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CHAPTER 7 : ACID AND BASE

T. 7.0

Arrhenius Definition!!
1.An acid is a chemical substance which ionises in water to produce hydrogen ion,H+.
2. A base is a chemical substance which ionises in water to produce hydroxide ion, OH-

1. Define strong acid

1. Define the Arrhenius and weak acid.
acid and alkali. 2. Define strong base
2. Define base. and weak base.
3. Describe chemical 3. Write 3 examples of
properties of acids strong acid, weak acid,
strong alkali and weak
alkali respectively.

Synthesising the concept

of strong acids, weak
Analysing characteristics acids, strong alkalis and
and properties of acids weak alkalis
and bases
7.1 7.2

ACIDS AND BASES

7.4 7.3

Analysing
Analysing Concentration of
Neutralization acids and alkalis

1. Define
neutralization reaction. 1. Define molarity
2. Write ionic equation 2. Describe methods for
for neutralization preparing standard
reaction. solutions.
3. State relationship
between the numbers of
moles with molarity.
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T. 7.1
Substance produced
hydrogen ion H+ when Substance with opposite
dissolved/ionise in properties to acid and may react
water. with acid to form salt and water.
Water dissociated acid to
form H+ ion
H2O
Base that H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-
dissolved in
Base water is called
Acid
alkali

The functions of water in

Definition of determining properties of
alkali acid and alkali
Define acid
and base

Water dissociated alkali to

form OH-
H2O
CHARACTERISTIC NaOH Na+ + OH-
AND PROPERTIES
OF ACIDS AND NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
BASES

Uses of acids
and alkalis
The difference between
Properties of base and alkali
acid and alkali

Base Alkali
Acid Alkali Water Water soluble
1. Sour Bitter insoluble base forming
2. Electricity Electricity conductor metal OH-
Oxide or ion
conductor
hydroxide.
3. React with base to React with acid to
form salt and water. form salt and water.
4. React with metal to React with ammonium
form salt and hydrogen salt to form ammonia
gas. gas.
5. React with React with halogen to
carbonate to form salt, form 2 types of salt.
water and CO2
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T.7.2

H+ H+ H+ CH3COOH
Cl-
Cl- H +
Cl- CH3COO-
- CH3COOH
Cl Cl-
H+ - + CH3COOH H+
Cl H H+ -
CH3COO CH3COOH

Acid that completely ionise in water Acid that partially ionise in water to
to produce H+ produce H+

Definition of Definition of
strong acid Strong acid weak acid
and weak acid

Relationship STRONG ACIDS,

between pH and WEAK ACIDS,
molarity of acids STRONG ALKALIS
and alkalis AND WEAK ALKALIS

Definition of Definition of
weak alkali Strong alkalis strong alkali
and weak alkalis

Alkali that completely ionise in

Alkali that partially ionise in water
water to produce OH-
to produce OH-

+
Na+ - Na+ OH- NH4 NH4OH
- OH NH4OH NH4OH
OH Na OH-
+

OH- OH- NH4OH OH-

Na+ + NH4 + *T.7.2.1
NH4OH
- Na Na+
OH

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Acidity increase Basicity increase

Neutral

The smaller pH value, the The higher pH value, the lower

higher concentration of H+ concentration of H+

Scale pH

Relationship To determine
pH of acids and
between pH and alkali
molarity of acids
and alkalis

Universal
indicator

Explanation
Acid or
alkali

PH scale
Molarities H2SO4 HCl NaOH
CH3COOH NH4OH
(M) (Strong (Strong (strong
(weak acid) (weak alkali)
acid) acid) alkali)
0.1 M 1.0 1.0 3.0 14.0 11.0
0.01 M Module 1.2
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0.001M 1.5 3.0 4.0 11.0 10.0
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T. 7.3

No. of mole of solute

Solute mass (g)
Molarity (M) =
Concentration =
Volume of solution ( dm3)
Volume of solution (dm3)
Or M = n/ (V/1000) or n = MV/1000
Where V=volume in cm3

÷ Molar mass
Concentration in g dm-3 Concentration in mole dm-3 (M)
X Molar mass

Concentration
The molarity of an acid
decreased the pH value Calculation
increase. The molarity of exercise for
an alkali decreased, the concentration
pH value decreased CONCENTRATION
OF ACIDS AND
ALKALIS Preparation of
standard solution

Relationship Preparation of
between pH and a solution
molarity of acid
and alkali

Dilution Method

pipette

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*T.7.3.1

Exercise 1

Volume and
Molarity Concentration No. of. Mole Volume Mass
concentration of (n = MV/1000)
(mol dm-3) -3
(g dm ) (cm 3 ) (g)
substance.
0.05 x 1000
100 cm3 sulphuric 0.5 x 100/1000
49/98 = 0.5 49.0 0.5 0.05 x 98
acid 49.0 g dm-3 = 0.05

50 cm3 hydrochloric
acid 0.2 mol dm-3

2 mole copper(II)
sulphate 1.5 mole
dm-3

50 cm3 aluminium
chloride 0.5 mol dm-3

150 cm3 sodium

hydroxide 4.0 g dm-3

1.5 mole ammonium

hydroxide 1.0 mole
dm-3

250 cm3 potassium

hydrogen sulphate
1.0 mol dm-3

25 cm3 copper nitrate

0.025 mole dm-3

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*T.7.3.2
Exercise 2. Complete the table below.
[RAM.: H,1; S,32; O,16; Cl 35.5; Cu,64; Al,27; Na,23; N,14; K,39; Pb,207]

Amount and
No. of moles Formula No. mol Molarity
No. molarity of Formula Mass
(n=MV/1000) of ion of ion ion
chemicals.
2 x 100 H+ 2 x 0.2 4.0
3
100 cm sulphuric H2SO4 1000 0.2 x 98 = 0.4
1
acid 2.0 mol dm-3 = 0.2 mol SO42- 1 x 0.2 2.0
= 0.2
H+
50 cm3
2 hydrochloric acid
0.2 mol dm-3
1.5 x 25
25 cm3 copper(II)
1000
3 sulphate solution
= SO42-
1.5 mol dm-3

50 cm3 aluminium
4 chloride 0.5 mol
1.5
dm-3
Na+
150 cm3 sodium
5 hydroxide 0.1 mol
dm-3

100 cm3 ammonium

6 hydroxide 1.0 mol
dm-3

250 cm3 potassium

7 hydrogen sulphate
1.0 mol dm-3

25 cm3 copper(II)
8 nitrate 0.025 mol
dm-3

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T. 7.4

1. The reaction between hydrochloric acid

1. The reaction between acid and sodium hydroxide.
Equation:
and base to form salt and
water. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
Ionic equation:
H+ + OH- H2O
2. The reaction between
hydrogen ion (H+) from acid
2. Reaction between sulphuric acid and
with hydroxide ion (OH-)
calcium hydroxide.
from alkali to form water.

Example To build ion equation

Definition

Application of
Calculation using formula: neutralization in every
NEUTRALISATION day life
Va Ma = na
Vb Mb nb
Experiment:
Titration method

Neutralisation between
sulphuric acid and
sodium hydroxide

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7.1 Definition of acid and alkali

a. Acid : Chemical compound that DISSOLVES IN WATER
to produce HYDROGEN IONS.

H2O
HCl H + (aq) + Cl-(aq)
H2O
H2SO4 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

CH3 COOH CH3 COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

b. Alkali : Chemical compound that DISSOLVES IN WATER

to produce HYDROXIDE IONS.

KOH (s) K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

NaOH (s) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

7.2 Properties of acid and alkali.

a. Acid - Tastes sour and turns moist blue litmus to red.

Chemical properties

(i) Reaction with metals that are more electropositive than hydrogen
in the electrochemical series produces salt and hydrogen gas :

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

Example: Zn + 2HCl  Zn Cl2 +H2

Mg + 2HNO3  Mg(NO3)2+ H2

Observation :…………………………………………………………

Gas test : …………………………………………………………

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(ii) Reaction with metallic carbonates produces salt, water and

carbon dioxide

Acid + Metallic Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Example: CuCO3 + 2HNO3  Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

Observation :…………………………………………………………

Gas test : ……………………………………………………………..

(iii) Reaction with bases produces salt and water

Acid + Base/alkali  Salt + Water

Example: ZnO + H2SO4ZnSO4 +H2O

b. Alkali - Tastes bitter,slippery and turns moist red litmus to blue.

Chemical properties

(i) Reaction with acids and alkalis / bases produces salt and
water.

Example : NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

(ii) Reaction with ammonium salts produces ammonia gas.

Example: NH4+ + OH- NH3(g) + H2O

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Activity 1

A) WRITE CHEMICAL FORMULAE FOR THE FOLLOWING COMPOUNDS:

No Name of compound Chemical No Name of compound Chemical

formula formula
1 hydrochloric acid 16 magnesium oxide

2 nitric acid 17 calcium oxide

3 sulphuric acid 18 copper (II) oxide

4 sodium oxide 19 lead (II) oxide

5 Potassium hydroxide 20 sodium nitrate

6 Calcium hydroxide 21 Potassium sulphate

7 Barium hydroxide 22 sodium carbonate

8 Magnesium hydroxide 23 sodium chloride

9 Ammonium hydroxide 24 magnesium

10 hydroxonium ion 25 Zinc

11 hydroxide ion 26 sodium

12 hydroxyl ion 27 Carbon dioxide

13 sodium carbonate 28 Hydrogen gas

14 calcium carbonate 29 water

15 copper (II) carbonate 30 Magnesium nitrate

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B) WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR THE FOLLOWING REACTIONS :

1: Hydrochloric acid and zinc oxide :

2: Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide:

3: Hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon:

4: Hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate:

5: Sulphuric acid and zinc powder:

6: Sulphuric acid and zinc oxide:

7: Sulphuric acid and zinc carbonate:

8: Nitric acid and copper(II)oxide:

9: Nitric acid and sodium hydroxide:

10: Nitric acid and aluminium powder:

11. Nitric acid and copper(II)carbonate:

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12 : Ethanoic acid and magnesium ribbon:

13: Ethanoic acid and calcium carbonate:

14: Ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide:

15: Ethanoic acid and sodium oxide:

7.3 Role of water in determining the properties of acid and alkali:

a. Role of water in determining the properties of acids:

i. Acids in the absence of water or in other solvents:
- does not show acidic properties
- acids remain in the form of molecules
- no free mobile hydrogen ions
- no acidic properties

Draw molecules of hydrochloric acid in the absence of water

ii. In the presence of water :

- Molecules in acids will ionise to produce hydrogen ions
HCl(aq) → H+ + Cl-
- The presence of hydrogen ions are the causes for the acidic
properties shown.

Draw H+ and Cl- ions in water

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b.
c. Role of water in determining properties of alkali :

i. In the presence of water , an alkali dissolves and ionises to produce

hydroxide ions.
H2 O

KOH K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

ii. In the absence of water or in organic solvents, no free and mobile

hydroxide ions are produced, so the alkaline properties are not shown.

7.4 pH Concept
a. pH is a scale of numbers to measure the degree of acidity and alkalinity
of an aqueous solution based on the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ .

b. pH scale: 0-14:

pH value : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

More acidic Neutral More alkaline

7.4 Acid and alkali strength

a) The strength of acids and alkalis depends on the degree of ionisation

or dissociation.

b) Strong acid :
Acid which dissociates completely in water to produce hydrogen ions.

HCl → H + (aq) + Cl-(aq)

Weak acid :
Acid which ionises / dissociates partially in water to produce hydrogen ions.

CH3 COOH CH3 COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

Example:

4 HCl molecules in water 4 CH3 COOH molecules in water

H+ H+ CH3 COOH
Cl- Cl- CH3 COOH H+
H+ H+ H+
Cl- Cl- CH3 COO- CH3 COO-

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All 4 molecules ionises Only some CH3COOH molecules

to produce 4 Cl- ionise while others ions
 Dueions
to Hand
+
4 H+ ions in hydrochloric acidremain
concentration is higher
as than in ethanoic
molecules . acid, at
the same concentration , the pH of the strong acid is lesser than the pH of
the weak acid.

c) Strong alkali :
Alkali which ionises completely in water to produce hydroxide ions.

KOH (aq) K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Weak alkali :
Alkali which ionises partially in water to produce hydroxide ions.

NH4OH(aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

 At the same concentration, the pH value of a weak alkali is

_______________than a strong alkali because the concentration of its
hydroxide ions is _______________. This is because a weak alkali ionises
____________but a strong alkali ionises____________.

Classification into strong and weak acid

(a) Fill in the empty spaces with the correct answer.
Strong acid Weak acid
symbol Name Symbol Name
1. HCl HCOOH Methanoic
acid
2.
3.

7.5 Acid and alkali concentration

a. Concentration –
The measurement of substance dissolved in an amount of solvent.

c. pH of substance solution depends on :

i. Degree of dissosiation (The strength of acid or alkali)

ii. Molarity (concentration in mol dm-3 )

d. Preparation of standard solution :

Standard solution is a solution of which its concentration is accurately
known.

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e. Dilution of acid/alkali :

M1 V1= M2 V2 -M1 – Molarity before dilution

-V1 – Volume before dilution
-M2 – Molarity after dilution
-V2 – Volume after dilution

e. g : Find the volume of 2.0 mol dm3 sulphuric acid, H 2SO4 needed
to prepare 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm3 sulphuric acid
Before dilution After dilution
M1 V1 M2 V2
(mol dm )
-3
(cm )
3
( mol dm )
-3
(cm3)
2.0 ? 1.0 100
V1 = M 2 V 2
M1
= 1 x 100
2
=50 cm3
Try these yourself:
Calculate the volume needed to prepare each of the
following dilute solutions

a. 50 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm3 sodium hydroxide,

NaOH solution from 2.0 moldm3 solution
hydroxide ,NaOH solution

Before dilution After dilution

M1 V1 M2 V2

2 ? 0.1 50

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b. 100cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 potassium

manganate (VII) ,KMnO4 solution from 1.0
mol dm3 potassium manganate (VII)
solution.

Before dilution After dilution

M 1 V1 M2 V2
1 - 0.5 100

c. 5.0 dm 3 of 1.0 mol dm3 nitric acid, HNO3

from18.0 mol dm -3 nitric acid

Before dilution After dilution

M1 V1 M2 V2
(mol dm )
-3
(cm3) (mol dm )
-3
(cm3)
18 1 5 dm3

7. 7 Neutralisation :

a. Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water.
Example :

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

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2HNO3 + MgO → Mg (NO3)2 + H2O

b. At end point, all H+ ions from the acid are neutralised by OH- ions from the alkali or
vice-versa .
pH of the titration product is 7 (neutral).

c. Titration process- a method to determine the degree of neutralisation between acid

and alkali .

d. Two ways to determine the end –point:

i. Using an indicator
ii. Using electric conductivity

e. Steps in determining the degree of neutralisation:

S1 Write the balanced equation.

S2 Write the information from the question above the equation.
S3 Write the information from the chemical equation below the equation
(information in relations to the number of moles of substances involved).
S4 Change the information to mole.
S5 Use the relationship between the number of moles of the substances in S3.
OR
MaVa = a Ma = acid concentration , Mb = alkali concentration
MbVb a = coefficient of acid in the balanced equation
b = coefficient of alkali in the balanced equation

Preparation of standard solutions

M1xV1=M2xV2

M1 : the molarity od the solution before water is added

V1 : the volume of the solution before water is added
M2 : the molarity of the solution after water is added
V2 : the volume of the solution after water is added

Calculate the volume of a concentrated solution needed to prepare each of the following
dilute solutions:

1. 50 cm 3 of 0.1 mol dm -3 sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution from 2.0 mol dm -3

sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.

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2. 100 cm 3 of 0.5 mol dm -3 potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution from 1.0 mol
dm -3 potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution.

3 5 .0 dm -3 of 1.0 mol dm -3 nitric acid, HNO3 from 18.0 mol dm -3 nitric acid, HNO3 .

Concentration of acid and alkali ;

Definition !!
1.Concentration – Quantity of solute in a given volume of solution usually in dm3

• Concentration = mass(g)
(g / dm3 ) volume (dm3)

÷ molar mass X molar mass

• Concentration = no. of moles(mol)

(mol / dm3 ) volume (dm3 )

2. Unit
Molarity (mol dm3 ) @ M

Answer all questions:

1. Write a balance equation for the neutralization of each of the following.

i. Nitric acid, HNO3 and calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 solution

ii. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 and barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2 solution

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iii. Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH and potassium hydroxide, KOH solution.

iv. Phosphoric acid, H3PO4 and ammonia, NH3 solution

2. Calculate the molarity for 10 g dm -3 sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH.

[ Relative atomic mass: H,1;O,16;Na,23]

3. Calculate the concentration in g dm -3 for 0.5 mol dm -3 sodium hydroxide solution,

NaOH.
[ Relative atomic mass: H,1;O,16;Na,23]

4. Calculate the molarity of solution that is produced when 2.8 g of pottasium

hydroxide ,KOH is dissolved in 100 cm3 of water.
[ Relative atomic mass: H,1;O,16;Na,23]

5. Calculate the molarity of a pottasium hydroxide solution,KOH, if 200 cm 3 of 2 mol

dm -3 potassium hydroxide solution is added to 200 cm 3 of water.

6. 60 cm 3 of sodium hydroxide solution, 0.5 mol dm -3 is diluted with 30 cm 3 of water.

Calculate the molarity of the solution produced.

7. 50 cm 3 of hydrochloric acid, HCl, 2 mol dm -3, reacted with excess zinc powder.
Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas released under room conditions.
[ Molar volume: 24 dm 3 at room condition ]

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8. Calculate the molarity of 25 cm 3 of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 , which reacted

completely with 1.2g magnesium.
[Relative atomic mass:Mg,24]

9. 3.25g of zinc, Zn, reacted completely with hydrochloric acid, HCl, with molarity of
0.5 mol dm -3. Calculate the volume of acid used.
[ Relative atomic mass: Zn,65]

10. 50 cm 3 of sulphuric acid, 0.5 mol dm -3 , reacts completely with 25 cm 3 sodium

hydroxide solution, NaOH. Calculate the molarity of sodium hydroxide solution.

11. If 25 cm 3 of hydrochloric acid, HCl, 0.05 mol dm-3, is neutralized completely by

calcium hydroxide solution, Ca(OH)2 , 0.1 mol dm-3 , what is the volume of calcium
hydroxide solution, Ca(OH)2, used ?

TRY THIS YOURSELF !!

1. The equation shows the reaction between sulphuric acid and sodium
hydroxide.
Persamaan menunjukkan tindak balas antara asid sulfurik dan natrium
hidroksida.

H 2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na 2SO4 + 2H 2O

What is the volume of 1.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution which can
be neutralise 25.0 cm 3 of 1.0 mol dm -3 sulphuric acid ?
Berapakah isipadu larutan natrium hidroksida 1.0 mol dm -3 yang boleh
meneutralkan 25.0 cm 3 asid sulfurik 1.0 mol dm -3 .

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A. 12.5 cm3
B. 25.0 cm3
C. 50.0 cm3
D. 75.0 cm3

2. Which of the following is true about an alkali?

Antara pernyatan berikut yang manakah benar tentang alkali?

A. An alkali is not corrosive

B. An alkali is a base that is soluble in water
C. A strong alkali has a low pH value
D. A weak alkali has a high degree of ionisation.

3. Which of the following substances is acidic?

Antara bahan berikut yang manakah bersifat asid?

A. Ammonia
B. Potassium oxide
C. Carbon dioxide
D. Sodium hydroxide

4. A dibase acid ,H 2J has the concentration of 0.5 mol dm -3 . Letter J is not the
actual symbol of the element . What is the volume of potassium
hydroxide,KOH 1.0 mol dm-3 that can neutralise 25.0 cm-3 of the H 2J acid
solution ?
Satu dwibes ,H 2J mempunyai kepekatan 0.5 mol dm-3
Huruf J bukan symbol sebenar unsure itu. Berapakah 1.0 mol dm-3 yang
dapat meneutralkan 25.0 cm3 larutan asid H2 J itu?
A. 6.25 cm3
B. 12.50 cm3
C. 25.00 cm3
D. 50.00 cm3

5. Which of the following statements is true about all bases?

Antara pernyataan berikut , yang manakah benar tentang semua bes?
A. React with acids
B. Dissolve in water
C. Contain hydroxide ions
D. Have alkaline properties

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6. A student is stung by an insect with an alkaline sting.Which of the following

substances is the most suitable to be applied to the part stung to treat the
student?
Seorang murid disengat oleh serangga yang mempunyai sengatan yang
beralkali.
Antara bahan berikut,apakah yang paling sesuai disapukan pada tempat
yang disengat untuk merawat murid itu?
A. Vinegar
B. Etanol
C. Ubat gigi
D. Cooking oil

STRUCTURAL QUESTION

SPM 2006
1. (a) 8g of solid sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is dissolved in distilled
water to produce a solution of 1000 cm 3.
The NaOH solution produced has the concentration of 8.0 g dm -3 and
molarity of 0.2 mol dm -3.

(i) State the meaning of the concentration for the solution produced.

[ 1 mark ]

(ii) State the meaning of the molarity for the solution produced.

[ 1 mark ]

(iii) Write the formula that represents the relationship between the
number of mole (n), molarity (M) and volume (V) for the solution.

[ 1 mark ]

(iv) Substitute the actual values of the number of mole, molarity and
volume of the NaOH solution into the formula in 4(a)(iii).
[Relative molecular mass of NaOH = 40 ]

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[ 1 mark ]

(b) Diagram 4.1 shows the preparation of the standard solution of NaOH, 0.2
mol dm -3 .

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DIAGRAM 4.1

(i) What are the two parameters that shoulb be measured accurately
to prepare the standard solution.

Parameter I _________________________

Parameter II _________________________

[ 2 marks]
(ii) After all the NaOH solution is poured into the volumetric flask, the
beaker and the filter must be rinsed several times with distilled
water.
After each rinse, all of this water is transferred into the volumetric
flask.
Give one reason for doing this.

[ 1 mark ]

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(iii) What step should be taken to ensure that the meniscus level of the
standard solution is exactly in line with the graduation mark on the
volumetric flask ?

[ 1 mark ]

(iv) A volumetric flask is more suitable to be used in the preparation of

the standard solution rather than a beaker.
Why ?

[ 1 mark ]
(v) Why is the volumetric flask stoppered after the standard solution is
prepared ?

[ 1 mark ]
2. Figure 1 shows the apparatus arrangement of an experiment in the laboratory to
determine the end point of the reaction between nitric acid, 2 mol dm-3 with 25 cm3
of potassium hydroxide solution.

Nitric acid

Potassium hydroxide solution

+ phenolphthalein indicator

Figure 1

The results of the experiment are shown in Table 2

Volume of nitric acid (cm 3) Experiment

Final reading (cm3 ) 12.60 25.05 37.50
Initial reading (cm3) 0.00 12.60 25.05
Volume of nitric acid used (cm3)

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Table 2

a. Nitric acid is a monoprotic acid. What is meant by monoprotic acid ?

[ 1 mark ]
b. Name the type of reaction occurred in this experiment.

[1 mark ]

c. Write the balance chemical equation for the reaction between nitric acid and
potassium hydroxide.

[ 3 marks ]

d. What is the colour of the potassium hydroxide solution when added with a few
drops of phenolphthalein?

[ 1 mark ]

e. State the change on the colour of the solution in potassium hydroxide solution
when the end point is reached.

[ 1 mark ]

f. (i) Complete the Table 2. [ 1 mark ]

(ii) Calculate the average volume of nitric acid used.

[ 1 mark ]
(iii) Calculate the concentration of the potassium hydroxide solution.

[ 1 mark ]

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