves is very limited. Most of the
information available is for military explosives and for
chemical explosions such as gas explosions. In order to
assess the damage caused by a failed pressure vessel, it
is assumed that the blast from a ruptured pressure vessel
is the same as the blast caused by the detonation of the
amount of TNT which will release the same energy ie 1kg
of TNT is equivalent to a stored energy of 4.5 MJ.
Although blast can largely be avoided by using liquid as
the test medium rather than gas, the impact of missiles on
protective walls has a blast-like effect and consideration
of blast should still be made.
Saville et al review the physics of blast formation and how
this has been used to develop relationships to predict
blast effects from known data. For explosives and
chemical explosions, this has been used to estimate safe
distances from explosions and distances to which debris
might be propelled. Factors which may need to be taken
into account include:
(a) reflection of blast waves from unyielding surfaces;
(b) energy yield magnification due to reflection of blast
waves from the ground or from internal surfaces of
a blast chamber; and
(c) geometric effects due to local failure of a pressure
vessel or due to the position of the vessel being
non-central within a blast chamber.
Test chambers
For internal blasts within a test chamber, experimental
work using charges of 5kg TNT has been carried out to
produce pressure-time histories which have been
approximated by a simple model. It is possible to use this
approach to estimate the impulse load taken by the test
chamber from the peak pressure and impulse received by
the cubicle walls during the initial shocks. For totally
enclosed chambers it is necessary to add on the pressure
load and impulse due to the released gas. If the chamber
is fully vented, for example with one wall completely open,
then the addition of the pressure and impulse loads due to
the released gas is not necessary.
Saville et al provide references for charts from which
shock loading on chambers can be determined and
describe a method for estimating the gas pressure loading
for unvented chambers. Additionally they provide a simple
method for estimating the blast-like effect of missile
impact. An example is given of how this approach can be
used to calculate peak pressures and impulse loads.
Structural response to blast
Blast from an explosion damages a structure by causing it
to deform. Damage is most likely when the period of the
blast impulse is close to the natural vibration period of the
structure. If the blast impulse period is long compared to
the natural period, the structure can be considered to be
loaded quasi-statically. In this case the displacement of
the structure is related solely to the peak force produced
by the blast and the stiffness of the structure. If the blast
impulse period is short when compared to the natural
period, the blast load will be over before the structure has
moved. This is known as impulsive loading. Where the
blast impulse period is close to the natural period,
deflection will be between the static and impulsive cases
and it will be necessary to solve equations of motion
numerically to obtain the response of the structure.
It is clearly important that damage assessment is not
based on the peak blast pressure alone; if loading is
impulsive rather than quasi-static then severe over-
estimation of damage could result,
Saville et al show how the blast response of structures
made from flat plates, including steel and concrete, can
be represented as a pressure impulse diagram so that the
pressure-impulse combinations which result in structural
deformation can be predicted, Example calculations are
given for representative structures,
REFERENCES 17 Am. Sot. of Heating, Refrig. and Air Cond.
Engineers Thermodynamic properties of refrigerants
1 Saville G et al Pressure test safetyCRR168 HSE 1969
Books 1998 ISBN O 717615421
18 Canjar L N et al Hydrocarbon Processing and
2 Reid R C et al The properties of gases and liquids Petro/eum Refiner 196645 (a) (1) 135; (b) (1) 139;
4th ed McGraw-Hill 1987 (c) (2) 158; (d) (2) 161; (e) (3) 137; (f) (3) 143; (g) (4) 161;
(h) (4) 165
3 Sandier S I (Editor) Mode/s for thermodynamic and
phase equilibrium calculations Dekker 1994 19 Canjar L N and Manning F S Thermodynamic
properties and reduced correlations for gases Gulf
4 Angus S et al International thermodynamic tables of Publishing Company 1967
the fluid state - nitrogen Pergamon 1979
20 Vukalovich M P and Altunin V V Thermodynamic
REFERENCES FOR TABLE 1 IN CHRONOLOGICAL properties of carbon dioxide Collets 1968
ORDER
21 Gosman A L et al National standards reference data
Sage B H and Lacey W N API Research project 37 series NBS 271969
~monograph) American Petroleum Institute 1950
22 Keenan J H et al Steam tables - international
2 Hilsenrath J et al Circu/ar 564 American National edition in S/ units Wiley 1969
Bureau of Standards (ANBS) 1955
23 Vasserman A A and Rabinovich V A
3 Benzler H and Koch A V Chem. Ing. Tech. 195!52771 Thermophysical properties of liquid air and its properties
Israel Programme for Scientific Translations 1970
4 Cramer F Chem. /rig. Tech. 195527484
24 Zagoruchenko V A and Zhuravelev A M
5 Sage B H and Lacey W N API Research project 37 Thermophysical properties of gaseous and liquid methane
(monograph) American Petroleum Institute 1955 US Department of Commerce 1970

6 Din F Thermodynamic functions of gases VOIS1-3 25 Weber L A J Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 1970 74A 93
Butterworth 1956-61
26 UK steam tables in S1 units Arnold 1970
7 Mann D B and Stewart R B Technical note 8
ANBS 1959 27 Lin D C K et al JChem Eng Data 197116416

8 Edminster W C App/ied hydrocarbon 28 Starling K E Hydrocarbon processing 197150 (4)

thermodynamics Gulf Publishing Company 1961 139

9 Strobridge T R Technical note 129 ANBS 1962 29 Starling K E and Kwok Y C Hydrocarbon
processing 197150 (4) 140
10 Mann D B Technical note 154 ANBS 1962
30 Angus S and Armstrong B /nternationa/
11 Canjar L N et al Hydrocarbon Processing and thermodynamic tables of the fkiid state - argon 1971
Petro/eum Refiner (a) 196241 (9) 291; (b) (10) 149; Butterworth 1972
(c) (11) 203; (d) (12) 115; (e) 196342 (1) 129; (f) (8) 127;
(g) 196443 (6) 177; (h) 196544 (9) 219; (i) (10) 137; 31 Roder H M and Weber L A Oxygen technology
(j) (10) 141; (k) (11) 293; (1)(11) 297 survey VOI 1: ‘Thermophysical properties’ NASA 1972

12 Roder H M et al Monograph 94 ANBS 1963 32 McCarty R D Thermophysical properties of

13 Hurst J G and Stewarl R B Technics/ note 202
ANBS 1963
14 Harrison R H and Douslin D R
Perfluorocyclobutane: the thermodynamic properties of
the rea/ gas US Department of the Interior 1964
he/ium-4 Technical note 622 ANBS 1972
33 Thermodynamic properties of benzene Item number
73oo9 Engineering Sciences Data Unit 1973
34 Dawson P P and McKetta J J J .Chem. Errg. Data
19731876

15 Kubin R F and Presley L L SP 3002 Nat. Aero. 35 Angus S et al International thermodynamic tables
Space Admin. 1964 of the f/uid state - ethy/ene 1972 Butterworth 1974

16 McCarty R D and Stewart R B Advances in

thermodynamic properties at extreme temperatures and
pressures ASME 196584
OCrown copyright 1998
First published 1977
Second edition 1992
Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to: Copyright Unit,
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, St C/ements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ

All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. E6.00 net

MAIL ORDER HSE priced and free publications are available from. ISBN 0-7176 -1629-0
HSEBooks, PO Box 1999, Sudbury, Suffolk C0106FS Tel: O1787881165

El I1I III
Fax: 01787313995

ZE RETAIL HSEpriced publications areavailable from good booksellers

HSE HEALTH AND SAFETYENQUIRIES HSElnfoLine Tel: 0541 5455000r

write to: HSElnformation Centre, Broad Lane, Sheffield S37HQ
BOOKS l-lSEhomepageon theWorld WideWeb:
http: //w.open.gov uklhse/hsehome.htm 9 780717 616299