By
MUHAMMAD TANVEER
AUGUST, 2007
i
Acknowledgements
I would also like to extend my special thanks to my brothers who have endured me
throughout this period and financed my studies.
I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Ms. Julie McAdam, who read my draft copies,
listened to my anxieties and whose stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped
me throughout the time I was researching and writing this dissertation.
I owe a special note of gratitude to Dr. Esther Daborn for the assistance, guidance,
generosity and advice I received from her throughout this project and for granting me
permission to access the participants.
I would also wish to thank Ms. Carole MacDiarmid and Mr. Douglas Graham who were
insightful and perceptive in their valuable suggestions and hints to complete this
research study.
Finally, I am extremely thankful to all the participants who provided me rich and
detailed data for the study and lent breadth and value to the research findings.
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Abstract
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Definition of terms and some Abbreviations Used
For clarity of meaning throughout the dissertation the following definitions and
abbreviations are applicable.
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Learners and Teachers: are those who are
learning or teaching English while living in a community where English is not spoken
as a first language.
English as a Second Language (ESL) Learners and Teachers: are those who are
learning and teaching English while living in a community where English is spoken as a
first language.
Note: As the participants of this research study fall into both of these categories, a
combination of both the terms (ESL/EFL) will be used.
First or Native Language (L1): The language a child learns from infancy. Many
children learn more than one language from birth and may be said to have more than
one ‘First’ language.
Second Language (L2): In this dissertation the term refers to any language other than
the first language learned. For this reason, second (L2) or foreign language (FL) will be
used with the same meaning.
Language Acquisition and Language Learning: ‘Acquisition’ is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire
their first language. 'Learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a
conscious process, which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for
example knowledge of grammar rules (Krashen, 1985: 2-3).
Note: In order to avoid confusion, the term ‘learning’ will be used in the dissertation,
which encompasses ‘acquisition’ as well.
Psycholinguistics: A term that links psychology and linguistics. That is to say it links
learners’ psychological variables (personality traits, perceptions, beliefs, etc.) and the
language learning and speaking process. The aim of the psycholinguists is to find out
about the structures and processes, which underlie a human’s ability to speak (Aitchison,
1998: 1)
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 1
1.1: Introduction
1.2: Difference between First and Second/Foreign Language Anxiety 3
1.3: Definition and Types of Anxiety 3
1.4: Second or Foreign Language Anxiety 4
1.5: What Causes Language Anxiety? 4
1.6: Statement of the Problem 5
1.7: Rationale for the Study 6
1.8: Research Aims and Objectives 7
1.9: Research Questions 7
1.10: Research Site and Subjects 8
1.11: Significance of the Study 8
Chapter: 2 9
Literature Review
2.1: Introduction 9
2.2: Section I 10
Background of the Study
2..2.1: Previous Research 10
2.2.2: Conceptual Foundations: Components of Foreign Language Anxiety and Related 11
Causal Factors
(a) Communication Apprehension (CA) 11
(b) Test Anxiety 13
(c) Fear of Negative Evaluation 14
2.3: Section II 14
Factors Associated with Learner’s own Sense of “Self” and “Language Classroom
Environment
2.3.1: Self Perceptions 15
2.3.2: Learners’ Beliefs about Language Learning 15
2.3.3: Instructors Beliefs about Language Teaching 17
2.3.4: Classroom Procedure 18
2.4: Section III 19
Three Stages of Language Learning
2.4.1: Input 20
2.4.2: Processing 20
2.4.3: Output 23
2.5: Section IV 24
Socio-cultural Factors
2.5.1 : Social Environnent for L2/FL Acquisition 24
2.5.2: Errors in Social Setting 25
2.5.3: Social Status, Power Relations and a Sense of Identity 25
2.5.4: Intercultural/Interethnic Communication Apprehension (ICA) 27
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2.5.5: Gender 29
2.6: Section V 29
Manifestation of Language Anxiety and Its Effective Reduction
2.6.1: Manifestation 29
2.6.2: Alleviation of Foreign or Second Language Anxiety 30
2.7: Summary 31
Chapter 3 33
Methodology
3.1: Qualitative Study 33
3.2: Rationale of choosing Qualitative Strategy 33
3.3: Participants 33
3.4: Instruments 34
3.5: Interviews 35
3.5.1: Individual Interviews 35
3.5.2: Focus Group Interviews 36
3.6: Procedure 36
3.7: Data Analysis 37
Chapter 4 39
Findings and Discussion
4.1: Introduction 39
4.2: Section I 40
Cognitive and Linguistic Factors Related to Classroom Procedure
4.2.1: Strict and Formal Classroom Environment 40
4.2.2: Presentation in the Classroom 41
4.2.3: Fear of Making Mistakes and Apprehension about Others’ Evaluation 42
4.2.4: Role of Language Instructors 44
4.2.5: Self-related Cognition; Variations in Individual’s “self-perceptions” 45
4.2.6: Linguistic Difficulties 47
4.2.7: Pronunciation 47
4.2.8: Grammar 49
4.2.9: Vocabulary 50
4.3: Section II 50
Socio-Cultural Factors
4.3.1: Social Environment and Limited Exposure to the Target Language 51
4.3.2: Cultural Differences 52
4.3.3: Social Status and self-identity 52
4.3.4: Gender 53
4.4: Section III 54
Manifestation of Language Anxiety and Its effective Alleviation
4.4.1: Manifestation 54
4.4.2: Strategies to Cope with Language Anxiety 55
4.5: Summary of the Chapter 58
Chapter 5 59
Issues, Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1: Issues 59
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5.2: Limitations of the Study 60
5.3: Conclusions 60
5.4: Recommendations 63
Bibliography 66
Appendices 73
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CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
Such statements are commonly uttered by foreign language learners and are too
familiar to the foreign language teachers. These statements indicate an important
problem that the majority of students face in learning and particularly speaking a second
or foreign language. Many learners express their inability and sometimes even
acknowledge their failure in learning to speak a second/foreign language. These learners
may be good at learning other skills but, when it comes to learning to speak another
language, they claim to have a ‘mental block’ against it (Horwitz et al., 1986: 125).
What, then, hinders or stops them to succeed in learning a second/foreign language? In
many cases, students’ feeling of stress, anxiety or nervousness may impede their
language learning and performance abilities. Theorists and second language acquisition
(SLA) researchers have frequently demonstrated that these feelings of anxiety are
specifically associated with learning and speaking a second/foreign language, which
distinguishes L2/FL learning from learning other skills or subjects. Both teachers and
students are aware and generally feel strongly that anxiety is a major hurdle to be
overcome when learning to speak another language. Learning a language itself is “a
profoundly unsettling psychological proposition” because it directly threatens an
individual’s ‘self-concept’ and world-view (Guiora, 1983 cited in Horwitz et al., 1986:
28).
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Two basic questions regarding language anxiety need to be addressed in the
introduction, which may otherwise cause some confusion in the minds of the readers.
First, what kind of anxiety is language anxiety and how is it unique to learning and
speaking a foreign, in this case English language? Second, how is second or foreign
language anxiety different from the language anxiety experienced in the first language?
In general, there are two approaches to the description of language anxiety: (1)
Language anxiety in the broader construct of anxiety as a basic human emotion that may
be brought on by numerous combinations of situational factors (McIntyre, 1995;
McIntyre & Gardner, 1989: cited in Tittle, 1997: 11). For example, (a) a shy student
may feel anxious when asked to give a short talk in front of the whole class; (b)
Language anxiety as a combination of other anxieties that create a separate form of
anxiety intrinsic to language learning (Horwitz et al., 1986: 128). The later approach
believes that there is something unique to the language learning experience that makes
some individuals nervous. When this nervousness or anxiety is restricted to the
language-learning situations, it falls into the category of specific anxiety. Psychologists
use the term specific anxiety reaction to differentiate people who are generally anxious
in a variety of situations from those who are anxious only in specific situations (1986:
125). Researchers appear to differ in their views about the definition and construct of
language anxiety but there is merit, as MacIntyre (1995: cited in Tittle, 1997: 11) opines,
in discussing language anxiety as a unique construct because it classifies the source of
anxiety for the reader. Students may feel anxiety in learning other subjects like
mathematics, statistics, etc. (Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 218) and the fundamental
motivations behind being anxious may be similar for learners in various disciplines, but
the sources of anxiety will also be a unique experience for each learner (Tittle, 1997:
11).
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may enhance students’ anxiety, as there are more chances for their weaknesses to be
exposed in front of others. Consideration of learner anxiety in the modern language
classroom is deemed highly essential in order to help learners develop their
communication skills in the target language.
Anxiety and speech communication appear to have a strong bond with each
other. Speaking, either in first (L1) or second/foreign (L2/FL) language in different
situations, particularly the situations that demand public speech, tend to be anxiety-
provoking. However, the anxiety experienced when speaking in a second/foreign
language seems to be more debilitating than the anxiety experienced when speaking in
the first language. Anxiety while communicating in other than L1 goes a step further
with the addition of the difficulties associated with learning and speaking a foreign
language. In a foreign language, a speaker has to look for suitable lexis, has to construct
an appropriate syntactic structure and needs to use a comprehendible accent, plus the
demanding tasks of thinking and organizing ideas and expressing them at the same time.
Daly (1991: 1) while discussing the reactions to second language learning from the
perspective of first language communication apprehension expresses that the anxiety
experienced by many people while communicating in their first language seem to have
many logical ties to second language anxiety. Educators and second language
acquisition (SLA) researchers can get insight from the analogy of first language anxiety
to cope with the second language anxiety.
What ‘anxiety’ actually refers to and how can we define ‘foreign language
anxiety’ are also important questions to understand the construct of ‘language anxiety’.
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Anxiety, as perceived intuitively by many language learners, negatively
influences language learning and has been found to be one of the most highly examined
variables in all of psychology and education (Horwitz, 2001: 113). Psychologists make
a distinction between three categories of anxiety: trait anxiety, state anxiety, and
situation-specific anxiety. Trait anxiety is relatively stable personality characteristic, ‘a
more permanent predisposition to be anxious’ (Scovel, 1978: cited in Ellis, 1994: 479)
while state anxiety is a transient anxiety, a response to a particular anxiety-provoking
stimulus such as an important test (Spielberger, 1983: cited in Horwitz, 2001: 113). The
third category, Situation-specific anxiety, refers to the persistent and multi-faceted
nature of some anxieties (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991a: cited in 2001: 113). It is
aroused by a specific type of situation or event such as public speaking, examinations,
or class participation (Ellis, 1994: 480).
Anxiety has been found to interfere with many types of learning but when it is
associated with leaning a second or foreign language it is termed as ‘second/foreign
language anxiety’. It is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon (Young, 1991:
cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 217) and can be defined as “a subjective feeling of
tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the
automatic nervous system” (McIntyre & Gardner, 1994: cited in 1999: 217). It has been
found that the feelings of tension or nervousness centre on the two basic task
requirements of foreign language learning: listening and speaking (Horwitz et al., 1986:
29) because, in interaction, both the skills can not be separated.
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perceptions, perceptions about others (peers, teachers, interlocutors, etc.) and target
language communication situations, his/her beliefs about L2/FL learning etc. Language
anxiety may be a result as well as a cause of insufficient command of the target
language (Sparks and Ganschow; cited in Horwitz, 2001: 118). That is to say it may be
experienced due to linguistic difficulties L2/FL learners face in learning and using the
target language. Within social contexts, language anxiety may be experienced due to
extrinsic motivators (Schwartz, 1972; cited in Scovel, 1991: 16), such as different social
and cultural environments, particularly the environments where L1 and L2/FL learning
takes place. Also, the target language is a representation of another cultural community;
there is a predisposition among some people to experience such anxiety because of their
own concerns about ethnicity, foreignness, and the like (Gardner cited in Horwitz &
Young, 1991: viii). Social status of the speaker and the interlocutor, a sense of power
relations between them, and gender could also be important factors in causing language
anxiety for L2/FL speakers. A further detailed investigation of these factors could
potentially assist language teachers to alleviate anxiety in the classroom setting and to
make the classroom environment less anxiety-provoking and hence to improve learners’
performance in the target language.
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Ortiz (1991: 159) found language anxiety among university students to be ‘alarming’
and estimated that up to one half of all language students experience debilitating levels
of language anxiety.
While the previous research has done much to statistically demonstrate the
existence of second/foreign language anxiety, many researchers view that “even without
empirical proof, the mere awareness of foreign language anxiety, even on an intuitive
level, is testimony enough to its existence and worthy of fuller investigation” (Shams,
2006: 14). Reviewing past research, Ohata (2005: 139) concludes that language anxiety
cannot be defined in a linear manner but rather it can be better construed as a complex
psychological phenomenon influenced by many different factors. Thus it seems to be
more appropriate to deal with this issue from a variety of perspectives or approaches
(Young, 1992).
For this reason, some research in this area has been descriptive in nature.
Researchers such as Horwitz (1986), Price (1991), and Young (1990) have interviewed
anxious students in order to have a better understanding of their experiences. Young
(1992) conducted interviews with well-known language specialists such as Krashen,
Omaggio Hadley, Terrell, and Rardin. Ohata (2005) considering teachers’ role and the
particular social context they create in the classroom interviewed seven experienced
ESL/EFL teachers to investigate this phenomenon.
Similar to the interview studies by the above researchers, this study is a further
step to investigate the factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners from
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three different perspectives: from the perspectives of ESL/EFL learners, ESL/EFL
practitioners, and ESL/EFL teachers. Thus, this study intends to be more comprehensive
in nature as it looks at the issue from this variety of perspectives in an attempt to
identify the sources of language anxiety; focusing on the actual sources of anxiety, as
Shams (2006: 2) suggests, could prove an effective means of alleviating second/foreign
language anxiety, which unfortunately are not clear-cut (Horwitz, 2001: 118).
The major purpose of the research is to find out why ESL/EFL learners feel
anxious or embarrassed while learning to speak English Language and what influence it
casts on their communication in the target language. In other words, what are the factors
or sources that make speaking English more stressful in some situations than in others.
This study seeks to discover the phenomenon of language anxiety from both within and
outside of the language classroom setting in a wider social context. This includes
considering the factors originate from the learner’s own sense of self, from the language
learning process, or from the situation or social environment he/she is a part of. The
second most important aim of this study is to find out and suggest some strategies for
language teachers in order to alleviate language anxiety in the learners. It will also
inform the researcher of this study about the phenomenon, as a learner, as well as a
practitioner in English Language Teaching. In addition, integrating the findings of this
research on language anxiety - regarding its nature, sources, effects and treatment - with
the existing literature is also an underlying consideration of the study.
1: What are the psycholinguistic factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL
learners in learning and speaking English Language?
2: What are the socio-cultural factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL
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learners in learning and speaking English Language?
3: How is language anxiety manifested in the learners?
4: Which strategies can be used to successfully cope with language anxiety?
Research has been conducted in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) Unit
and Department of Education of the University of Glasgow, United Kingdom. The
subjects were drawn from beginning to advanced levels of learners as well as
experienced ESL/EFL practitioners and teachers. Twenty subjects in total, from a range
of nationalities, participated in the study. Six of them were EFL/ESL learners in the
EFL Unit and eleven were EFL/ESL practitioners (enrolled in M.Ed. in English
Language Teaching and had been practicing teaching English in their home countries).
Three highly experienced EFL/ESL teachers (whose first language was English) in the
EFL Unit also participated in this research project. (Chapter 4 for more details)
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Traditionally, the focus of research in second language acquisition (SLA) has
been primarily on issues such as language pedagogy (Grammar Translation Method,
Audio-lingual, etc.), contents of pedagogical instructions, and ways to improve them.
Consequently, the implications of this research remained restricted to the learning and
teaching of the language itself; that is to say, to the cognitive domain with little attention
being paid to the affective variables learners bring with them into language classroom. It
was only in late twentieth century, in the 1970s, that the SLA researchers began to study
the significant role played by personality and motivational variables in second language
acquisition (Shams, 2006: 5). They posited that, in order to gain a holistic understanding
of this process, learners’ affective variables need to be taken into account to cater for
their needs and interests (Samimy, 1994: 30). In addition, as the focus of L2/FL
instruction has shifted from the narrow concern for developing learners’ linguistic
competence to the need for communicative competence, learners are challenged to be
able to speak in the target language spontaneously in various social contexts. In order to
meet this challenge, attention has diverted to studying the role of affective variables like
‘learning styles’, motivation, personality traits, etc. that can impede the process of
learning and speaking a second/foreign language. Among these affective variables,
learner anxiety has come to be recognized as an important area of study in second
language acquisition because of the negative influence it can have on students’
performance.
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The second section (II) looks at the factors that stem from a learner’s own sense of ‘self’
and from the ‘classroom environment’. The third section (III) deals with
psycholinguistic factors, i.e., the factors that contribute to anxiety by creating
difficulties in the process of learning and speaking a foreign language. The next section
(IV) attempts to explore the literature regarding socio-cultural factors; these are the
factors outside of the class in the broader social context. The final section (V) describes
how anxiety is manifested in the learners and presents some strategies to cope with it.
2.2 Section I
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22). Debilitating anxiety, in contrast, “motivates the learner to “flee” the new learning
task; it stimulates the individual emotionally to adopt avoidance behaviour” (1991: 22).
One of the most studied topics in the field of speech communication is the
tendency on the part of some people to avoid, and even, fear, communicating orally
(Daly 1991: 3). Horwitz et al. (1986: 128) define communication apprehension (CA) as
“a type of shyness characterized by fear or anxiety about communicating with people”.
Most of the research in this area is based on McCroskey’s conceptualization of CA as
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“an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated
communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey’s 1997a, p. 78: cited in
Apaibanditkul, 2006: 3).
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Children who receive a wealth of early experience of talking are more likely to be less
apprehensive than those who receive less opportunities of communication. The last
perspective he emphasizes is that the children who have been exposed to appropriate
social–interactive models of communication are generally less apprehensive than those
who have been exposed to inadequate or less interactive models. All these five
explanations suggest that development of CA in individuals results from nature or their
surroundings.
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Unfortunately, for highly anxious students, second/foreign languages, more than any
other academic subject, require continual evaluation by the instructor – the only fluent
speaker in the class (1986: 129). It is also important to note that oral testing has the
potential to provoke both test and oral communication anxiety simultaneously in
susceptible students (1986: 127).
Environment’
The previous section has established the conceptual basis of language anxiety
with relation to its three components. All the three components are strongly linked with
learners’ sense of ‘self’, as it is learners’ ‘self’ which is at risk of failure or being
negatively evaluated in any test-like situation or a situation which requires
communication in front of others. This risk to one’s sense of ‘self’ frequently occurs in
a L2/FL classroom. This section reviews literature on language anxiety related to
learners’ sense of ‘self’ and ‘language classroom environment’.
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2.3.1 Self Perceptions
According to Horwitz et al. (1986: 128), perhaps no other field of study poses as
much of a threat to self-concept as language study does. They believe that any
performance in L2 is likely to challenge an individual’s self-concept as a competent
communicator, which may lead to embarrassment. Self-concept is “the totality of an
individual’s thoughts, perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and values having reference to
himself as object” (Laine, 1987: 15). This self-concept forms the basis of the distinction,
made by Horwitz et al. (1986: 128), between language anxiety and other forms of
academic anxieties. They posited, “the importance of the disparity between the ‘true’ or
‘actual’ self as known to the language learner and the more limited self as can be
presented at any given moment in the foreign language would seem to distinguish
foreign language anxiety from other academic anxieties such as those associated with
mathematics or science” (1986: 128).
The term 1 ‘self-esteem’ has been used in much the same meaning as ‘self-
concept’ and has been found to be strongly linked with language anxiety. Krashen (1980,
15: cited in Young, 1991: 427) suggests, “the more I think about self-esteem, the more
impressed I am about its impact. This is what causes anxiety in a lot of people. People
with low self-esteem worry about what their peers think; they are concerned with
pleasing others. And that I think has to do a great degree with anxiety”. Individuals who
have high levels of self-esteem are lees likely to be anxious than are those with low self-
esteem (Horwitz et al., 1986: 129). According to Terror Management Theory (TMT),
“People are motivated to maintain a positive self-image because self-esteem protects
them from anxiety” (Greenberg et al., 1992: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 229).
1
‘Self-esteem’, refers to “a person’s evaluative attitudes towards self and indicates the extent to which an
individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful, and worthy” (Laine, 1987: 16).
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“I just know I have some kind of disability: I can’t learn a foreign language
no matter how hard I try.”
(Horwitz et al. 1986: 123)
Such beliefs have been found to cast a considerable influence upon the ultimate
achievement and performance in the target language. The researchers use terms such as
‘erroneous’ or ‘irrational’ to indicate certain widely held “beliefs about language
learning which can be a source of anxiety” (Gynan, 1989: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al.,
1999: 220). Horwitz (1988: cited in Ohata, 2005: 138) noted that a number of beliefs
derived from learner’s irrational and unrealistic conceptions about language learning,
such as 1) some students believe that accuracy must be sought before saying anything in
the foreign language, 2) some attach great importance to speaking with excellent native
(L1)-like accent, 3) others believe that it is not ok to guess an unfamiliar second/foreign
language word, 4) some hold that language learning is basically an act of translating
from English or any second/foreign language, 5) some view that two years are sufficient
in order to gain fluency in the target language, 6) some believe that language learning is
a special gift not possessed by all. Similarly, Gynan (1989, cited in Onwuegbuzie et al.,
1999: 221) reported that learners believe that pronunciation is the most important
aspect of language learning.
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naturally feel frustrated to find the reality of their poor speech pronunciation even after
learning and practicing for a long time. These beliefs are most likely to originate from
learners’ perfectionist nature. The perfectionist learners like to speak flawlessly, with no
grammar or pronunciation errors, and as easily as an L1 speaker – these high or ideal
standards create an ideal situation for the development of language anxiety (Frost,
Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990: cited in Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002: 564). (See
appendix (3) for more detailed description of perfectionism.)
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2.3.4 Classroom Procedure
Different activities in the classroom procedure, particularly ones that demand
students to speak in front of the whole class, have been found to be the most anxiety
provoking. For instance, Koch and Terrell (1991, cited in Horwitz, 2001: 118) found
that more than half of their subjects in their Natural Approach classes – a language
teaching method specifically designed to reduce learner’s anxiety – expressed that
giving a presentation in the class, oral skits and discussion in large groups are the most
anxiety-producing activities. They also found that students get more anxious when
called upon to respond individually, ratherthan if they are given choice to respond
voluntarily. In addition, students were found to be more relaxed speaking the target
language when paired with a classmate or put into small groups of three to six than into
larger groups of seven to fifteen students. Similarly, Young (1991: 429) found that more
than sixty-eight percent of her subjects reported feeling more comfortable when they did
not have to get in front of the class to speak. Earlier, Horwitz et al. (1986: 123) reported
the same:
This suggests that any measure to treat language anxiety should not fail to exploit
learning environments where students feel relatively free of anxiety (Jones, 2004: 34).
For this, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approaches are often recommended
by the researchers to provide such an unthreatening environment where students talk to
one another and not exclusively to the teacher. This is deemed necessary because “the
rapport [the student] feels with the teacher as well as with….. classmates may be crucial
in determining the success or failure of the venture [practice in communication]”
(Svignon, 1972, p. 67: cited in Smimy, 1994: 30). It indicates that arousal of anxiety
reactions is also likely to occur in interpersonal relations or communication. (See
appendix (4) for more detail about anxiety in Interpersonal Relations.)
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2.4 Section III
The previous sections have reviewed the findings of the past research on language
anxiety and its three basic components to establish the conceptual foundations of the
topic along with some causal factors within the learner’s own sense of ‘self’ and
‘classroom setting’. This section discusses the psychological and linguistic reasons of
language anxiety that occurs at all the three stages of language learning: input,
processing, and output.
Language anxiety has been theorized to occur at all the three stages of language
learning: input, processing and output. The description of these three stages with
relation to anxiety will point out why L2/FL learners make mistakes and the reasons of
linguistic difficulties L2/FL learners face in learning and using the target language. This
can offer an insight to help understand anxiety experienced while communicating in the
target language.
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2.4.1 Input
‘Affective filter’ at the input stage may reduce the effectiveness of input by
restricting the anxious students’ ability to pay full attention to what their instructors say
and reduce their ability to represent input internally (Tobias, 1977: cited in
Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000: 475). Learners’ with high level of input anxiety request their
instructors to repeat sentences quite frequently compared to their low-anxious
counterparts (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994b: cited in 2000: 475). Input anxiety is more
likely to cause miscomprehension of the message sent by the interlocutors, which may
lead to the loss of successful communication and an increased level of anxiety.
2.4.2 Processing
Anxiety at the processing stage, called processing anxiety, refers to the
“apprehension students experience when performing cognitive operations on new
information” (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000: 476). Cognitivists like Segalowitz (2003: cited
in Lightbown and Spada: 2006: 39) working on the ‘Information Processing Model’
have tried to explore how these cognitive operations are performed in human brain and
20
have explained the learners’ inability to spontaneously use everything they know about
a language at a given time.
21
Anxiety
Behaviour Cognition
Figure: 2 shows that anxiety, behaviour and cognition are mutually inter-related.
MacIntyre (1995) explains this relationship as follow:
The Cognitive Processing Model can also explain the difficulty learners feel in
remembering and retrieving vocabulary items while communicating in the target
language - another important source of language anxiety for the EFL/ESL learners.
MacIntyre and Gardner (1991b, cited in MacIntyre, 1995: 93), found a significant
negative correlation between language anxiety and ability to repeat a short string of
numbers and to recall vocabulary items. This demonstrates that anxiety can limit the use
22
of both short term and long term memory. According to Tobias (1977, cited in
Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000: 475), “processing anxiety can impede learning by reducing
the efficiency with which memory processes are used to solve problems”.
2.4.3 Output
All the three stages of anxiety have been found to be somewhat interdependent;
each stage depends on the successful completion of the previous one, which may help
defining language-learning process as follows:
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description of this process can suggest many implications for language teachers who
demand quick answers or expect learners to speak fluently. Teachers’ or learners’ own
expectations to speak fluently and the slow process in the mind result in apprehension
and reticence in the learner.
2.5 Section IV
Socio-cultural Factors
Language anxiety stems primarily from social and communicative aspects of
language learning and therefore can be considered as one of the social
anxieties.
(MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989, 1991b: cited in MacIntyre,1995: 91)
In the previous section, it has been viewed that difficulties in leaning L2/FL can
explain the potential causes of language anxiety at the output stage of language learning
within the classroom setting. However, language anxiety may also be an outcome of
social and communicative aspects of language learning. This section reviews the
literature on language anxiety from a socio-cultural perspective of language learning
and its use.
24
In contrast, the second kind of environment provides learners with greater
exposure to the target language. However, even in this case, some researchers’ view that
learners’ use of cognitive skills and metalinguistic awareness (world and social
knowledge) may interfere with language learning and they may not be able to achieve
native (L1)-like proficiency as is gained by a child (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 30).
Krashen explains this child-adult difference in ultimate attainment in terms of the
strength of ‘affective filter’. He believes that ‘affective filter’ may exist for the child
L2/FL acquirer but it is rarely high enough to prevent L1-like levels of attainment, and
for adults, it rarely goes down enough to allow L1-like attainment. Older learners may
have increased inhabitations and anxiety and may find themselves afraid to make errors
(Richard, 1996: 2).
25
status on L2 listening comprehension, asserts that the listener must consider the status
relationship as part of the social context in order to determine the appropriateness of the
verbal behaviour for delivering the response to the spoken messages. In addition, he
raises a crucial question as to whether in face-to-face interaction receiver apprehension
(anxiety) can be triggered by the particular status relationship between the interlocutors
(p. 69). He states:
26
I feel uncomfortable using English in the group of people whose English
language is their mother tongue because they speak fluently with out any
problems and I feel inferior
(Peirce, 1995: 21).
In such an interaction, L2/FL speakers may feel anxious due to the fear of social
embarrassment and a threat to their social identity. Language, in this regard, seems
crucial because it is used to convey this identity to other people. Particularly when
speaking in a second/foreign language “our self image becomes more vulnerable when
our expression is reduced to infantilised levels, which inevitably leads to anxiety”
(Arnold, 2000: 3). L2/FL speakers’ fear of losing self-identity and retaining positive
self-image is aggravated when their attitudes towards the target language community
and culture are hostile (Dewaele, 2002: 26). (See appendix (6) for more detail about the
role of attitudes.)
27
Figure: 2. Potential Effects on Inter-Cultural Communication Apprehension
Source: Neuliep & Ryan (1998)
Figure 2 indicates that one’s ability to cope with anxiety and uncertainty can
result in effective intercultural communication (Gudykunst, 1995: cited in Kwok et al.,
2001: 3). Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) posits that when two people interact for
the first time, uncertainty exists (Berger and Calabrese, 1975: cited in 2001: 3).
Furthermore, Kwok et al. (2001: 3) state that the higher people perceive an uncertainty,
the higher they feel anxiety. Gudykunst (1988; 1995: cited in 2001: 4) found that there
are at least five factors that may influence the amount of uncertainty experienced by
interactants during an intercultural communication: (1) expectations; (2) social
identities; (3) degree of similarities between interactants; (4) shared communicative
networks; and (5) the interpersonal salience of the contact with ‘stranger’. Suggesting
how this type of anxiety can be controlled, McCroskey and Richmond (1996, cited in
28
2001: 4) claim that assertiveness and responsiveness, as two dimensions of socio-
communication orientation, may reduce intercultural communication apprehension.
2.5.5 Gender
Gender has also been found to cause anxiety in male and female interaction both
within and out of the classroom settings. Carrier (1999: 70) states that past research has
revealed that gender affects communication between L2/FL dyads and L1 and L2/FL
speaker dyads (e.g., Pica, Holliday, Lewis, Berducci, & Newman, 1991, cited in 1999:
70). He deems it necessary to consider whether the gender of the L1 speaker
interlocutor has an effect on the listening comprehension of the L2/FL speaker
interlocutor.
Gobel and Matsuda (2003) asserted that gender-related anxiety research has
yielded conflicting results. Spielberger (1983: 19), in her study on state anxiety found,
“females are more emotionally stable than males in their reactions to highly stressful
and relaxing circumstances”. Similarly, in Kitano’s study (2001, cited in Gobel and
Matsuda, 2003: 23) of Japanese college students, male students have been found to feel
more anxiety when they perceived their spoken Japanese less competent than that of
others; however, such a relationship was not observed among female students. On the
contrary, Machida (2001: cited in 2003: 23) examined FL Japanese language class
anxiety based on gender and found that female learners are more anxious than male
counterparts.
2.6 Section V
2.6.1 Manifestation
SLA researchers and foreign language teachers have decoded a number of
symptoms and behaviours manifested in anxious learners. Negative consequences of
language anxiety manifest in the form of changed behaviour, such as responding less
effectively to language errors (Gregersen, 2003: cited in Gregersen, 2007: 210);
engaging in negative self-talk and ruminating over poor performance, which affects
information processing abilities (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994: 285); exhibiting
29
avoidance behaviour by missing class, having unrealistic high performance standards
(Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002: 563); freezing up in role play activities, participating
infrequently (Horwitz et al., 1986: 129); and ultimately receiving low course grades
(Gardner, 1985: cited in Gregersen, 2007: 210). In addition, Harrigan et al. (2004: cited
in 2007: 210) posited that anxiety can be accurately decoded both through prosodic
(stress and intonation pattern), paralinguistic (non verbal) features of vocal
communication and through visual non-verbal cues. Gregersen (2005, cited in 2007:
210) in her study on nonverbal behaviour of anxious and non-anxious language learners
found that “anxious learners manifested limited facial activity, including brow
behaviour and smiling, maintained less eye contact with the teacher, and were more
rigid and closed with their posture”. (See appendix (7) for more signs of students’
anxiety and Leary’s three categories of behaviour arising from social anxiety.)
30
(Mejias et al., 1991, 97). Those who take the behavioural approach presume poor
academic skills as the main source of anxiety (Ying-Ling & Kondo, 2004: 259). For its
treatment, the researchers recommend skills training (ST) method where the students are
taught the behavioural skills required for success in particular oral communication
context (Mejias et al., 1991: 97).
31
and communication, students’ high performance expectations, and language instructors’
beliefs and overall classroom procedure with relation to L2/FL anxiety. In the later parts,
the chapter has looked at the three stages of language learning: input, processing, and
output, in order to explain the difficulties EFL/ESL learners may face in learning to
speak a second/foreign language. It has been found that lack of sufficient input for
learning FL/L2 in the environment where the target language is not the first language,
and lack of opportunities to frequently process the limited (sometimes filled with errors)
input, can cause language anxiety at the output (speaking) stage for ESL/EFL learners.
The chapter has also explored the literature on socio-cultural aspects of language
learning and has discussed social status, power relations and sense of identity, L1 and
L2/FL speakers’ interaction, attitudes towards target language and its culture,
intercultural communication, and gender as some of the factors linked with language
anxiety. In addition, the literature on how anxiety is manifested in the learners and how
it can be aptly allayed has also been reviewed in the final section of this chapter.
32
CHAPETR 3
METHODOLOGY
3.3 Participants
The twenty subjects in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) Unit and
Department of Education at the University of Glasgow, who participated in this research
33
can be divided into three categories: 1) ESL/EFL learners; 2) highly experienced
ESL/EFL teachers; 3) ESL/EFL practitioners (they were also experienced teachers, as
mentioned in chapter 1, who had been practicing teaching English in their home
countries). Of the twenty subjects, nine were males and eleven were females. Their age
ranged between twenty two to sixty. The teaching experience of both teachers and
practitioners ranged between one to thirty seven years in various contexts. (see appendix
(9), category (1), (2), and (3) for details about participants).
The six ESL/EFL learners (one female, five males) were enrolled in the pre-
entry programme in the EFL Unit at intermediate/upper intermediate (IELTS 5.5), upper
intermediate/lower advanced (IELTS 6), and advanced (IELTS 6 +) levels. They had
completed approximately eight months of this English language programme and had
been learning English in their home countries for approximately six to nine years. Two
students from each level were selected in order to get a range of experiences related to
language anxiety at different levels of language learning.
The eleven ESL/EFL practitioners (eight females and three males) were enrolled
in M.Ed English Language Teaching (ELT) programme in the Department of
Educational Studies at Glasgow University. The three experienced ESL/EFL teachers
(two females and one male) were currently teaching in the EFL Unit. The rationale of
including them in this study was two fold; first, to gain more relevant and in-depth data
because of their wealth of teaching experience across the globe and, second, to gain
additional guidance in order to ensure that the research was being conducted
appropriately.
3.4 Instruments
Considering the constraints, like limited time period and the fact that only one
researcher was undertaking this study, it was considered most appropriate and beneficial
to carryout semi-structured and focus-group interviews in order to reach the core of the
matter rather than administrating questionnaires. Furthermore, written questions are
somewhat rigid in nature and the complete lack of personal contact prohibits
verifications of views and knowledge.
34
3.5 Interviews
Similar to the interview studies by Price (1991), Young (1992) and Ohata (2005)
concerning the perspectives of students, language specialists and language teachers on
language anxiety respectively, this study also used a qualitative semi-structured
interview format to investigate the factors that cause language anxiety from students’,
ESL/EFL teachers’ and practitioners’ perspectives.
The rationale behind the use of interview as a data collection tool was that it can
provide access to things that cannot be directly observed, such as feelings, thoughts,
intentions, or beliefs (Merriam, 1998: cited in Ohata, 2005: 140). It also provides
participants with opportunities to select, reconstruct, and reflect upon details of their
experience within the specific context of their lives (2005: 141).
Given that the primary goal of this study was to explore the sources of language
anxiety, interviews seemed appropriate as a means to understand the experiences of the
subjects about language anxiety because they allow for given points to be clarified and
elaborated upon where required. Two types of interviews were conducted: individual,
and group interviews.
Initially nine subjects, including six language learners and three teachers, were
individually interviewed within the period of two weeks. Later the four ESL/EFL
practitioners who could not participate in the focus group discussion were also
individually interviewed. The interview lasted approximately 15-20 minutes. All the
interviews were conducted in English and were tape-recorded with the subject’s
permission. Initially, the subjects were asked open-ended questions to establish a
35
rapport with the subjects. Later, a semi-structured question format was used as a
guideline to ask questions and to encourage the interviewees to talk in their own way.
The interviews contained a balance of open and closed questions, the latter asserting the
control of the interviewer, the former offering the interviewees a wide range of choice
within a question. (see Appendix (10) and (11) for interview questions.)
The eleven ESL/EFL practitioners were invited for focus group discussion.
Seven of them participated in the discussion and the rest, as mentioned above, were
individually interviewed. The discussion lasted about 40-50 minutes on questions
provided beforehand (see appendix (12) for focus group questions). These questions
were generated following the informal discussion with ESL/EFL students, teachers and
practitioners. The discussion proved very fruitful as the participants, being experienced
teachers (referred to as practitioners here), were themselves undergoing the process of
learning and teaching English both in L1 and L2/FL contexts and were well aware of
the phenomenon under discussion (some of them were teaching part-time in the UK).
The discussion was moderated by the researcher himself as a co-participant and an
attempt was made to ensure “an even participation” by encouraging the hesitant
participants “to make contribution, as well as managing those who seek to dominate the
proceedings” (Gillham, 2005: 66).
3.6 Procedure
Access to the potential subjects was made via course convenor of M.Ed. E.L.T.
and the relevant class teachers. During the initial contact with the participants, the
36
nature of the study was explained: that it was voluntary, and that all interviews would be
conducted in English and would be tape-recorded for accuracy and transcription
purposes. They were ensured that all the recordings would be deleted and the
information gained through them would be kept strictly confidential. For their
satisfaction, they were also informed that permission had been sought to contact them
from the Faculty of Education Ethics Committee of the Glasgow University. The
volunteer students were also scheduled for interviews. Afterwards, they were contacted
through mobile text messages, e.mails, and phone calls.
Access to the native and non-native teachers (M.Ed. E.L.T students) was
comparatively easier. They were contacted personally as well as through e-mails. In
order to ensure the participation, M.Ed. E.L.T students were also invited to a small
refreshment party after the focus group discussion. All the participants were given a
‘Plain Language Statement’ sheet, a ‘Consent Form’ (see Appendix (13) & (14)), and
the research and interview questions with some helping points to trigger their thoughts
about the topic. The signed consent forms were received prior to the interviews.
37
“to expand upon an explanation of a phenomenon (language anxiety) by identifying the
key elements of that phenomenon, and then categorizing the relationships of those
elements to the context and process of the experiment” (2002: 1). The audio-recorded
interviews, both individual and group, were listened and transcribed, which itself is a
process of data analysis and interpretation” (Gillham 2005: 121). The data was
transcribed comprehensively and the comments of the subjects were written down in the
relevant section; sections were divided on the basis of the three subject categories for
identification purposes (ESL/EFL learners, teachers and practitioners).
In grounded theory, data analysis and the later stages of data reduction like
coding, synthesis, etc. operate iteratively. Coding is a process of simultaneously
reducing the data by dividing it into units of analysis and coding each unit (Calloway et
al., 1995: 2. accessed from csis.pace.edu/~knapp/AIS95.htm, 17/08/07). The raw data
that emerged from subjects’ experience about language anxiety was reduced into ‘units
of analysis’ on the basis of common themes and by analysing the language patterns of
the participants. These units were codified by giving them suitable headings like ‘beliefs
about language learning’, ‘fear of making mistakes’, ‘cultural differences’, etc. For
further reduction, these categories were integrated and synthesized into four sets of core
categories (1995: 3): psycholinguistic, socio-cultural, manifestation of anxiety, and
alleviation strategies. These categories were used to explain the phenomenon under
investigation (language anxiety), which is the theory developed based on the data.
38
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
A number of studies on L2/FL anxiety have reported the enervating effect it can
cast on learning and particularly speaking a second/foreign language; this must be
overcome by students in order for them to take full advantage of L2/FL instructions
(Horwitz et al., 1986). Thus, the major purpose of this exploratory research was to find
out the factors that language anxiety can stem from for EFL/ESL learners while learning
to communicate in English and thus to suggest some strategies to cope with it
accordingly. The findings of this study based on the views and experiences of the
participants regarding language anxiety seem to be mostly corroborating the findings
offered by the previous research on language anxiety, though not agreeing with every
detail. No significant difference was found between students’, teachers’, and
practitioners’ perceptions on the anxiety-evoking factors, though they differ in their
interpretations of these factors according to their experience and level in ESL/EFL
learning and teaching process. In spite of high correspondence of the findings to the
existing research, the study also found some differences and discrepancies compared to
some previous studies on language anxiety.
39
The subsequent part of this chapter has been divided into three sections to
discuss the anxiety-producing factors found in this study related to psycholinguistics
and socio-cultural aspects of language learning and its use. Psycholinguistic factors
refer to the learners’ cognition, that is to say their psychological or cognitive process of
learning and using a language and have been discussed in section (I). The socio-cultural
aspect of L2/FL learning refers to learners’ culture, social environment, status and
power relations, gender, etc. and form part of discussion in section (II). Learners’
manifestations of anxiety and the strategies to cope with language anxiety have been
discussed in the third (III) section.
4.2 Section I
How learners’ perceive the language learning process, their perceptions about
themselves and how they should be performing in any communicative event, and the
linguistic obstacles they encounter while communicating in English have been found to
be strongly linked with language anxiety. This section discusses the findings in relation
to some such psychological and linguistic factors that may cause language anxiety for
EFL/ESL learners.
40
perceptions, can be considered a clear indication that the teachers should recognize that
the language classroom could become a highly anxiety-provoking environment for
students (Tsui, 1996: cited in Ohata, 2005: 148).
These perceptions suggest that learners feel more anxious and under stress in the
classroom environments that follow the traditional behaviourist theories of learning; for
instance, the classrooms where the students as a whole class constantly drill or repeat
the learning tasks like machines (e.g. audio-lingual language teaching method) and thus
the power or status differentials between students and teachers is upheld. Contrarily,
students feel less anxious and stress in classroom environments that follow the
constructivist theories of learning; these emphasize collaborative activities by forming
learning communities including both teachers and students. (see appendix (2) & (15) for
more detail about behaviourist and constructivist learning theories respectively.)
41
students in normal class, I think it is ok. Maybe I lose the confidence”. Thus, the study
reinforced the findings of the earlier studies by Koch and Terrell (1991), Young (1990,
cited in Young, 1991: 429), and Price (1991), who found that a large number of their
subjects considered oral presentation as the most anxiety-provoking activity in the class.
Interestingly, the same female EFL/ESL teacher further stated, “Students try to
overcome their anxiety by trying to remember the presentation stuff and by rehearsing it,
and then they bring another pressure on themselves by trying to remember what they
have rehearsed and feel probably stressed because they cannot remember everything”.
This anxiety seems to stem from learners’ perceived inability to make themselves
understood or in Price’s (1991: 105) words, from their “frustration of not being able to
communicate effectively”. For instance, a Chinese female EFL/ESL practitioner said, “I
am afraid that audience may misunderstand my speech”.
In line with the study of Gregersen and Horwitz (2002) on ‘perfectionism’, fear
of making mistakes has been found to be strongly linked with the learners’ concern to
save their positive image or impression in the mind of their teacher and peers. Another
42
Saudi male ESL/EFL learner said, “I learn words, next day I forget. Teacher may think I
am a lazy guy, have bad memory, don’t work hard”. Similarly, a Polish female
EFL/ESL practitioner said, “I feel more anxiety while speaking English to Polish people
because they expect me to speak perfectly with native-like proficiency after studying in
the UK”. This suggests, as an experienced teacher elaborated, “It is not anxiety just
about language but different expectations about what is going to happen in an oral
interaction”; in other words, how one is going to be evaluated by one’s interlocutors.
Not surprisingly, students get more apprehensive about making mistakes in front of
teachers because they think it is more likely to influence their end-of-course results. A
Saudi male EFL/ESL learner said, “I get nervous because teacher always scores”.
Another Saudi male EFL/ESL learner offered, “I get conscious, don’t want to make
mistakes in the class, teacher will put this in the mind and will give grades at the end…I
may feel better if no grades at the end. Teacher will not collect mistakes”. This seems to
indicate, as found by Tobias (1986: cited in MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991: 296), that
language anxiety is negatively correlated with language course grades. These findings
suggest that assessment type and teachers’ attitude towards assessment can significantly
contribute to learners’ anxiety. It might be beneficial if future research explores this
issue in depth, particularly in L2/FL classroom.
43
This view suggests that sometimes even not correcting errors, as a technique to
lower anxiety levels, makes some students anxious because many students believe that
speech correction is necessary in order to learn to speak a language well. Even if
teachers do not correct their errors, they find it difficult, particularly adults, to endure a
perceived high degree of inaccuracy in their speech. Resulting from a fear of negative
evaluation, the apprehensive students reported that whenever they anticipate that
complete communication is not possible and that they are unable to express a particular
point fully, they either try to escape or “end up being quiet and reticent, contrary to their
initial intention to participate” (Ohata, 2005: 135, Jones, 2004: 31). “I try to be silent,
keep quiet…so that no body should notice me, I try to escape…try to keep my
conversation short as much as I can”, one Saudi male ESL/EFL learner said. Thus, it
appears, as Horwitz et al. (1986: 127) believe, that frustration experienced when a
learner is unable to communicate a message can lead to apprehension about future
attempts to communicate. This would explain why anxious learners tend to avoid
classroom participation (Ely, 1986: cited in MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991: 297), because
they are either unsure of what they are saying or lose confidence when giving an answer
to a question in the classroom. For example, a Libyan male ESL/EFL student expressed,
“Sometimes I know the answer….but I try to hesitated….I may be, I’ll predict this
answer may be wrong”.
44
ESL/EFL practitioner stated, “My English was so bad in the class because I did not like
the teacher. She was soooo… strict”. Similarly, a Sri Lankan female ESL/EFL
practitioner narrated the expressions of her language teacher when she mispronounced
the word “crow” as “grow”, which left her feel embarrassed for the whole day. She
stated:
She was like…what… “grow”…and there she started (participant
smiles) Oh my God!...she was like…she was pissed
off…right…what you are calling a “crow” a “grow”.
Similar painful and vivid past memories were also reported in Price’s (1991: 106)
interview study. The most common complaint about instructors he found was that many
of them made classroom time a performance rather than a learning time. As one of his
participants put it, “It was never a learning experience. You either did it right or you did
not”. Thus, it can be suggested that teachers’ views or perceptions about learning a
language and their ways of error correction are crucial factors to be considered in order
to alleviate language anxiety.
45
a little upset when I thought many students were better than me”. Such negative
cognitions put serious impediments in their language development; this lead to
heightened awareness of their deficiencies and consequently to reticence when are
called upon to exhibit their competence in the target language.
46
spite of these discrepancies, the findings of this study replicate much of what earlier
studies have reported about the existence of learners’ self-related cognitions – findings
with major implications for language pedagogy.
4.2.7 Pronunciation
In line with the past research, pronunciation appeared to be a big cause of stress
for ESL/EFL learners in this study. An experienced female ESL/EFL teacher stated with
respect to this, “Pronunciation is an important issue across language groups because of
its immediate effect on interaction. When you feel somebody does not understand you,
you need to improve your pronunciation within a second, which is often hard and
stressful”. The issue of pronunciation anxiety has been found to be at higher level
among Chinese ESL/EFL learners in this study. One Chinese female ESL/EFL
practitioner remarked, “I am really afraid of some… we [Chinese] are really confused
what we are talking about. We can not pronounce like Western [mean whose mother
tongue is English] people. I am worried about my pronunciation when I talk to
foreigners”. Consistent with Chen’s (2005) study on “barriers to acquiring listening
strategies for EFL learners”, the participants mentioned the difficulties pertaining to
immediately linking the word they hear to its meaning. “During listening, I can not find
47
to get the word meaning in time. I can note the word but I cannot find the meaning”,
said a Chinese female ESL/ EFL learner.
Thirdly, the high demand of language teachers and their efforts to bring students
closer to the native pronunciation model can also enhance students’ accent anxiety. A
male EFL teacher further clarified the point, “I suppose, guess, it must come from
teachers’ insisting on people attempting a native-like pronunciation. It may also be
because English is so pervasive in most cultures, in other words, heard quite often, that
heightens their awareness of the differences between their and native pronunciation.”
Although these interpretations offer an insight when attempting to understand the causes
of learners’ pronunciation anxiety, they also call for teachers due attention when dealing
with the problem in the classroom. In order to alleviate learners’ pronunciation anxiety,
the same teacher expressed the possibility that, in near future, teachers may opt to use
material, which does not present native-like pronunciation as a model. This suggestion
leads to another issue; which pronunciation model should be considered a native model?
48
Future researchers might wish to explore learners’ views about the model they attempt
or should attempt to adopt.
4.2.8 Grammar
With regard to linguistic difficulties, grammar has been found to be the second
most important aspect that the ESL/EFL learners find difficult when learning to speak a
second/foreign language. “When I want to speak”, said a Chinese female ESL/EFL
practitioner, “I am not sure which tense to use”. Another Taiwani female ESL/EFL
practitioner expressed, “When I speak I am unsure which form of verb to use, I always
have to think before I say”. She further explained that verbs only have one form in
Chinese language and people use the words like ‘today, yesterday, tomorrow, last time,
etc.’ to indicate present, past and future time instead of changing the verb form. She
elaborated this point with an example, “I go to the supermarket today, I go to the
supermarket yesterday”. This difference in language patterns is a big trouble for
Chinese ESL/EFL learners. When asked about the most embarrassing grammatical
difficulties students encounter, a female teacher specifically mentioned Chinese
students’ difficulty with English ‘word classes’. She explained that the problem with the
English language is the adjectives, verbs, adverbs or nouns that are from the same root,
like confidence, confident, confidently, etc. The learners face difficulties with the word
endings or suffixes that are not the part of their L1 system.
49
4.2.9 Vocabulary
The subjects’ responses regarding the difficulties of remembering and retrieving
vocabulary items are also consistent with past research. The responses lend support to
MacIntyre and Gardner’s (1991b, cited in MacIntyre, 1995: 93) research, which found a
significant negative correlation between language anxiety and the ability to recall
vocabulary items. “I don’t have exact words to express my ideas”, “sometimes I am
conscious I am not using the right word”, “I always feel nervous speaking English
because I do not have enough vocabulary”, are some of the utterances participants made
to show their difficulties regarding vocabulary. As learners can process only a limited
amount of information at one time (Lightbown and Spada: 2006: 39), the subjects
reported that many words do not come out when required to speak in hurry. A Chinese
female ESL/EFL learner remarked, “Sometimes I want to speak faster and faster, I try to
talk too much in short time, so irrrrrrrrrrr.” (She smiled and made a noise in the throat to
show that everything is mixed up and the mouth just produces sounds without meaning).
This section has discussed the findings of the study in relation to cognitive and
linguistic factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners. Most of the
findings related to these factors, seem to corroborate the existing literature on language
anxiety though there are some anomalies. The responses of the subjects, particularly
regarding linguistic difficulties, were found to be more comprehensive when compared
to the previous interview studies on language anxiety (e.g Horwitz, 1986; Price, 1991;
Young, 1990; Ohata, 2005; etc.). Although these difficulties have been addressed by
SLA theorists, no study on language anxiety has been found to be as comprehensive in
this respect as this study.
4.3 Section II
Socio-Cultural Factors
50
been found to be linked with L2/FL anxiety. Some participants of this study even
remarked that social factors are a more important cause of language anxiety than
linguistic factors. This section discusses some socio-cultural factors that can help
explaining the sources of L2/FL anxiety for ESL/EFL students.
With regard to errors in the social settings, participants’ responses were mostly
positive. They feel satisfied with the way their errors are treated in the society, which-
in-turn encourages them to speak. It is only occasionally that they feel a bit nervous if
people say, as remarked by a Brazilian female ESL/EFL practitioner, “Oh, you mean
this, and then you feel… oh… because you just feel horrible that you could not manage
to say what you want to say”. Generally, the subjects expressed that people do not
interfere because they think it “rude and impolite to correct someone who is having
conversation with them” (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 32).
51
4.3.2 Cultural Differences
The differences of cultures between that of the learners and target language
appeared to be an important anxiety-producing factor. The more uncertainty or
unfamiliarity with the target language culture, the more it is likely to be anxiety-
provoking because, as a Pakistani male ESL/EFL practitioner explained, “You don’t
know how others are going to interpret what you say; you say with reference to your
own culture and background which could be altogether different”. Furthermore, an
Omani female ESL/EFL practitioner stated, “It is a cultural aspect that you ‘lose face’ if
you say the wrong things”. The use of the term ‘losing face’, by the participant supports
Jones’ (2004: 34) view that language anxiety is a concern of face in different cultures.
Similar to Jones’ (2004) findings about culture as a causal factor in Asian context, an
experienced female teacher stated, “It is not anxiety just about language but differences
in cultural practices. Even in one-to-one interaction, it is not clear to me how much I
should talk and how much they [people from different cultures] should talk”. Her
further comments in relation to Japanese students correspond to Jones’ (2004: 35)
research that a specific culture-bound syndrome, i.e., one set of culturally distinguished
features, is a disorder apparently unique to Japan: it is called taijin Kyofusho (TKS),
literally ‘fear of social relations’. She maintained, "Even sometimes if you do manage to
encourage Japanese students to speak, they have a very good grasp of patterns, grammar,
vocabulary, but they are not confident to use it because they are not sure of the cultural
rules”.
In accordance with the research on classroom interaction by Pica (1987: 4), the
study found that unequal status between students and teachers can also be a source of
52
anxiety for the students. A Taiwani female ESL/EFL practitioner remarked,
“Absolutely, every time I have a meeting with my tutor, I try to speak perfect English,
because I am very nervous to talk to somebody higher in status. Their English is
perfect”. This indicates that lack of confidence on one’s linguistic competence makes
one feel inferior and apprehensive to communicate with someone having full command
on language, e.g. native speakers (Peirce, 1995: 21). It can also explain the source of
intercultural communication apprehension where unequal linguistic competencies of L1
and FL/SL speakers can make the communication event stressful for L2/FL speakers.
4.3.4 Gender
The study yielded conflicting findings as was the case with the earlier studies
regarding gender-related anxiety while communicating in a foreign language (e.g.,
Carrier, 1999: 70; Kitano, 2001: cited in Gobel and Matsuda, 2003: 23). The subjects
appeared to have different experiences of feeling anxious or comfortable while talking
to the opposite sex. Some male participants stated that it was only in the initial stage
when they started studying in co-education at university level that they felt a bit anxious.
However, this was not the case in environments where both male and female students
53
study together; as a Chinese female ESL/EFL learner said, “I don’t worry about guys
and girls because in China we study together”. This could suggest that only in those
cultures where males and females students study in segregation, people are more likely
to feel communication anxiety when talking to the opposite sex. Conversely, some
participants from the same cultures (e.g. Pakistani, Omani, Libyan, etc.) stated that they
do not feel any such anxiety. This suggests that gender-related communication
apprehension is entirely based upon one’s own personal view.
4.4.1 Manifestation
Learners’ anxiety while speaking an L2/FL is manifested in a variety of different
ways, which sends some signals for the interlocutors to identify the anxiety-related
behaviours. Language instructors can recognize these behaviours and then can begin to
explore their instructional strategies to alleviate learners’ anxiety.
54
because I know my weakness.” Similarly, another Saudi male student said, “I’ll stop
speaking, stop conversation about this point, I don’t want to show to my class that I am
nervous”.
These results seem to indicate that language teachers can accurately and credibly
decode the symptoms of anxious behaviour in the language class and can deal with them
accordingly. Young (1992, 169: cited in Ohata, 2005: 150) presented a few suggestion
to language teachers in this respect: “ a) be sensitive to the signals students’ provide, b)
recognize the behaviours for what they are, c) trust your perceptions, and d) work to
reduce language anxiety”.
The most frequent suggestion participants made was to make the language
classroom environment less formal and more friendly, one where students can make
mistakes without looking or sounding inept (Constructivist theory of learning, also see P.
43 and appendix (15)). A way forward to create less stressful classroom environment, as
suggested by a male ESL/EFL teacher, is that the “instructors should create situations
where students can feel successful in using English and avoid setting up the activities
that increase the chances for the students to fail”. He suggested a truly communicative
approach where students are given chances to succeed even with imperfect language
competence. Another female teacher laid emphasis on the use of drama-like and role-
play activities, so that learners may feel safe in a pretended situation with a pretended
identity (suggestopedia). In setting up an activity, a third ESL/EFL female teacher stated
that instructions should be made clear and it should also be ensured that the students
have sufficient ideas and lexis to fulfil the task. In order to make the classroom a safe
55
and less anxiety-provoking place, the friendly and encouraging role of the teachers was
stated as crucial. Earlier studies have reported similar perceptions of their research
subjects regarding the role of language instructors. In Price’s (1991: 107) interview
study, the most frequent observation of the subjects was that, “they would feel more
comfortable if the instructor were more like a friend helping them to learn and less like
an authority figure making them to perform” (also see Young, 1990).
The subjects offered some very concrete and practical suggestions to lessen the
enervating impact of language anxiety in the learners. A general feeling among the
participants was that the students’ confidence should be developed to make mistakes
while using the language. Teachers should talk about the role of mistakes in the class, as
a male ESL/EFL teacher remarked, “Man who never made a mistake never made
anything, if you are not making mistakes you are not learning anything but you are
doing old stuff”. In the same way, teachers’ positive way of providing corrective and
constructive feedback on errors rather than interrupting and correcting students when
they are communicating was recommended. The same teacher opined, “Teachers should
make private notes of the errors and then later address the whole class without saying
that this is the error X made and this is the error Y made”. This suggests the use of
formative2 assessment and feedback method as away to reduce language anxiety.
It was also asserted that students’ self-related cognitions and beliefs should be
taken into account in order to successfully cope with language anxiety. As a first step, it
was generally maintained that teachers should take time to discuss or initiate discussion
in the class by pointing out that it is very common for students to feel uncomfortable,
uneasy and anxious while speaking English, thus inviting their thoughts about its
possible reasons as well as solutions. The discussion, it was assumed, would heighten
their awareness that the feelings of anxiety are common in most of the learners and are
not associated with any particular individual. Thus, it would also help them to take away
the feeling of competition or comparison that others are all smarter and more confident
(Price, 1991: 107). Instead of engaging in negative self-talk, as commented by a
2
An interactive pedagogy accomplished jointly by the teacher and the student and oriented more to
future development rather than measurement of the past or current achievement (Pryor & Torrance,
2001:615).
56
Pakistani male ESL/EFL practitioner, “Students should be encouraged to think about
their positive personality traits and thus gather their own strengths and build upon them”.
This way, instructors can “build students’ confidence and self-esteem in their
second/foreign language ability via encouragement, reassurance, positive reinforcement,
and empathy” (Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 232). Furthermore, the teachers should
identify the signs of perfectionism in the learners and should work to explore their
earlier belief systems in order to help them “to step down from the set standards at the
early stages and then work patiently to achieve the desired standards gradually”, stated
the same Pakistani participant.
Though many of the accounts from the participants bear much similarity with
the strategies to cope with language anxiety reported in the previous research, a unique
and altogether different strategy was also found, one which has not been offered in
earlier studies. A male ESL/EFL teacher, considering native-like pronunciation as one
of the biggest sources of anxiety for a majority of ESL/EFL learners, suggested,
“Ceasing to make English native-speaker pronunciation as a model to alleviate language
anxiety”. Irrespective of its practical implications, the strategy seems a reasonable step
towards reducing anxiety in the modern communicative language classes. Yet another
strategy, which is less unique but has not been clearly articulated or reported in any
study on language anxiety, was to abandon the practice of giving summative3 feedback
in the form of grades and marks. “I may feel better if I know I would not be given
grades at the end of the term”, expressed a Saudi student, as mentioned in section (I) of
this chapter. A third strategy, according to an Omani ESL/EFL Practitioner, was to
promote single sex classes, which is also a comparatively less cited strategy in literature
on language anxiety.
In spite of the variety of techniques found in this study, as well as those reported
in previous studies, language anxiety seems to continue to flourish in the language
classrooms. It suggests that these strategies are just a guideline for the teachers, as well
as for the ESL/EFL learners, rather than a treatment of language anxiety. This also
confirms the view that language anxiety is a complex psychological phenomenon, one
3
Summative assessment provides, as the term suggests, “a summary of achievement at the end of the
course” (Harlen cited in Gardner, 2006: 104).
57
which requires special attention by the language instructors if it is to be adequately dealt
with. However, it can be postulated that apt implication of these strategies can reduce
language anxiety to a considerable extent, even if they cannot completely alleviate it.
In brief, the findings discussed in this chapter suggest why a significant number
of second/foreign language students feel anxious and embarrassed when learning and
particularly speaking a second/foreign language. The findings also suggest the
importance of identification and knowledge of these factors by language instructors in
order to assist students to make progress in their language development.
58
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Issues
Many issues seem to emerge from the responses and views of the subjects on
language anxiety for future investigation. These emerging issues should provide a
framework for future researchers in the area of language anxiety for further in-depth and
detailed studies to fill the gaps that this study points out.
The results of this study clearly indicate the existence of high levels of language
anxiety in most of the learners who are learning English, even through the use of
modern communicative language teaching techniques from highly experienced language
teachers. The persistence of the problem, in spite of being addressed by a large body of
research, suggests that the issue of language anxiety still needs to be researched in more
detail regarding its nature, causes, impact and treatment. In addition, the following
issues emerged which require due attention of the future researchers.
1) Though the study did not aim to compare the participants’ responses on
language anxiety on the basis of their cultures, but through a critical evaluation
of their responses, it emerges that the more negative responses came from
Chinese and Saudi participants as compared to those of the participants from
other cultures. It suggests that there may be some cultural reasons behind the
anxiety reactions of some learners. In a language class with students from
different cultures, it needs to be considered whether language anxiety is a
cultural-bound phenomenon for some learners as is the case with the Japanese
students (Jones, 2004) (see section II, chapter five, cultural differences).
59
order to effectively utilize modern language teaching techniques in multi-
cultural and multi-lingual language classes and to reduce language anxiety.
3) SLA researchers have identified many linguistic difficulties, which have been
found in this research as anxiety provoking, but there seems to be a shortage of
solutions available to instructors and students who face this problem.
5.3 Conclusions
Although the existing research has provided a valuable insight into language
anxiety from both statistical and descriptive aspects, the phenomenon, because of its
60
complicated and multi-faceted nature, requires further exploration from a variety of
perspectives and approaches. This study, conducted through individual and focus group
interviews, was an attempt to apprehend the true nature of the phenomenon from a
different perspective.
The results of this interview study clearly indicate that the most anxiety
provoking skill in L2/FL (English) learning is speaking skill. Almost all research
subjects acknowledged that people feel anxious and nervous while speaking English in
front of others. Some ESL/EFL learners even expressed that they feel ‘stupid’ when
they cannot speak English well and others maintained that they try to skip or escape the
situations, which demand speaking in front of others, either in the classroom or outside
of the classroom. What seems to distinguish speaking is the public nature of the skill;
this poses a threat to peoples’ self-concept, self-identity, and ego, which they have
formed in their first language as reasonable and intelligent individuals (Horwitz et al.,
1986: 128). Every factor or situation that creates possibilities or enhances the chances of
exposing their deficiencies and language imperfections in front of others is likely to
cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners. This situation could be either classroom
interaction in the form of open class forum, group participation or class presentation, or
giving a short talk in any public event is likely to challenge learners’ communicative
abilities.
61
Whenever the learners anticipate these problems while speaking English, as elaborated
by an ESL/EFL teacher, they get frightened. This lack of success when trying to achieve
the expected performance reinforces learners’ lack of confidence in their general
linguistic knowledge and results into debilitating level of anxiety in them when they are
called upon to fulfil the demand of any communicative situation. A major cause of
facing these L2/FL difficulties was found to be the lack of sufficient input and chances
of practicing speaking skill (output) in the social contexts where English is not used as
an L1. Many times students reported that they know certain vocabulary items and
sentence structures but they do not come out right when needed in any communicative
situation. This indicates, from psycholinguistic perspective, that when learners’
cognitive processes of using a language (speaking) are not regularized due to lack of
practice, either in the classroom or in the society, these difficulties are likely to continue
causing trouble for the L2/FL learners.
62
should routinely do” (Oxford, 1999: cited in Jones, 2004: 37). All such advice is
excellent but also applicable to students who do not show signs of anxiety; therefore,
the advice cannot be other than general (2004: 37).
Language anxiety, it can be postulated, may not require any ‘special treatment’
but what it does demand is the careful attitude of the language teachers in order to
understand and to effectively diagnose this phenomenon in the learners. Then, it
requires the application of modern approaches that lay emphasis on enhancing learning
opportunities in an environment that is conducive to learning.
5.4 Recommendations
Given that language anxiety can exercise detrimental influence on second/foreign
language learning and communication in the target language, it is important that
language instructors not only recognize that anxiety is a major cause of students’ lack of
success in L2/FL communication but also assist them to overcome their feelings of
unease and discomfort. Based on the findings of this study, the following
recommendations can be made.
63
3) For active participation in the classroom discussion, it should be ensured that
students are provided friendly, informal and learning-supportive
environments. This can be done by teachers’ friendly, helpful and co-
operative behaviour, making students feel comfortable when speaking in the
class. This can also reduce, although not eliminate altogether, the effect of
social and status difference between students and teachers to a considerable
extent.
5) In order to allay students’ fear that their mistakes in front of the teachers will
influence their end of course grades, more emphasis should be given to
formative assessment (assessment for learning) and feedback rather than
summative assessment (assessment of learning) and feedback.
6) The teachers should initiate discussion in the class about the feelings of
anxiety and should take measures to reduce the sense of competition among
them.
64
1999: 232). These beliefs can be confronted by instilling realistic
expectations and reasonable performance standards in the learners and by
raising their awareness regarding the speed with which fluency in the target
language can be achieved. More importantly, students should be guided as to
how to direct their attention away from self-centred worries when they are
speaking a second/foreign language (1999: 233).
9) Familiarity with the culture and ethnic background of the students and an
awareness of their previous language learning experiences can also assist
language teachers to understand and decode anxiety-related behaviours in
some students. In a class of mixed cultures, teachers should specifically
make the effort to create a sense of friendship and cooperation among the
students. This will help them to speak more confidently and with less anxiety
in the class.
10) Finally, there should be some specific teachers training courses on language
anxiety in order to make teachers aware of this complex issue and, hence,
alleviate it.
Recommendations on the basis of the finding of this study are not exhaustive
and every language teacher can offer different ways of reducing language anxiety based
upon his/her personal observation of the phenomenon. This study offers a number of
strategies to cope with the potentially pervasive and detrimental effect of language
anxiety. It is posited that an apt utilization of these strategies by language teachers can
help reduce second/foreign language anxiety and can potentially increase students’
confidence to learn and particularly to speak the target language. (For further
recommendations, see Horwitz and Young (1991) and Young (1999). Thus, during this
process, the role of language teachers is deemed highly crucial and their particular
beliefs, perceptions and attitudes towards language learning and teaching process have
the potential of both causing and reducing language anxiety in the learners. Future
researchers on language anxiety should attempt to explore teachers’ beliefs and
perceptions about language learning and teaching, in addition to those of learners, as a
mean to effectively address the multi-dimensional construct of language anxiety.
65
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Appendices
Appendix: 1
Suggestopedia: (Chapter I)
Source:
http://esl.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.englishraven.com/method
%5Fsuggest.html (22/08/07)
73
Appendix: 2
Behaviourism believes that learning takes place as the result of the response that
follows on a specific stimulus. By repeating the stimulus-response (S-R] cycle of an
organism (animal or human), it is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the
same stimulus is present. Behaviour can be modified and learning is measured by
observable change in behaviour.
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/2000/scheepers_md/projects/loo/theory/behavior.html
(24/08/07)
74
Appendix: 3
This grave concern about errors indicates that highly anxious students see
their less than perfect performance as failure and ruminate over their errors,
which makes their future attempts to communicate even more stressful.
Brophy (1999, 1) lists a number of characteristics of perfectionist students,
75
based on Pacht’s (1984: cited in 1999: 1) conceptualization of perfectionism,
that seem to be counterproductive to learning of any kind, especially language
learning.
In contrast, non-anxious students set realistic personal standards, see lack of anxiety
as a kind of success, give credit for not getting anxious, and are relaxed in tense
situation. (2002: 567)
76
Appendix: 4
Language anxiety has also been found to stem from interpersonal relationships.
Young (1991) views that it is probably the most commonly cited and discussed source
of anxiety and considers low self-esteem and competitiveness – two significant sources
of anxiety – under the category of ‘interpersonal relations’. The competitive nature of
the learners can also lead to anxiety when they compare themselves to others and to an
idealized self-image (Bailey, 1983: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 220). Similarly,
Krashen (1980: 46) suggests, “ … some students feel personally or intellectually
overshadowed by peers. When the source of the shadow is removed…, other students’
fluency and accuracy suddenly blossoms”. More recently, Dörnyei and Kormos (2000:
296) have also found language anxiety to be linked to interpersonal relationships. They
argued that interlocutors’ degree of language anxiety might influence each other during
interaction; in cases where both are anxious, anxiety is more likely to have a significant
effect on L2 output, whereas, “if the interlocutor is sufficiently confident, h/she might
‘pull along’ the more anxious speaker and therefore the impact of anxiety may not reach
statistical significance”.
77
Appendix: 5
78
Appendix: 6
L2/FL speakers’ perceptions about the target language, its community, ethnicity
and culture may also affect their language behaviour. According to Social
Accommodation Theory (Giles, Bourhis, & Taylor, 1977: cited in Carrier, 1999: 70),
perceived status of L2/FL learners’ ethnic, caste, social andsocioeconomic groups in
relation to other groups of L1 speakers can affect the L2/FL speakers’ language
behaviour. In accordance with this theory, Carrier further states:
It has been posited that if feelings towards target language (TL) group
are positive, non-native speakers (L2/FL) (NNSs) converge by using the
TL group’s speech markers in their interactions. Conversely, if the
feelings towards TL group are negative, NNSs (L2/FL) may choose to
diverge by maintaining their ethnic speech markers in interactions (1999:
70).
79
Appendix: 7
80
Appendix: 8
Hauck and Hurd (2005) offered a list of eleven strategies to deal with language
anxiety to their research respondents (n=48). They were asked to tick strategies that
applied to them and then select the most important one. The strategies were:
1. Use positive self-talk (e.g. I can do it; it doesn't matter if I make mistakes; others
make mistakes)
10. Use relaxation techniques e.g. deep breathing, consciously speaking more
slowly, etc.
11. Other
81
Figure: 3 Most Important Strategies
Source: Hauck and Hurd (2005), Accessed From,
http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2005/Mirjam_Hauck.htm (27/03/07-20/08/07)
82
Appendix: 9 (a)
Research Subjects
83
Appendix: 9 (b)
Research Subjects
84
Appendix: 9 (c)
Research Subjects
85
Appendix: 10
Questions Prompts
86
Psychological, personality traits, lack of
Q 6: What do you think are the reasons of
confidence, language difficulties, not
this nervousness or anxiety?
been taught properly, feel it is difficult to
learn, etc.
87
Appendix: 11
• Q1: How do you view the role of language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners in
learning and particularly speaking English language?
• Q 2: What kinds of situations and language classroom activities have you found
to be anxiety- provoking for the students?
• Q 3: What do you think are the causes of students’ anxiety while speaking
English?
• Q 5: What signs of anxiety have you noticed in anxious learners during your
experience of teaching English to ESL/EFL learners?
88
Appendix: 12
• Q 1: What are the psychological factors that cause language anxiety for
ESL/EFL learners while learning and speaking English? (Students’ beliefs,
motivation, confidence, expectations, etc.)
• Q 2: What are the linguistic factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL
learners? (Difficulties in learning grammar, memorising and retrieving
vocabulary items while speaking, etc.)?
• Q 3: What are the differences between first and second language acquisition
environments that cause language anxiety for an ESL/EFL learner?
• Q 4: What are the socio-cultural factors that cause language anxiety for
ESL/EFL learners (social status, power relations, gender etc.)?
• Q 5: What are the situations that are anxiety producing for the ESL/EFL learners
both in the classroom procedure and outside of class in the social context?
89
Appendix: 13
Plain Language Statement
Study Title and Research Details:
Title: Investigating the factors that cause language anxiety for non-native
learners of English language while speaking English.
Research Details: The study is a student research project required for the
award of a postgraduate degree entitled M.Ed. E.L.T (English Language
Teaching) in the Department of Education and EFL Unit (English as a Foreign
Language) of Glasgow University, United Kingdom. The study is being conducted by
Mr. Muhammad Tanveer (an M.Ed. E.L.T student in the Glasgow University) under the
supervision of Julie McAdam (a lecturer in the Curricular Studies Department of
Glasgow University).
You are being invited to take part in a research study. Before you decide, it is
important for you to understand why the research is being done and what it will involve.
Please take time to read the following information carefully and discuss it with others if
you wish. Ask us if there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more
information. Take time to decide whether or not you wish to take part.
The study involves four to six students for individual interviews and six to nine
students for focus group discussion drawn from non-English speaking backgrounds and
will investigate the factors that cause language anxiety. You will be invited to
participate either in a focus group discussion lasting no more than forty to fifty minutes
or in individual interviews lasting only fifteen to twenty minutes per participant. Your
group discussion and interviews will be tape-recorded and transcribed for analysis.
All information, which is collected about you during the course of the research,
will be kept strictly confidential. You will be identified by an ID number and any
information about you will have your name and address removed so that you cannot be
recognised from it.
The data gathered through your participation will be deleted and you will be
provided written summary of the results of the research when it is completed. For your
satisfaction, the project has been reviewed by the Faculty of Education Ethics
Committee. Thank you for your time to read this information. For further detail or any
concern please contact the Faculty of Education Ethics Officer, Dr George Head at
G.Head@educ.gla.ac.uk.
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Appendix: 14
Faculty of Education
CONSENT FORM
Title of Project: Investigating the factors that cause language anxiety for
ESL/EFL learners in learning speaking skills and the influence it casts on
communication in the target language.
1. I confirm that I have read and understand the Plain Language Statement for the
above study and have had the opportunity to ask questions.
5. I agree / do not agree (delete as applicable) to take part in the above study.
Muhammad Tanveer
Researcher Date Signature
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Appendix: 15
“Basically, constructivism views that knowledge is not 'about' the world, but
rather 'constitutive' of the world (Sherman, 1995). Knowledge is not a fixed object; it is
constructed by an individual through her own experience of that object. Constructivist
approach to learning emphasizes authentic, challenging projects that include students,
teachers and experts in the learning community. Its goal is to create learning
communities that are more closely related to the collaborative practice of the real world.
This model of learning emphasizes meaning-making through active participation in
socially, culturally, historically, and politically situated contexts. A crucial element of
active participation is dialog in shared experiences, through which situated collaborative
activities, such as modelling, discourse and decision making, are necessary to support
the negotiation and creation of meaning and understanding.
Constructivists argue that it is impractical for teachers to make all the current
decisions and dump the information to students without involving students in the
decision process and assessing students' abilities to construct knowledge. In other words,
guided instruction is suggested that puts students at the centre of learning process, and
provides guidance and concrete teaching whenever necessary. This student-centred
guided learning environment is considered, however, more appropriate for ill-structured
domains or higher-level learning (CTGV, 1991)”.
http://www.edb.utexas.edu/csclstudent/Dhsiao/theories.html#top (24/08/07)
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