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Émile Durkheim (1858±1917) was the founder of academic sociology in France and a thinker
whose contribution to the social sciences, especially sociology and anthropology, continues
to be fundamental.Durkheim believed that everything was a function of society. Durkheim
was the first to look at religion on a social level. All the other explanations of religion were
based on individual experience and beliefs. He describes religion as what brings societies
together and gets them to focus on being a member of the group instead of an individual.
Durkheim defines religion as, ³a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred
things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.´ He also tells us that these practices,
³unite into one moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them.´ If we look
closely at what he is saying we see that he is explaining that religion¶s function is to unite
society and make it morally rich. For society to exist it must be united in some way, so it is a
social need. This is why Durkheim says that religion is a function of social need.


  

For Durkheim, the division into "sacred" and "profane" was necessary to understand religion.
The division of the world into two domains, one containing all that is sacred and the other all
that is profane²is the distinctive trait of religious beliefs.c "Religious beliefs are those
representations that express the nature of sacred things and the relations they have with other
sacred things or with profane things « rites are rules of conduct that prescribe how man must
conduct himself with sacred things". Sacred is always looked at in connection with whatever
may concern the community and the profane is looked at as ³the realm of private and
personal concern´. Profane is the everyday utilitarian activities. Sacred activities are
supposed to be done with reverence and not in a profane manner. Sacred is the area which
contains the extraordinary, mystical and holy.

  According to Durkheim sacred is was extra-ordinary potentially dangerous, awe-
inspiring, fear inducing. The sacred refers to things set apart by man including religious

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beliefs, rites, duties or anything socially defined as requiring special religious treatment. The
sacred has extra-ordinary, supernatural and often dangerous qualities and can usually be
approached only through some form of ritual such as prayer, incantation or ceremonial
cleansing. Almost anything can be sacred: a god, a rock, a cross, the moon, the earth, a king,
a tree, an animal or bird. These are sacred only because some community has marked them as
sacred. Once established as sacred however they become symbols of religious beliefs,
sentiments and practices. Sacred objects are symbols. Eating the totemic animal or plant is
usually forbidden and as a sacred object the totem is believed to have divine properties which
separate it completely from other animals or those crops that can be gathered and consumed.

D  The profane is the realm of routine experience .The profane or ordinary or unholy,
embraces those ideas, persons, practices and things that are regarded as common, utility and
familiar. Profane shouldn¶t come in contact with the sacred and it shouldn¶t be considered
important. The unholy or the profane is also believed to contaminate the holy or sacred. It is
the denial and subordination of the holy in some way. The attitudes and behaviour toward the
profane is charged with negative emotions and strong taboos.

 !" #

Hindu religion originated in India and is still practised by most of its inhabitants as well as
those whose families have migrated from India to other parts of the world. The word Hindu
was derived from the word µSindhu¶ (river- specifically the Indus). The Hindus define their
community as ³those who believe in the Vedas´ or ³those who follow the way (dharma) of
the four classes (Varnas) and stages of life (ashramas)´. Hinduism is a religion mostly based
on behaviour than on beliefs. There are different beliefs and practices among Hindus. But
there are usages observed by all Hindus; reverence for Brahmans, and cows; not eating meat
(especially beef) and marriage within the caste (jati) in the hope of producing male heirs.

Hinduism has an extraordinary ability to absorb foreign elements which has given it the
characteristics of a social and doctrinal system that extends to every aspects of human life. Inc
some ways Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world, or at least elements within it
stretch back many thousands of years. Yet Hinduism resists easy definition partly because of
the vast array of practices and beliefs found within it. It is also closely associated
conceptually and historically with the other Indian religions Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. c
Unlike most other religions, Hinduism has no single founder, no single scripture, and no
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commonly agreed set of teachings. Throughout its extensive history, there have been many
key figures teaching different philosophies and writing numerous holy books. For these
reasons, writers often refer to Hinduism as 'a way of life' or 'a family of religions' rather than
a single religion.





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c Hinduism originated around the Indus Valley near the River Indus in modern day Pakistan.
c About 80% of the Indian population regard themselves as Hindu.
c ost Hindus believe in a Supreme God, whose qualities and forms are represented by the
multitude of deities which emanate from him.
c Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, governed by Karma.
c Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next
incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived.
c The main Hindu texts are the Vedas and their supplements (books based on the Vedas).
Veda is a Sanskrit word meaning 'knowledge'. These scriptures do not mention the word
'Hindu' but many scriptures discuss dharma, which can be rendered as 'code of conduct',
'law', or 'duty'
c Hindus celebrate many holy days, but the Festival of Lights, Diwali is the best known.



%

?
 means 'eternal self'. The atman refers to the real self beyond ego or false self. It is
often referred to as 'spirit' or 'soul' and indicates our true self or essence which underlies our
existence.

There are many interesting perspectives on the self in Hinduism they see the self as eternal
servant of God to the self as being identified with God. The understanding of the self as
eternal, supports the idea of reincarnation. The idea of atman entails the idea that the self is a
spiritual being rather than a material one and thus there is a strong dimension of Hinduism
which emphasises detachment from the material world and promotes practices such as
asceticism. Hinduism says that in this world, a spiritual being, the atman, has a human
experience rather than a human being having a spiritual experience.




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` 
 is an important term in Indian religions. In Hinduism it means 'duty', 'virtue',
'morality', even 'religion' and it refers to the power which upholds the universe and society.
Hindus generally believe that dharma was revealed in the Vedas. Dharma is the power that
maintains society; it makes the grass grow, the sun shine, and makes us moral people or
rather gives humans the opportunity to act virtuously.

But acting virtuously does not mean precisely the same for everyone; different people have
different obligations and duties according to their age, gender, and social position. Dharma is
universal but it is also particular and operates within concrete circumstances. Each person in
Hinduism has their own dharma known as i  
. What is correct for a woman might
not be for a man or what is correct for an adult might not be for a child.

The importance of sva-dharma is illustrated in the Bhagavad Gita. Correct action in

accordance with dharma is also understood as service to humanity and to God. The idea of
what has become known as Santana dharma can be traced back to the i - texts of
antiquity. Those who adhere to this idea of one's eternal dharma or constitution, claim that it
transcends other mundane dharmas - that it is the   
, the ultimate dharma of the
self. It is often associated with bhakti movements, who link an attitude of eternal service to a
personal deity.



& 
An important idea that developed in classical Hinduism is that dharma refers especially to a
person's responsibility regarding class ( ) and stage of life (i 
). This is called
varnashrama-dharma. In Hindu history the highest class, the Brahmins, adhered to this
doctrine. The class system is a model or ideal of social order that first occurs in the oldest
Hindu text, the Rig Veda and the present-day caste (jati) system were rooted in this. The four
classes are:

c j
i or j

i - the intellectuals and the priestly class who perform religious
rituals

c >i  
 (nobles or warriors) - who traditionally had power

c A
i i (commoners or merchants) - ordinary people who produce, farm, trade and earn a
living

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c ë i (workers) - who traditionally served the higher classes, including labourers, artists,
musicians, and clerks

People in the top three classes are known as 'twice born' because they have been born from
the womb and secondly through initiation in which boys receive a sacred thread as a symbol
of their high status. The twice born traditionally could go through four stages of life or
ashramas. The ashrama system is as follows:

c j
 - 'celibate student' stage in which males learned the Veda

c !
i  - 'householder' in which the twice born male can experience the human purposes
(purushartha) of responsibility, wealth, and sexual pleasure

c Ai  - 'hermit' or 'wilderness dweller' in which the twice born male retires from life
in the world to take up pilgrimage and religious observances along with his wife

c ë
i - 'renunciation' in which the twice born gives up the world, takes on a saffron
robe or, in some sects, goes naked, with a bowl and a staff to seek
i  (liberation) or
develop devotion

>

 
>
 is a Sanskrit word which means 'action'. It refers to the law that every action has an
equal reaction either immediately or at some point in the future. Good or virtuous actions,
actions in harmony with dharma, will have good reactions or responses and bad actions,
actions against dharma, will have the opposite effect.

In Hinduism karma operates not only in this lifetime but across lifetimes: the results of an
action might only be experienced after the present life in a new life. Hindus believe that
human beings can create good or bad consequences for their actions and might reap the
rewards of action in this life, in a future human rebirth or reap the rewards of action in a
heavenly or hell realm in which the self is reborn for a period of time.

This process of reincarnation is called i
i, a continuous cycle in which the soul is
reborn over and over again according to the law of action and reaction. At death many
Hindus believe the soul is carried into a new physical body which can be a human or non-
human form (an animal or divine being). The goal of liberation (
i ) is to make us free
from this cycle of action and reaction, and from rebirth.

D  

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Hinduism developed a doctrine that life has different goals according to a person's stage of
life and position. These goals became codified in the 'goals of a person' or 'human goals', the
purusharthas, especially in sacred texts about dharma called 'dharma shastras' of which the
'Laws of anu' is the most famous. In these texts three goals of life are expressed, namely
virtuous living or dharma, profit or worldly success, and pleasure, especially sexual pleasure
as a married householder and more broadly aesthetic pleasure. A fourth goal of liberation
(moksha) was added at a later date. The purusharthas express an understanding of human
nature, that people have different desires and purposes.

Over the centuries there has been discussion about which goal was most important. Towards
the end of the ahabharata (Shantiparvan 12.167) there is a discussion about the relative
importance of the three goals of dharma, profit and pleasure between the Pandava brothers
and the wise sage Vidura. Vidura claims that dharma is most important because through it the
sages enter the absolute reality, on dharma the universe rests, and through dharma wealth is
acquired. One of the brothers, Arjuna, disagrees, claiming that dharma and pleasure rest on
profit. Another brother, Bhima, argues for pleasure or desire being the most important goal,
as only through desire have the sages attained liberation. This discussion recognises the
complexity and varied nature of human purposes and meanings in life.

 
'

Brahman:-
j
 is a Sanskrit word which refers to a transcendent power beyond the universe. It is
sometimes translated as 'God' although the two concepts are not identical. Brahman is the
power which upholds and supports everything. According to some Hindus this power is
identified with the self (
) ,while others regard it as diffrent from the self.

ost Hindus agree that Brahman pervades everything although they do not worship
Brahman. Some Hindus regard a particular deity or deities as manifestations of Brahman.

God:-
ost Hindus believe in God but what this means varies in different traditions. The Sanskrit
words j !  and i  mean 'Lord' or 'God' and indicate an absolute reality who
creates, sustains and destroys the universe over and over again. It is easy to define Hinduism
as belief in many gods or 'polytheism'. ost Hindus believe in a Supreme God, whose

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qualities and forms are represented by the multitude of deities. God, being unlimited, can
have unlimited forms and expressions.

God can be approached in a number of ways and a devoted person can relate to God as a
majestic king, as a parent figure, as a friend, as a child, as a beautiful woman, or even as a
ferocious Goddess. Each person can relate to God in his or her own way, the
i     or
desired form of God. Thus, one person might be drawn towards Shiva, another towards
Krishna, and another towards Kali. any Hindus believe that all the different deities are
aspects of a single power.

In the history of Hinduism, God is conceptualised in different ways, as an all knowing and all
pervading spirit, as the creator and force within all beings, their 'inner controller'
( 

). There are two main ideas about Bhagavan or Ishvara:

1.c Bhagavan is an impersonal energy. Followers of the Advaita Vedanta tradition (based
on the teachings of Adi Shankara) maintain that the soul and God are ultimately
identical and liberation is achieved once this has been realised. This teaching is called
non-dualism or advaita because it claims there is no distinction between the soul and
the ultimate reality.

2.c Bhagavan is a person. God can be understood as a supreme person with qualities of
love and compassion towards creatures. According to this view the soul remains
distinct from the Lord even in liberation. The supreme Lord expresses himself
through the many gods and goddesses. The theologian Ramanuja (also in the wider
Vedanta tradition as Shankara) makes a distinction between the essence of God and
his energies. We can know the energies of God but not his essence. Devotion ( 
)
is the best way to understand God in this teaching.

Hindus can be classified into the three most popular Hindu denominations, called

i in Sanskrit. These paramparas are defined by their attraction to a particular form
of God (called
i  or   ):

c Vaishnavas focus on Vishnu and his incarnations (  , avatars). The Vaishanavas
believe that God incarnates into the world in different forms such as Krishna and Rama in
order to restore dharma. This is considered to be the most popular Hindu denomination.

c Shaivas focus on Shiva, particularly in his form of the linga although other forms such as
the dancing Shiva are also worshipped. The Shaiva Siddhanta tradition believes that Shiva

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performs five acts of creation, maintenance, destruction, concealing himself, revealing
himself through grace.

c Shaktas focus on the Goddess in her gentle forms such as Lakshmi, Parvati, and Sarasvati,
or in her ferocious forms such as Durga and Kali.




' 
The terms ! and   refer to a teacher or master of a tradition. The basic meaning is
of a teacher who teaches through example and conveys knowledge and wisdom to his
disciples. The disciple in turn might become a teacher and so the lineage continues through
the generations. Gurus are generally very highly revered and can become the focus of
devotion (bhakti) in some traditions. A fundamentally important teaching is that spiritual
understanding is conveyed from teacher to disciple through a lineage and when one guru
passes away he or she is usually replaced by a successor.





 


Brahma is the first god in the Hindu triumvirate, or trimurti. The triumvirate consists
of three gods who are responsible for the creation, upkeep and destruction of the
world. The other two gods are Vishnu and Shiva. Brahma's job was creation of the
world and all creatures. His name should not be confused with Brahman, who is the
supreme God force present within all things. Brahma is the least worshipped god in
Hinduism today. There are only two temples in the whole of India devoted to him,
compared with the many thousands devoted to the other two.c Brahma has four heads
and it is believed that the four Vedas came from these four heads (the most ancient religious
texts for Hindus). Some also believe that the caste system, or four varnas, came from
different part of Brahma's body. He has four arms and is usually depicted with a beard.
Brahma's consort is Saraswati, goddess of knowledge.




Shiva is the second god in the Hindu triumvirate. Hindus believe his powers of
destruction and recreation are used even now to destroy the illusions and
imperfections of this world, paving the way for beneficial change. According to

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Hindu belief, this destruction is not arbitrary, but constructive. Shiva is therefore seen as the
source of both good and evil and is regarded as the one who combines many contradictory
elements.Shiva is known to have untamed passion, which leads him to extremes in behaviour.
Sometimes he is an ascetic, abstaining from all wordly pleasures. At others he is a hedonist.
Shiva is represented with the following features:

c A third eye

c The extra eye represents the wisdom and insight that Shiva has. It is also believed to be
the source of his untamed energy. On one occasion, when Shiva was distracted in the
midst of worship by the love god, Kama, Shiva opened his third eye in anger. Kama was
consumed by the fire that poured forth, and only returned to life when Parvati intervened.

c A cobra necklace

c This signifies Shiva's power over the most dangerous creatures in the world. Some
traditions also say that the snake represents Shiva's power of destruction and recreation.
The snake sheds its skin to make way for new, smooth skin.

c The vibhuti

c The vibhuti are three lines drawn horizontally across the forehead in white ash. They
represent Shiva's all-pervading nature, his superhuman power and wealth. Also, they
cover up his powerful third eye. embers of Shaivism often draw vibhuti lines across
their forehead.

c The trident

c The three-pronged trident represents the three functions of the Hindu triumvirate.

While other gods are depicted in lavish surroundings, Shiva is dressed in simple animal skin
and in austere settings, usually in a yogic position. Parvati, whenever she is present, is always
at the side of Shiva. Their relationship is one of equality.

Even though Shiva is the destroyer, he is usually represented as smiling and tranquil. Shiva is
sometimes represented as half man, half woman. His figure is split half way down the body,
one half showing his body and the second half that of Parvati's.Shiva is also represented by
ë
 
!. This is a phallic statue, representing the raw power of Shiva and his masculinity.
Hindus believe it represents the seed of the universe, demonstrating Shiva's quality of
creation. Worshippers of Shiva celebrate ahashivratri, a festival at which the Shiva linga is
bathed in water, milk and honey and worshipped.Shiva's consort is Devi, the other-
goddess. Devi has taken on many forms in the past, including Kali, the goddess of death, and
Sati, the goddess of marital felicity. Her best known incarnation is Parvati, Shiva's eternal
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wife.Hindus believe Shiva and Parvati live in the Kailash mountains in the Himalayas.Dance
is an important art form in India, and Shiva is believed to be the master of it. He is often
called the Lord of Dance. The rhythm of dance is a metaphor for the balance in the universe
which Shiva is believed to hold so masterfully.His most important dance is the Tandav. This
is the cosmic dance of death, which he performs at the end of an age, to destroy the universe.





Lakshmi is commonly portrayed as a beautiful woman with four arms, standing

on a lotus flower. There is usually one, or sometimes two elephants behind her,
anointing her with water. She is often depicted sitting beneath Vishnu,
massaging his feet. Hindus believe that anybody who worships Lakshmi
sincerely, and not in greed, will be blessed with fortune and success. It is said
that Lakshmi resides in places of hard work, virtue and bravery. Lakshmi is
particularly worshipped during the festival of Diwali. After worshipping
Lakshmi on Diwali, many Hindus gamble and spend profusely, believing that
Lakshmi has bestowed good fortune upon them. In addition to this, two days before Diwali, a
festival called Dhantares is celebrated to seek more blessings from her. During this time
Hindus buy gold and silver and start new business ventures. Hindus worship Lakshmi at
home as well as in the temple. Friday is believed to be the most auspicious day for her
worship.

&


Vishnu is the third god in the Hindu triumvirate (orŒ


). His role is to
return to the earth in troubled times and restore the balance of good and evil. So
far, he has been incarnated nine times, but Hindus believe that he will be
reincarnated one last time close to the end of this world. Vishnu's worshippers,
usually called Vaishnava, consider him the greatest god. They regard the other
gods as lesser or demi gods. Vaishnava worship only Vishnu. Vishnu
monotheism is called Vaishnavism. In the Rig Veda, which is the holiest of the
four Vedas, Vishnu is mentioned numerous times alongside other gods, such as

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Indra. He is particularly associated with light and especially with the Sun. The Brahmanas
regard him as the most important god. Two of Vishnu's incarnations, Rama and Krishna, are
also the subject of the epic stories Ramayana and ahabharata, respectively.

Vishnu is represented with a human body, often with blue coloured skin and with four arms.
His hands always carry four objects in them, representing the things he is responsible for. The
objects symbolise many more meanings than are presented here:

c The conch: the sound this produces 'Om', represents the primeval sound of creation

c The chakra, or discus: symbolises the mind

c The lotus flower: an example of glorious existence and liberation

c The mace: represents mental and physical strength

Vishnu is usually represented in two positions.

c Standing upright on a lotus flower with Lakshmi, his consort, close by him

c Reclining on the coils of a serpent, with Lakshmi massaging his feet. They are surrounded
by the ilky Ocean.

Vishnu rides on the King of Birds, Garuda, who is an eagle. Vishnu has appeared in this
world nine times in various incarnations and the tenth one is predicted. He has taken the
forms of matsya, kurma, varaha, narasimha, vamana, parasurama, rama, Krishna, Buddha,
kalki ; the tenth form which is predicted.

These are the main deities in Hinduism but there are few other deities worshiped by the sri
lankan hindus, like;

  
:- Sarasvathi seen as white coloured and riding on a swan, she usually
carries a book, and is often shown playing a Veena.She represents as the Goddess of
Education and Learning and is worshiped in schools and colleges with gift of fruit,
flowers and incense.

Ganesh

One of the most popular Gods of Hinduism and seen with his elephant head and pot
belly. He is known as the great clearer of the obstacles and found on gateways and on
door lintels. eetings, functions and family Gatherings are often started with prayers
to Ganesh.

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Skanda (Kataragama)

He is known as the God of war and one of the sons of Shiva and Parvathi.Peacock is
seen as his vehicle and carries the weapon call ³trident´ or ³ vel´. God kataragama is
known as one of the four guardian deities of Buddhism a nd hence venerated by
Buddhist.

Some local Deities are Kannaki, ariamman, Draupadi, Ayyanar, Vairavar and worship of
weapons such as Vel or the lance.

We can¶t see any distinct differences in the Hinduism practiced in India and in Sri Lanka.
The customs, rituals, faith, ethics and the doctrine are the same. Before looking at whether
Durkheim¶s division of social phenomena into sacred and profane is really relevant to
understanding Hinduism it is better to look at some of the critical analysis of Durkheim¶s
division. British anthropologists challenge the applicability of sacred and profane to the real
life situations. Evans-Pritchard argued that sacredness might be situational. Jack goody noted
that many societies have no words that translate as sacred and profane, and that ultimately
like the distinction between supernatural and natural, was very much a product of the
European religious thought rather than a universally applicable criterion.

Of course having things divided into sacred and profane help people to abide by the religious
rules but it can¶t be considered common for all religions. In Hinduism worship and rituals are
individualistic rather than a communal one. These differ according to the regions, villages,
individuals and castes. On the other hand it is not a religion with a single founder, a single
scripture and has no commonly agreed set of teaching. There are some symbols and animals
and scriptures that are considered by the Hindus in common as sacred.

Veneration of pure life, especially of the cow, has come to be intimately associated with
orthodox Hinduism of all sects. The cow is regarded as, among other things, the sacred
embodiment of motherhood and fruitfulness. The deliberate killing of a cow is scarcely less
terrible than the killing of a Brahman. For the miscreant it results in immediate and
irrevocable out casting; even the accidental killing of a cow requires elaborate purification
ceremonies. The Brahman are considered sacred. The temples are considered sacred, the
symbols like the Om, swasthika, the tilaka, lotus, chakra and veena are considered sacred by
all Hindus worldwide.

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But there are also aspects which are considered to be sacred as well as profane. Classical
Hinduism includes as a central tenet of belief the concept of nonviolence (ahimsa), a concept
that was of great importance to the Buddha and to such reformers as ahatma Gandhi some
2,500 years later. Ahimsa is not just non-violence - it means avoiding any harm, whether
physical, mental or emotional. Hindu medical ethics stem from the principle of ahimsa - of
non-violence. Hinduism is therefore generally opposed to abortion except where it is
necessary to save the mother's life.

Classical Hindu texts are strongly opposed to abortion:

c one text compares abortion to the killing of a priest

c another text considers abortion a worse sin than killing one's parents

c another text says that a woman who aborts her child will lose her caste

Traditional Hinduism and many modern Hindus also see abortion as a breach of the duty to
produce children in order to continue the family and produce new members of society. any
Hindus regard the production of offspring as a 'public duty', not simply an 'individual
expression of personal choice'.c According to the doctrine of reincarnation, which sees life as
a repeating cycle of birth, death and rebirth, if a foetus is aborted, the soul within it suffers a
major karmic setback. It is deprived of the opportunities its potential human existence would
have given it to earn good karma, and is returned immediately to the cycle of birth, death and
rebirth. Thus abortion hinders a soul's spiritual progress. And the soul is considered sacred.
Thus abortion is considered profane in Hinduism. But even though it is considered profane it
is carried out by the Hindu community because of the cultural preference of sons. Devadasis
are considered as sacred servants of the god in Hinduism at the same time they are viewed as
profane prostitutes.

However, Hinduism opposes killing, violence and revenge, in line with the principle of
ahimsa. Therefore Hindus believe that euthanasia cannot be allowed because it breaches the
teaching of ahimsa. They also look down upon capital punishment, suicide and war. But yet
again in Hinduism D  i, or fasting to death, is an acceptable way for a Hindu to end
their life in certain circumstances. So in a way Hinduism is justifying suicide. Suicide is
considered profane and then again it is accepted by the religion. When we look at war in
Hinduism it is also considered profane because it breaches the teaching of ahimsa at the same
time war is permitted on the grounds of self-defence. Killing animals is abhorred by the
Hindus under the same principal but some Hindus practice µBali¶ (animal sacrifice).

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All these points clarify that in Hinduism only a thin line exists between sacred and profane.
Of course there are certain commonly accepted symbols, temples, animals and scriptures
which are considered sacred by all Hindus but when we look at the huge picture we can see
that sacred and profane differs according to the region, individual, caste and villages. So
according to me what I question is how can we divide things into sacred and profane? , Even
if we can, can we apply them to all religions universally? . Is it necessary to divide things into
sacred and profane to understand a religion?. Because behaviours and beliefs of a certain
religion differs according to the society. And society is made of individuals. What is sacred in
one religion can be considered profane by another religion. So it is impossible to group social
phenomena into sacred and profane.


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Fathima Azna

SP/A/07/731

SOC 301

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