Efectos de Proceso Nodular PDF

THE EFFECT OF NODULARISATION PARAMETERS ON THE QUALITY
OF DUCTILE IRON
MOHD RASHIDI BIN MAAROF
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of

The requirements for the award of the degree of
Master’s of Mechanical Engineering
(Advanced Manufacturing Technology)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
NOVEMBER, 2006
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Syukur Alhamdullillah to Allah S.W.T for giving me the continuous strength and
motivation for completion of this project. Deepest thanks to my family and future
family. Linda, I favor you for 3rd time.
And not to forget, all of my friends.
I love you all.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My deepest appreciation goes towards my supervisor, Dr Mohd Hasbullah

Hj Idris for his superb guidance and encouragement throughout the progress of this
project. Without his constructive critiques, this project would not be successfully
accomplished.
Special thanks must go to Mr.Nazri, Mr. Latif, Mr Hamid, Mr Asri, Mr

Aidid etc for their truly support, co-operation and assistance during duration at
foundry and production labaratory. Thanks are also goes to friends who have helped
me directly or indirectly upon the project completion.
Finally, my very special, sincere and heartfelt gratitude goes to my beloved

family, future family and Roslinda bte Hj Khalid for giving me the tremendous
encouragement and understanding while I was striving with this project. Their
assistance and support are invaluable.
Mohd Rashidi bin Maarof
November, 2006
ABSTRAK
Pada dasarnya permintaan produk plastik di negara ini sangat menggalakkan

kerana produk plastik adalah setanding dengan produk yang dihasilkan dari bahan yang
lain malah produk plastik juga lebih cantik dari segi rupa bentuk serta bermutu. Maka
dengan itu untuk menghasilkan produk plastik yang bermutu, produk plastik yang ingin
dihasilkan perlu melalui beberapa proses yang sepatutnya terutamanya yang penting
sekali ialah pada proses permulaan yang melibatkan proses reka bentuk.
Di sebabkan produk plastik ini boleh dihasilkan dengan menggunakan pelbagai

jenis acuan seperti acuan 2-plat, acuan 3-plat, acuan pelari panas dan acuan pelari tertebat
maka produk plastik ini perlu dijalankan analisa aliran bahan terhadapnya. Ini supaya
produk plastik dapat dihasilkan tanpa kecacatan dan dapat menghasilkan ciri-ciri yang
menepati spesifikasi sebenar. Kajian ini menggunakan perisian Moldflow Mold Adviser
untuk mengkaji permasalahan terhadap acuan 2-plat dan acuan 3-plat kepada sistem spru,
pelari dan get.
ABSTRACT
Demand on plastic product in this country is very tremendous because plastic

product has better in quality, design and appearance than any material product. To
produce better quality of plastic product, it needs to have some processes and most
important is initially in design stages.
Because of that, plastic product can be produced using any different mold such as
2-plate mold, 3-plate mold, hot runner mold and insulated runner mold. Material flow
analysis should be running to the plastic product to ensure no defect and follow the
characteristics from actual specification. This project is using Moldflow Mold Adviser
software to analyze the problems for 2-plate mold and 3-plate mold, which are dependent
on sprue, runner and gate system.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRAK
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Important of the research 2
1.3 Problem statement 3
1.4 Objectives of the study 3
1.5 Scopes 4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEWS

2.0 Introduction 5
2.1 Iron- carbon equilibrium diagram 6
2.2 Iron carbon microstructure 7
2.3 Effect of alloying elements on iron-carbon microstructure 9
2.4 Inoculated cast iron- ductile iron 12

2.5 The mechanic of the nodular or spherulitic structure of
graphite 14
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2.6 Castings chemical composition 19

2.6.1 Iron molten metal composition 20
2.6.2 Inoculants composition 23
2.7 Study associated with the production of ductile iron castings24
2.7.1 Effect of graphite shape 25
2.7.2 Nodule count effect 27
2.7.3 Graphite volume effect 28
2.7.4 Carbide content effect 29
2.7.5 Matrix effect 30
2.7.6 Inoculation efficiency effect 32
2.8 The technique of ductile iron casting process 34
2.8.1 Sandwich process 34
2.8.2 Cover trigger process 35
2.8.3 Tundish cover process 36
2.8.4 Porous plug process 36
2.8.5 In mould process 37
2.9 Furnace equipment 40
2.9.1 Induction furnace 40
2.10 Pattern 43
2.11 Risering system 45
2.12 Gating system 45
2.13 Green sand mould 46
2.14 Lining refractories 48
2.15 Taguchi Method 49
2.15.1 Introduction of Taguchi Method 49
2.15.2 Contributions to Quality 50
2.15.2.1 Loss Function 50
2.15.2.2 Orthogonal Array 51
2.15.2.3 Robustness 52
2.15.3 Defining the Quality Characteristic 53
2.15.4 Phases in Taguchi Method 53
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2.15.5 Taguchi Method Technique 54

2.15.6 Signal to Noise (S/N) Ratio 56
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 60
3.1 Preliminary experiment to determine the optimum
parameter combination 61
3.1.1 Pattern 62
3.1.2 Green sand mould 63
3.1.3 Ladle preparation 65
3.1.4 Charging material (pig iron) preparation 66
3.1.5 MgFeSi inoculant preparation 67
3.1.6 Induction furnace preparation 67
3.1.7 Melting procedure 68
3.1.8 Fettling 70
3.2 Experiment to determine the control factors 71
3.2.1 Experimental setup to determine the control factors 76
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.0 Introduction 83
4.1 Results and analysis of preliminary experiment 84
4.2 Results and analysis of experiment to determine the
control factors 87
4.2.1 Tensile strength 88
4.2.2 Magnesium concentration 94
4.2.3 Nodule count 101
4.2.4 Hardness test 112
4.3 Experiment to validate the control factors (Confirmation
Test) 118
4.4 Discussion 119
4.4.1 Tensile strength 119
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4.4.2 Magnesium concentration 120

4.4.3 Nodule count 121
4.4.4 Hardness 121
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

5.1 Conclusions 123
5.2 Recommendation for future work 124
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Shrinkage allowance 44
2.2 Machining allowance on patterns for sand castings 44
2.3 Experimental Using an L8 Array 51
2.4 Comparison of Factorial Design and Taguchi Design 52
3.1 Pattern design to relative effective volume of reaction
chamber and pouring temperature range 63
3.2 Pig iron average chemical composition used for
the experiment 66
3.3 VI-270 Inoculant chemical composition 67
3.4 Rules for standard selection of orthogonal array 71
4
3.5 L8 (2 ) orthogonal array with 2 interactions 72
3.6 Experimental matrix 73
3.7 Experimental matrix 77
3.8 Specimen grinding steps for microstructure preparation 80
4.1 1st preliminary experiment result 85
4.2 2nd preliminary experiment result 86
4.3 Tensile strength experimental trial results 88
4.4 S/N ratio of experiment trial results 89
4.5 Main effects for tensile strength test 89
4.6 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of tensile strength 91
4.7 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of tensile strength (pooled) 92
4.8 Optimum condition and performance for tensile strength
(pooled) 92
4.9 Magnesium concentration experimental trial results 94
4.10 S/N ratio of experiment trial results 95
4.11 Main effects for magnesium concentration test 95
4.12 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) 97
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4.13 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (pooled) 98

4.14 Optimum condition and performance for magnesium
Concentration (pooled) 99
4.15 Nodule count experiment trial results 101
4.16 S/N ratio of experimental trial results 106
4.17 Main effects for nodule count 107
4.20 Optimum condition and performance for nodule count
(pooled) 110
4.21 Hardness test experimental trial results 112
4.22 S/N ratio of experimental trial results 113
4.23 Main effects for hardness test 113
4.26 Optimum condition and performance for hardness
(pooled) 116
4.27 Conformation casting trial parameters 118
4.28 Result for verification and validation experiment 119
5.1 Significant factors for effect of nodularisation parameters
On the quality of ductile iron 124
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Microstructure comparison between (a) cast iron with

Flake graphite and (b) ductile iron with nodular graphite 5
2.2 Iron carbon equilibrium diagrams 6
2.3 Various stages in the manufacture of various standard
ferrous products 11
2.4 Spherical graphite nodules which act as crack arrester 13
2.5 Formation of graphite spherulites by nucleation on the
surfaces of sulphide particles and growth along their
interfaces, eventually developing into nodules 14
2.6 Schematic representation of the sequence of solidification
of normal ductile iron castings 16
2.7 Schematic representation of the sequence of solidification
of thin section ductile iron castings 17
2.8 Ductile iron matrix compositions 20
2.9 Range of carbon and silicon to produce sound casting of
ductile iron 22
2.10 Phases in Taguchi method 54
2.11 Agenda for a brainstorming session 55
2.12 Analysis flow diagrams of the Taguchi experiments 56
2.13 Major steps of Taguchi methodology 59
3.1 Flowchart of experimental methodology 61
3.2 Lost form pattern design 62
3.3 Arrangement of green sand mould before pouring 64
3.4 Lining preparation for ladle 65
3.5 Pre-heating of ladle before pouring 66
3.6 Melting of pig iron 68
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3.7 Temperature measurement with V-smart Thermotech

thermocouple 69
3.8 Pouring of molten grey iron into ladle for treatment 69
3.9 Pouring molten metals into CO2 mould 70
3.10 Experimental procedure using Taguchi method application 75
3.11 Schematic pattern drawing 77
3.12 Microstructure preview at 200 magnifications for nodule
count 80
4.1 Defect casting during preliminary experiment 84
4.2 Undissolved MgFeSi particles in casting cavity 85
4.3 Sound casting produced during experiment to determine
the control factors 87
4.4 Interaction of MgFeSi particles size and casting size when
level of MgFeSi size control factor changes 90
4.5 Interaction of distance from reaction chamber and MgFeSi
size when level of distance reactive from reaction chamber
control factor changes 90
4.6 Interaction between MgFeSi % and MgFeSi size when
level of MgFeSi % control factor changes 90
4.7 Significance factor and interaction influences of
tensile strength 91
4.8 Significance factor and interaction influences of
tensile strength (pooled) 93
4.9 Interaction between MgFeSi % and distance from reaction
chamber when level of MgFeSi percentage changes 96
4.10 Interaction between MgFeSi % and MgFeSi particles size
when level of MgFeSi percentage changes 96
4.11 Significance factor and interaction influences of magnesium
concentration 97
4.12 Significance factor and interaction influences of magnesium
concentration (pooled) 100
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4.13 400x magnification specimen 102

4.16 Grey iron microstructure at 400x magnification 103
4.17 Trial 1 sample 1 104
4.33 Interaction between MgFeSi size and casting cavity
size when level of MgFeSi size control factor changes 107
4.34 Interaction between MgFeSi % and MgFeSi size when
level of MgFeSi percentage control factor changes 108
4.35 Significance factor and interaction influences of nodule
count 108
4.36 Significance factor and interaction influences of nodule
count (pooled) 111
4.37 Interaction between MgFeSi size and casting cavity size
when level of MgFeSi size control factor changes 114
4.38 Interaction between MgFeSi % and MgFeSi particles
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size when level of MgFeSi percentage control factor

changes 114
4.39 Significance factor and interaction influences of hardness
test 115
4.40 Significance factor and interaction influences of hardness
test (pooled) 117
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LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDICES NO. TITLE

APPENDIX A SAMPLE CALCULATION OF DATA ANALYSIS
USING TAGUCHI METHOD (SIGNAL TO NOISE
RATIO ANALYSIS
APPENDIX B IMPLEMENTATION STEPS UTILIZING TAGUCHI
METHODS USING QUALITEK 4 SOFTWARE TO
DETERMINE MAIN EFFECTS, INTERACTIONS,
SIGNIFICANCE FACTORS AND EXPECTED
OPTIMUM CONDITION IN SELECTED RANGE OF
PARAMETER
APPENDIX C RISERING AND GATING SYSTEM CALCULATION
APPENDIX D GENERAL DATA
APPENDIX E LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Application of ductile iron continues to increase over the years. It is due to its
ease of recycling, relatively low cost production and producing capability with a wide
range of microstructure and mechanical properties.
Ductile iron is born from continuous research done towards cast iron. The
characteristic for both of iron is differing much. While cast iron is simply known as
brittle with graphite flake microstructure, ductile iron is ductile and held the
advantages of uniform distribution of nodule graphite microstructure. It offers a
combination of strength, fatigue resistance, toughness and ductility in addition of
famously advantages of cast iron – machinability, castability and economic of
production.
The production of ductile iron means for adding magnesium to molten metal.
There is four common techniques classified; transfer method (open ladle addition,
sandwich, trigger process), plunging method, injection method and pressure ladle or
pressurized chambers method. Because of fading problem, in mould method was
developed in which metal is inoculated as it poured into the casting or within the
actual running system of the casting itself.
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In mould method is classified as late inoculation technique offers advantages
of virtually elimination of fading problem, lower increasing of silicon content in
molten metal, effectively preventing the formation of carbide and greater consistency
of structure uniformity.
Inoculation mechanism for in mould differs to great extent from other

techniques. For example, during addition of nodularizing alloy to the iron inside the
mould, the resulting high pressure of magnesium vapor may damage the mould itself.
Otherwise, the vapor entrapped in the mould cavity may lead to the formation of
incomplete castings.
The injurious effect of nodularization can be screening by using nodularizing

alloys with relatively low magnesium content. But, the decrease of magnesium
content in alloying agent may contribute of higher percentages alloy used which
leading to yield decreasing. To make matter worse, the probability of partially
undissolved alloy after filling the mould may occurs. Therefore the percentage and
size of nodularizing alloy should be carefully applied in conjunction with the
temperature and pouring rate of the molten metal, in order to successfully complete
the inoculating process inside the mould.
With it, confirmation of parameters influence such percentage of

nodularization agent used towards casting mechanical properties is worth to study for.
Other than that, control factors such the particle size of nodularization agent, distance
reactive from reaction chamber, and influence of casting cavity for effect of
nodularization was also investigated. Hence, with the right combination of control
factors, microstructure of the casting cavity as well as the mechanical properties of
selected range can be predicted.
2
1.2 Importance of research
This research will deepen the knowledge of specific processing properties and
parameters of ductile iron. Successfully discovered the main effects, interactions
between parameters and significance parameters will enhance the understanding of in
mould treatment for processing ductile iron.
1.3 Problem statement
There is a need to establish a clear understanding the effect of nodularisation

parameter on the quality of ductile iron using in mould method. The controlling
parameters affected nodularisation and mechanical properties will be the priority to
identify its reflected variables.
1.4 Objectives of the study
The project is aimed at;

i. Determine the effect of percentage of nodularisation agent, runner distance
and component size on nodular count in ductile iron, and
ii. Established the mechanical properties and material characterization of the
ductile iron produced from the in mould treatment method.
3
1.5 Scopes
i. The grey iron treated was of a FC 450 normally used in automotive industry.
ii. The method that was employed in treating grey cast iron is the ‘in the mould
treatment method.’
iii. The sand casting process was used in casting of the ductile iron.
4
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
Ductile or nodular iron contains trace amounts of magnesium which, by

reacting with the sulfur and oxygen in the molten iron, precipitates out carbon in the
form of small spheres. These spheres improve the stiffness, strength, and shock
resistance of ductile iron over gray iron. This is the specific characteristic to
differentiate cast iron with flake graphite and ductile iron with nodular graphite in its
matrix as shown in figure 2.1.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1: Microstructure comparison between (a) cast iron with flake graphite and (b)
ductile iron with nodular graphite (Warda, 1990)
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Different grades of ductile iron are produced by controlling the matrix
structure around the graphite, either as-cast or by subsequent heat treatment. A three-
part designation system is used to specify ductile iron. The designation of a typical
alloy, 60-40-18, for example, specifies a minimum tensile strength of 60,000 psi (414
MPa), minimum yield strength of 40,000 psi (276 MPa), and 18% elongation in 2 in
(50 mm). The understanding of ductile iron is similar as cast iron characteristic and
represented by iron-carbon equilibrium diagram.
2.1 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram
Cast iron, the most commonly cast ferrous metal, is made up of various
material such iron, carbon, silicon, phosphorus, manganese and sulphur. As study
reveal, carbon has a powerful effect on the structure and mechanical properties of
iron. From iron-carbon equilibrium diagram (figure 2.2), the solubility limit of carbon
content in iron at the eutectic temperature of 1130oC is 2.0%.
Figure 2.2 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagrams (Jain, 1997)
6
If the carbon content is less than this limit, the material is graded as steel,
whereas anything above it is considered cast iron. Furthermore, the amount of silicon
present in cast iron is also of consequence in controlling most of its characteristics.
Smaller amounts of manganese, phosphorus, and sulphur also reflect to iron
mechanical properties. Alloying elements such as carbon in iron tends to be rejected
by solidifying metal at the liquid interface. These rejected particles of alloying
elements act as nuclei for the solidification process. For example, the atoms of parent
metal begin getting deposited on these nuclei. Thus, it grows in size, forming the so
called dendritic structure. So, the cooling characteristics and the entire transformation
phenomenon can be readily understood from the iron-carbon equilibrium diagrams.
2.2 Iron-carbon microstructure
Based on studied of a fractured section of wedge shaped test piece cast from
molten metal, cast iron showed a grey fracture in a slow cooling area (the area with
thick wall), a white fracture in fast cooling area (the area with thin wall) and a
combination of grey and white fracture in the intermediate area. The grey area is
called grey cast iron, the white area is called white cast iron, and the intermediate area
is called mottled iron.
A microstructure of grey cast iron may show graphite flakes existing in

pearlite and ferrite matrix or only in pearlite. On the other hand, the microstructure of
white cast iron consists of cementite and pearlite. While, for the mottled structure
contains a mixture of graphite interspersed in pearlite along with cementite. So, the
phenomenon is explained by iron-carbon equilibrium diagram accordance to Fe-Fe3C
system for white cast iron and Fe-Graphite system for formation of grey iron.
This approximation has seen that, with the same composition of iron, the
sectional size of the casting and its cooling rate has remarkable effect on the structure.
7
The amount of carbon and silicon present exert a further influence. When carbon and
silicon are low, iron tends to turn white iron, with increase in carbon and silicon,
mottled and grey irons are produced.
Cooling rate also affected on the size and distribution of graphite flakes. A
rapid rate of cooling produces fine graphite, frequently in an unwanted dendritic
distribution. In the mean time, a very slow cooling will give rise to coarse distribution
of graphite.
Grey irons have a lower melting point than the white irons in the hypoeutectic
range but are more fluid in molten metal state, and are easier to cast. It also expands
during solidification and takes a very good impression of the mould. Solid contraction
after solidification is also less in grey variety. Flaky graphite present in grey iron
makes it brittle and weak, but at the same time it imparts softness, easy machinability
and vibration damping capacity. Most of cast iron castings are made in grey iron
because of its easy castability and low cost. In contrast, white cast irons being
extremely hard and unmachinable, have a very limited application, mainly for
subsequent manufacture of malleable iron.
Cast iron make excellent casting alloys since they are easily melted and are
very fluid in the liquid state, and do not form undesirable surface films when
poured.100 % of pure iron is never used as a cast metal because it is too weak and
soft. When carbon is added, hardness and strength appear. When approximately 0.3 %
carbon is added, the resulting alloy is steel. Steel is a strong but difficult ferrous metal
to manufacture from a production standpoint. Adding more carbon (up to about 2 %)
creates even more production problems. These “semi-steels” are seldom used.
When more carbon added (between 2 % and 3 %) white iron is formed. White
iron is true cast iron and is easy to produce. The problem with white iron is that it is
very hard and brittle because the carbon exists as iron carbide instead of pure carbon.
Iron carbide (Fe3C) is a hard and brittle compound sometimes referred to as
8
cementite. If white iron is subjected to a lengthy heat treatment, the Fe3C decomposes
into iron and nodules of graphite. The end product is malleable iron.
When approximately 3.5 % to 3.8 % carbon is added, Fe3C exceeds its

solubility in solid iron. The carbon present exceeds the solubility limit of about 1.7 %
(the Fe3C is fully absorbed in the iron until there is no room left. The excess Fe3C is
dispersed as graphite flakes). The result is grey iron. Grey iron (standard cast iron)
delivers only moderate strength with almost no elongation because the excess Fe3C
flakes act as stress raisers (they make cast iron easy to crack). Since grey cast iron is
so economical to produce, its use has been widespread for centuries.
Cast iron with spheroidal graphite and nodular graphite iron called ductile iron
was first produced in 1948. Its chemical composition and percent of carbon is about
the same as grey cast iron. The transformation to ductile iron occurs when molten
grey cast iron is treated with magnesium or cerium. The insertion of magnesium or
cerium during inoculation transforms the Fe3C flakes into spheroids. These spheroids
strengthen the metal by acting as cracks arresters instead of crack assistors.
2.3 Effects of alloying elements on iron-carbon microstructure
Every single pure material cannot stand alone and it is true for iron. Thus, the
impurities will affect the properties of iron. Silicon is always contained
unexceptionally in all cast irons in range of 1-3%. Given the same cooling rate, the
higher the silicon content, the greater the likehood that iron will become grey iron.
Also, the higher the the carbon content, the more likely again, it is the iron become
grey iron. So, the actual structure of iron is thus controlled by the correlation of
carbon and silicon. Silicon acts as a graphitizing agent and tends to decompose the
iron carbide into ferrite and graphite.
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Manganese is ordinarily contained in cast iron in the range of 0.4-1.0%. The
primary purpose for the addition of manganese is to neutralize the harmful effect of
sulphur. Manganese forms MnS, which either floats above molten iron or remains
inside molten iron, turning the greenish grey inclusions after solidification and hardly
disturbing the properties of the iron. The manganese content in iron is usually three
times the sulphur content to enable the formation of MnS. In pearlite cast iron, an
increase in the manganese content even beyond 1% cuts the pearlite size and resists
the appearance of ferrite.
Phosphorus is usually found in small amounts in iron not exceeding 1%. It is

present partly in solid solution with ferrite and partly as one phase of an iron-iron
phosphide cementite (Fe-Fe3P-Fe3C) eutectic, called ‘steadite’. The present of
phosphorus lowers the melting point and improves the fluidity of the metal. It is
helpful in producing thin walled and intricate castings. However, more than 0.3%
increase in contain will bring increases of ‘steadite’, making the cast iron hard and
brittle.
Sulphur is present in iron as iron sulphide. It has lower freezing point than
iron and so destroys the cohesion between the grains by forming a thick grain
boundary. It also accelerates the formation of white iron and occurrence of hard spots
in the metal. Normally, the presence of sulphur is regarded as undesirable and its
content kept below 0.05%. Ductile iron was born due to manipulation of alloying
element effect by adding some percentage of magnesium to the molten iron. It also
called as inoculated of cast iron. The schematic diagram of ductile iron manufacturing
stages is shown in figure 2.3.
10
Ore from mines
Crushing and riddling
Magnetic reparation
Roasting
Blasting furnace
Pig iron
Puddling furnace Molten pig iron
Bessemer
Open hearth
Pig casting General purpose casting
Cupola Alloy iron castings
Controlled grades of iron CG iron
Ductile iron Grey cast iron Wrought iron Steel
White cast iron Malleable iron
Wrought iron
Figure 2.3 various stages in the manufacture of various standard ferrous products
(Raghuwanshi, 1970)
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2.4 Inoculated cast iron – ductile iron
This category of iron has a finely dispersed graphite structure. An iron whose
composition would give a white fracture on cooling is used, but just before pouring
the molten metal, a suitable inoculant is added to cause precipitation of the finely
dispersed graphite. This process also called as inoculation treatment is used to
established nucleation centre for the precipitation of graphite into small type flakes,
and uniformly distributed in matrix.
During the solidification of ductile iron, most of the carbon forms as graphite
spheroids, in contrast to the graphite flakes formed in gray cast iron. The usual as-cast
microstructure of ductile iron consists of graphite nodules, which are surrounded by
free ferrite in a matrix of pearlite. Ductile iron has an unusual combination of
properties because it graphite occurs as nodules rather than flakes. It has advantages
of gray cast irons such as low melting point, good fluidity and cast-ability, excellent
machinability, and good wear resistance. In the opposite, it also has high strength,
ductility, toughness, and hot workability as steel.
Based on literature, the inoculation of cast iron was discovered by a ladle

addition of magnesium by Keith Dwight Millis (Warda, 1990). The solidified castings
contained not flakes, but nearly perfect spheres of graphite. The function of
magnesium is to deoxidize and desulfurize the molten iron. If sulfur and oxygen are
absorbed on the graphite / melt interface during solidification, graphite flakes such as
those found in gray iron will be formed. In order to produce the graphite nodules of
ductile iron, the sulfur and oxygen impurities of the molten iron must be removed. In
the absence of these impurities, the normal growth of the graphite leads to a
spherulitic morphology.
Ductile iron is not a single material but a family of versatile cast irons
exhibiting a wide range of properties which are obtained through microstructure
12
control. The most important and distinguishing micro structural feature of all ductile
iron is the presence of spherical graphite nodules which act as crack arresters as
shown on figure 2.4, and give ductile iron ductility and toughness superior to all other
cast irons, and equal to many cast and forged steels.
Figure 2.4 Spherical graphite nodules which act as crack arrester (Warda, 1990)
Inoculation means by the addition of material to liquid iron in order to increase

the nucleation of the iron (BCIRA Manual, 1988). In other words, to increase the
number of points at which the iron begin to solidify, thus decreasing the tendency to
form chill or mottle. Nowadays, magnesium is used as inoculant intensively. The
mechanics of inoculation is magnesium function as strong carbide promoter and as a
result there is tendency for the iron to solidify with a white or mottled structure, even
the irons of a very high carbon equivalent.
Inoculation treatment is is used to established nucleation centers for the

precipitation of graphite into small flakes and uniformly distributed in matrix (Jain,
1997).Under controlled conditions, as solidification progresses, inoculation helps to
create an equilibrium condition between time and temperature. Thus, by inoculation,
an improved mechanical property of grey or ductile iron is achieved. Furthermore, the
graphite structure is controlled, iron carbide is minimized, casting section sensitivity
is reduced, and minimizing under cooling from occurred.
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2.5 The mechanic of the nodular or spherulitic structure of graphite
There are three different phenomena or mechanism of the formation of

nodular graphite in cast iron. It is based on heterogeneous nucleation, homogeneous
nucleation and growth (Ostberg, 2005). Many independent observations of non
metallic particles or inclusions in the center of graphite nodules support the view that
the first stage in the formation of the particular nodular structure in such cases has
been heterogonous nucleation. This process is sometimes described and explained in
term of favorable crystallographic relationships between substrate and graphite.
Observations of foreign particles in the center of graphite nodules have

prompted the idea that heterogeneous nucleation is crucial for their formation. It has
also been suggested that gas bubbles may serve the same purpose. It has been claimed
that heterogeneous nucleation followed by growth along the interphase in question in
the axis direction of the graphite accounts for the radial orientation of the axis of the
crystallites in the nodule as shows on figure 2.5.
Sulphide layer
Graphite
Figure 2.5 Formation of graphite spherulites by nucleation on the surfaces of sulphide

particles and growth along their interfaces, eventually developing into nodules
(Ostberg, 2005)
14
Another aspect of enhancement of heterogeneous nucleation is the role of
surface tension at the interface. The number of nodules can be affected and controlled
by inoculation. This effect is usually attributed to the introduction of particles for
heterogonous nucleation, but it has also been claimed that the phenomenon in
question is due to changes in the conditions for growth by the action of dissolved
elements from the addition of inoculants on the surface tension mentioned before.
Furthermore, the opinion has been expressed that the sites for heterogeneous
nucleation are the same for nodules and flakes. Accordingly, it is the mode of growth
that determines the resulting outer shape of graphite spherulites.
When the concept of homogeneous nucleation arises, it tends to be the

simplest model for the initiation of spherulitic crystallization of graphite. It is
probably the one that assumes that the very first stage is the formation of a hexagonal
array of carbon atoms bounded by facets advancing by growth in the axes direction.
In this way, crystallites are formed in radial orientation of their axes directions. It is
well known that flakes are formed instead of spherulites if no scavenging additions
are made in order to render such elements. Accordingly, this is the sole role of
nodularizing agents such as magnesium. Their occurrence in the graphite has been the
object of much attention as a possible crucial factor in the formation of nodular
graphite. In view of the findings regarding the role of impurities referred to, it seems
that their presence in spherulitic graphite is simply the result of incapsulation.
Obviously, this standpoint is in opposition to the claim that they play the causal role
of enhancing the preferred growth of graphite in certain direction.
The mechanism of solidification in thin section ductile iron castings is due to

condition of high undercooling (Yeung, 1998). The high cooling rate leads to
nonequilibrium solidification. For example, primary austenite dendrites would form
in the molten iron of hypereutectic composition. On the basis of the experimental
findings, the sequence of solidification of thin section ductile iron castings can be
described as follows.
15
First, at some temperature below the eutectic temperature, primary austenitic
dendrites nucleate and grow owing to noequilibrium solidification. The dendrites are
thin and long in shape and grow from the edge of the castings towards the center,
being perpendicular to the surface of the castings and along the wall thickness
because the solidification rate is greater and the heat flows significantly along the
wall thickness from the center to the edge. The length and number of dendrites
depend on the solidification rate or the wall thickness. The dendrites become shorter
and fewer as the wall thickness increases.
Second, after the nucleation of the austenitic dendrites, graphite spheroids

nucleate near the austenitic dendrites because the liquid in the vicinity of the
dendrites is enriched in carbon. Third, the growing dendrites envelop the graphite
spheroids or eutectic austenite nucleates around the graphite spheroids. Fourth, the
austenitic layers surrounding the spheroids and the spheroids grow until the liquid
phase is consumed. The sequence is represented schematically as figures 2.6 and 2.7.
Figure 2.6 Schematic representation of the sequence of solidification of normal

ductile iron castings (Yeung, 1998)
16
Figure 2.7 Schematic representation of the sequence of solidification of thin section
ductile iron castings (Yeung, 1998)
A comparison with the normal ductile iron castings makes it obvious that the
thin section ductile iron casting is similar to the normal ductile iron casting in the
sequence of solidification but different in the morphology of the solidified structure.
For example, unlike that of the normal ductile iron casting, the growth of dendrites
and graphite spheroids in thin section ductile iron castings is directional. This
directional growth would increase the microsegregation of alloyed elements in thin
sectional ductile iron castings and affect the properties of these castings.
Commonly, it is accepted that nodules are made of graphite having the same
mechanical properties as those for bulk macroscopic graphite (Bonora, 2005). Today,
the conversation about the true nature of the graphite spheroids, nodularisation and
their forming process is still open. Although many theories have been debated since
1965, accredited model for the nucleation of graphite spheroids is the so-called
‘‘melt-theory’’ discovered by Scheil and Hutter.
Contrary, the way in which spheroids grow is not completely clear yet. A
commonly accepted idea is that the nodule formation occurs by a growing austenite
shell. The nodule grows in contact with the melt and is encapsulated by austenite, and
further growth of the nodule within the shell takes place by solid-state carbon
diffusion. Consequently the growth of nodule is assumed to start from the center and
17
to proceed by thickening of the carbon layers. Alternatively to this, radial structures
found in well-polished samples have been showed as ‘‘proof’’ of radial growth
mechanism of nodules.
In the opposite direction, Karsay and Campomanes and Stadelmaier,

advocating the ‘‘bubble theory’’, proposed that nodule growth starts at the periphery
and proceeds towards the centre. Even though these theories diverge, all of them
agree on the fact that the resulting nodule structure is a layered system similar to
onionskin like arrangement. Even the graphitic nature of the spheroids, always
mentioned in the papers, is not always verified. As a matter of fact, there are clear
evidences that the non-graphitic carbon is found in both nodules and flakes.
The matrix material may have different microstructures according to the

cooling rate, carbon content and heat treatment (Borrajo, 2002). Usually, this material
has a well controlled microstructure with an average graphite diameter, dg, of 55–
60 μm , a grain size of 30–60 μm , a mean distance between spheroids, k, of 50–
100 μm and a shape factor, f, not less than 0.84 (f = 1, spherical shape) (Warda,
1990).
The general understanding for inoculation mechanism is solidification of

ductile iron is a process similar to the solidification of gray iron except that the
graphite grows in radial directions and was assumed as a nodular morphology. Nuclei
for spheroidal graphite nodules in ductile iron are probably the same for flake
graphite in gray iron except that the products of the nodularizing additions may also
serve as nuclei. These products serving as nuclei may be magnesium sulfide or
magnesium silicate. The action of these products as nuclei in ductile iron could help
explain the much higher eutectic cell counts observed in ductile iron as compared to
gray iron.
From literature, indicates that graphite spheroids grow directly from the melt
in molten ductile iron, as they do in gray iron. These spheroids grow in the direction
18
of the graphite basal pole with the basal plane in contact with the melt, but may soon
be surrounded with an austenitic shell. Further growth occurs by the diffusion of
carbon through the shell. As the carbon must diffuse through the shell, the growth of
the spheroids is slower than that of gray iron eutectic solidification. Thus, the liquid
melt is present in a wider temperature range and to a lower temperature in ductile iron
than it is in gray iron.
2.6 Castings chemical composition
The property of grey cast iron is mainly controlled by the flake graphite
structure and the amount of graphite present. This is not the case for ductile iron and,
in fact eleven grades of ductile iron was covered by British Standard 2789:1985
whose properties are largely determined by their matrix structure. Chemical
composition of these grades is not covered by this specification since, apart from
composition, the cooling rate and section size of the casting is profoundly influence
the structure and resulting properties of nodular iron. But, the main principle is the
iron molten metal will be inoculated by some amount of inoculation to produce
ductile iron.
During literature, ferritic ductile iron charges can consist of returns, steel and
high purity pig iron to avoid problems associated with trace element contamination
and melting is rapid and clean. The amount of steel on the charge will depend upon
its purity and the grade of iron being produced. Less pure steel produces a more
pearlitic ductile iron in general terms and charges comprising commercial quality
steel scrap and foundry returns can be used to produce the higher strength irons.
Conversely, higher purity deep drawing quality steels will produce ductile
iron meeting the ferritic grade specifications, providing that care is taken control
manganese and trace elements levels using occasional additions of high purity pig
19
iron. In practice, foundry do not have access to large volumes of deep drawing quality
steel and charges comprise about 40% returns, 35% hugh purity pig iron and 15%
steel scrap, to produce ferritic grades, with alloying to promote pearlite when
necessary. Alternatively, as cast pearlitic irons or irons to be heat-treated can be made
using charges comprising less pure steel and returns.
Figure 2.8 Ductile iron matrix compositions (Warda, 1990)
Using all the specific properties agreeable, a standard specification for ductile
iron casings was produced. The standard will ensure standard casting whose
properties meet the customer’s requirement, regardless of where and how the castings
was produced.
2.6.1 Iron molten metal composition
A specimen of cast iron was prepared from 30kg melts made from pig iron,
steel scrap and ferroalloys in an induction furnace (Yeung, 1998). The chemical
composition of the casting are 3.69% carbon, 2.76% silicon, 0.19% manganese,
0.059% phosphorus, 0.025% sulphur, 0.041% magnesium, 0.043% rare earth and the
rest is ferrous base. The molten metal was added with magnesium ferrosilicon (Fe-Si-
Mg-RE) alloys for treatment. Then the melt was poured into sand mold to produce the
casting shape.
20
Near eutectic melt was used to produce ductile iron (Pedersen, 2005). Molten
metal was prepared in batches of 90kg. The chemical composition analysis is within
range of 3.70-3.57% carbon, 2.75-2.64% silicon, 0.037-0.028% magnesium and the
rest is ferrous base. The melt was superheated to 1520 0 C before being poured into a
preheated ladle for magnesium treatment with a Fe-Si-Mg alloy using a tundish
sandwich method. The melt for each mould was then poured into a small insulated
fiber cup where it was inoculated with 0.1%-0.2% Fe-Si-Mg alloy before it was
poured into the mould.
60 kg medium frequency induction furnace was used to melt ductile iron

(Borrajo, 2001). The composition of molten metal is within range of 3.31-3.15%
carbon, 4.42-2.05% silicon, 0.23-0.19% manganese, 0.015-0.014% phosporus, 0.058-
0.039% sulphur, 0.034-0.08% magnesium and the rest is ferrous base. With molten
metal temperature approximately 1400 0 C , it was inoculated with 0.6% weight of
ferrosilicon using sandwich method.
The production of ductile iron involves melting of base iron of the correct
chemical composition, followed by nodularising treatment with either pure
magnesium or an alloy containing magnesium, with or without cerium, so as to leave
residual magnesium content of 0.03-0.05% in the treated iron (Jain, 1997). It is
desirable to desulphurise the molten iron by suitable chemical treatment before
nodularising. The magnesium treatment is usually followed by a post inoculation
treatment of addition of ferro-silicon, in order to ensure good ductility of the product.
A close control of the chemical composition is essential for the production of

good quality ductile iron. The total carbon in the base iron should be 3.5-4.0%, so that
the carbon equivalent of treated iron is around 4.3%. The silicon content of base iron
should be 1.5-2.0% so as to achieve 2.2-2.5% in the treated iron.
21
In general, the carbon content of ductile irons ranges from 3.0 to 4.0 percent.
The higher carbon content of ductile cast iron above that of gray iron is necessary to
develop the high density of graphite nodules. If the carbon equivalent becomes too
high (i.e above 4.6), carbon flotation may occur. The silicon content of ductile iron is
in the 1.8 to 2.8 percent range, but narrower limits of 2.2 to 2.7 percent are common.
Silicon affects the carbon equivalent, thus, as the silicon is increased, so are the
number of nodules. Low silicon content in ductile iron increases the chilling tendency
and, if low enough, may cause the formation of excess carbides in thin sections as
reveal by figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9 Range of carbon and silicon to produce sound casting of ductile iron
(American Foundrymen’s Society Inc., 1999)
The manganese content is limited to 0.5% as it tends to raise hardness and

lowers impact strength. Phosphorus content should be kept as low as possible and
preferably below 0.05%. In the case the phosphorus percentage is initially high in the
charge, dephosphorisation treatment is further required after desulphurization, which
may considerably increase the cost of production. The presence of sulphur affects the
efficiency of nodularisation. High sulphur would cause excessive consumption of
these metals and would hinder effective nodularisation. Thus, sulphur content in base
iron must be kept as low as possible.
22
2.6.2 Inoculants composition
Magnesium is a strong carbide promoter and act as effective inoculant as

silicon base. The most common inoculant used for ductile irons is foundry grade
ferrosilicon, containing about 75% silicon. This alloy must contain small amounts of
aluminum and calcium, in order to be fully effective, and the amounts required are
about 1.5-2.0% aluminum and about 0.3-1.0% calcium. A number of proprietary
inoculants are available which a refinement of ferrosilicon is. Aluminum and calcium
contents are more accurately controlled. Certain other trace elements such as
manganese, zirconium, barium and strontium are often incorporated to improve their
effectiveness and solution characteristics.
During literature, much larger addition of inoculant are used for ductile irons
than for grey irons and these may be as much as 0.75% of silicon to be added as
ferrosilicon. The inoculating effect produced increases as the amount of inoculant
added is increased, but the increase in effect soon begin to level off and the situation
is reached where the extra benefit obtained is too small to justify the increase in the
addition. In practice, for ladle inoculation it is rarely advisable to add more than
0.75% silicon as ferrosilicon, and for most purposes 0.5% silicon should be adequate.
There are a number of inherent problems with the addition of magnesium (or
alloys) and much of the investigative work relating to the production of ductile iron
has been associated with ways and means of overcoming these problems. First,
magnesium has a boiling point of about 1107 0 C which is far lower than the
temperature of molten cast iron. Hence, the addition of magnesium causes a violent
reaction.
Second, magnesium is only sparingly soluble in molten cast iron. So, the
reaction between magnesium and molten metal only occurs if the molten metal
temperature is exceeding more than 1107 0 C . Third, the specific gravity of
23
magnesium is only 1.74 in comparison with a value above 7 for cast iron. When
added to cast iron, magnesium or its low density alloys tend to float giving rise to
excessive loses caused by local boiling. Fourth, as well as flare and agitation
associated with the addition of magnesium or its alloys, extensive magnesium oxide
fume is also formed. Although this is not toxic it does result in a deterioration of
working conditions in the foundry and is a potential hazard to safety.
Fifth, during the treatment, sulphides and oxides of magnesium are formed
which may remain suspended in the metal and subsequently lead to the formation of
dross type defect in the castings. In addition, a magnesium oxide rich skin is
constantly being formed on the treated metal surface and this, in combination with
other oxides, results in the formation of refractory type complexes which also cause
dross defects in castings.
2.7 Study associated with the production of ductile iron castings
There is a study conducted continuously to enhance the understanding of

nodularisation effect of ductile iron around the world. The general understanding can
be summarized according to ductile iron nodularity. It includes the effect of graphite
shape, effect of nodule count, effect of graphite volume, effect of carbide content and
effect of matrix (Warda, 1990). British Cast Iron Research Institute (BCIRA) listed
graphite structure, the presence of carbide in the structure and matrix structure as the
main effect.
Clearly it’s all about the dispersion of the matrix in which the graphite
nodules will constitute and determine the ductile iron mechanical properties. Ductile
24
Iron consists of a versatile cast irons family exhibiting a wide range of properties
which are obtained through microstructure control. The most important factor of
micro structural feature for all ductile irons is the presence of graphite nodules that
acted as "crack-arresters”. Thus, it gives ductile iron ductility and toughness
superiority compared to all other cast irons family, and equal to many cast and forged
steels. The matrix in which the graphite nodules are dispersed plays a significant role
in determining mechanical properties.
To obtained ductile iron properties, the combination of composition known as

matrix control either by process control or heat treatment is needed. A reliable
material property data is vital on the quality of ductile iron. The effect of
nodularisation parameters is one of them. Until now, the essential of consistency and
quality is measured and controlled with the competency of ductile iron foundry. The
mechanical properties are determined by its matrix and affected directly by
percentage of graphite nodule present in the structure. That factor emphasized the
matrix names used to categorize the types of ductile iron. This is critical because data
that are available presently for design and material engineers on nodularisation effect
of ductile iron is very general. To make thing worse, there is no accepted standard
method for determining nodularity.
2.7.1 Effect of graphite shape
Nodularity affected ductile iron mechanical properties directly (Warda, 1990).

Nodularity consists of a relationship between graphite volume and nodule count.
Ironically, it shows the decreases of nodularity due to non-spherical particles featured
established a strong effect on the yield and tensile of ductile iron. There is two
method practiced to change the nodularity either by control of magnesium or by lead
control.
25
Nodularity will be affected if the amount of residual magnesium is reduced
(commonly used as spheroidizing agent in ductile iron commercial foundry).
Reduction of nodularity achieving 30% will decrease the yield and tensile strength
about 10% and 15% respectively. The addition of lead will also reduce nodularity by
generated intergranular networks called as ‘spiky’ or plate like graphite. As a result,
tensile properties will reduce tremendously. By comparing the tensile properties with
given constant levels of carbide, the effect of nodularity on pearlitic ductile iron can
be determined. The loss of nodularity will reduce elongation.
In the mean time, any occurrence of intercellular graphite due to lead control
will embrittle ductile iron. To prevent this from happen, commercial ductile iron
would specify its nodularity exceeding 80-85% without any intercellular flake
graphite presented. The dilemma happen whenever no specific standard procedure
was practiced to meet this criteria unless of good production by competent foundry
person. This achieved by Mg control and used of small addition of cerium to control
flake producing elements.
In the mean time, British Cast Iron Research Institute (BCIRA) categorized
several issues under this influence. First, the occurrence of quasi-flake graphite when
insufficient magnesium retained in treated metal. The magnesium level at which this
structure is obtained varies according to a number of production conditions and also
the level of nucleation of the melt. Magnesium levels less than about 0.03% normally
results in this form of graphite. In many cases where metal of a marginal magnesium
content is being poured, for example after a prolonged holding and casting period, a
fully nodular graphite structure can often be achieved by further inoculation.
Second, the flake graphite occurrence motivated due to the presence of a

number of trace elements, including lead, antimony, bismuth and titanium. The
harmful flake graphite happen if the metal is treated only with magnesium or
magnesium alloy without addition of a small amount of cerium or cerium
mischmetall.
26
Thirdly is poor nodule shape. Many foundries attempt to classify graphite
structure according to the perfection of the nodule shape. This can be misleading, as
there is no evidence to suggest that imperfection will necessarily result in inferior
mechanical properties. In addition, where there are ferrite envelopes around the
nodules, extreme care in preparation of the microspecimen is essential if the true
outline of the graphite is to be ensured. With respect to reduction of mechanical
properties the presence even small amount of flake graphite is more catastrophic than
poorly formed nodules. Poor inoculation techniques can also result in the formation
of imperfect nodules.
Fourthly is graphite floatation. The amount of graphite present in ductile iron

generally has little effect upon its mechanical properties. For founding purpose it is
therefore normal to use high carbon equivalent values- in excess 4.0%, an often in the
range 4.3-4.7%. At these higher levels it is possible to obtained graphite floatation
and this becomes more pronounced as the section size of the casting increases. Such
segregation leads to poor surface finish on machining.
2.7.2 Nodule count effect
Although not as strong as graphite shape effect, nodule count or number of

graphite nodule/mm2 plays its part to determine the mechanical properties of ductile
iron. Even it is found that high nodule count will reflect to a good metallurgical
quality, an optimum range should carefully select and practiced. This due to its effect
on microstructure would slightly deter the properties and it reflected by;
i. Carbide content. Improvement of tensile strength, ductility and machinability is
achieved by increasing nodule count. This happen due to reduction of volume fraction
of chill carbides and carbides associated with inverse chill.
27
ii. Pearlite content of as cast ductile iron. When nodule count increased, the strength
will decrease while elongation increased. It happens due to reduction of pearlite
content.
iii. Graphite size and shape. Better tensile strength, fatigue and fracture properties can
be achieve by reducing nodule size. This result reflected by increasing nodule count.
iv. Matrix homogeneity. Finer and homogeneous microstructure achieved by
increasing nodule count. Higher nodule count will reduce segregation of unneeded
elements that generate intercellular carbides
2.7.3 Graphite volume effect
Graphite volume in ductile iron can influence tensile properties. At any

constant silicon level, carbon content directly influenced casting diameter on dynamic
elastic modulus (DEM) of ductile iron (pearlitic matrix). For constant section casting
size, dynamic elastic modulus will decrease according to increasing of the volume
fraction of graphite as concluded by (Warda, 1990). This result reflected due to
cooling rate of the casting. By increasing size, cooling rate will reduce because more
carbon participates in the stable graphite phase.
Other observation concluded that graphite nucleating condition reflected by

lower cooling rate in larger diameter bars. Thus, it increased nodule size while reduce
nodule count.
Graphite content known as flotation will affect variations in its volume and
can be harmful to mechanical properties of casting. Flotation occurred if cooling rates
and high carbon equivalent (% carbon + 1/3 % silicon) combine to produce a large
nodule that rises during solidification. As a result, an accumulation at upper surface
of castings happens while depletion of larger nodules sinks at the lower part.
Graphite flotation at higher carbon level may have reduced the graphite volume in the
28
center of the bar. Serious degradation of properties at upper surface of large ductile
iron castings will occur. This situation can be minimized by reducing carbon
equivalent as the casting section size increases.
2.7.4 Carbide content effect
By increasing the volume percent of hard and brittle carbide will increase the
ductile iron yield strength. But, at the mean time it also will reduce the tensile
strength. This phenomenon produces a decrease in elongation, increases the dynamic
elastic modulus and reduces machinability with increasing of carbide content. The
formation of eutectic carbide during solidification affects the volume fraction of
graphite due to competition between carbide and graphite for carbon that contained in
the liquid iron. 15% volume of carbide would require 1% carbon. Thus, this situation
will narrow down carbon available for graphite exceeding 1/3. Simultaneously, the
chances of castings internal porosity will increase by reducing the expansion effects
produced by formation of graphite during solidification.
This situation can be minimized by justified and specified the maximum

carbide levels less than 5%. This can be succeeded with reducing the level of carbide
forming elements through the use of high purity pig iron in the furnace. Furthermore,
increasing of nodule count through application of good inoculation practiced would
also help.
Carbide cannot be tolerated in ductile iron that to be used in the as cast

condition although, it can be readily broken down by heat treatment. Varying amount
of carbide in production of ductile iron can result in different casting dimensions and
levels of unsoundness. Inoculation is prerequisite for the production of ductile iron,
and recent research has resulted in the formulation of better inoculants- both with
respect to reducing chill and to their fading characteristics.
29
The effect of inoculation on reducing the carbide in the as- cast condition can
be detailed by microstructure comparison. The former structure was found in a
casting where metal inoculation technique was poor, and which resulted in a low
nodule count and retained carbide and pearlite after heat treatment. Modification of
inoculation practice resulted in a much higher nodule number, and after heat
treatment there was no retained carbide or pearlite.
Where as cast ductile iron is produced good inoculation is essential, and high
nodule counts assist in the production of fully ferritic matrix structure. The use of
mould or late inoculation technique has enabled a much wider range of casting
sections to be produced free from carbide, even with less pure raw materials. As well
as inoculation, the metal composition (particularly trace element content) has a
profound effect upon the incidence of carbide. Chromium is particularly important in
this respect, and also phosphorus contents in excess of about 0.06% can lead to the
formation of phosphide/ carbide complexes. Heat treatment does not break down
these phosphide areas. Inverse chill is often found in as-cast ductile iron, particularly
in bar and plate sections. The extent may vary considerably, but even in small
amounts the strength and machinability of the material will be impaired.
2.7.5 Matrix effect
Generally matrix of ductile iron grades constitute of ferrite and/ or pearlite

(Warda, 1990) Ferrite as purest iron phase has low strength and hardness, but
provides good machinability with its high toughness and ductility. In the mean time,
pearlite is an intimate mixture of lamellar cementite in a matrix of ferrite. As a
contrast, pearlite characterize as higher strength and hardness with lower ductility. So,
the mechanical properties of ductile iron will be determined by the ratio of ferrite to
pearlite in the matrix.
30
There are a few steps to control the ratio either by composition control of iron
in as-cast condition or, controlling the cooling rate of the casting or, producing a fully
ferritic casting by annealing heat treatment or, maximize the pearlite content by
normalizing.
There is relationship between tensile strength, hardness and content of pearlite

in as cast keel block as study conducted. A range of 15% to 100% pearlite content is
distinguished and differenced by copper-manganese and tin-manganese combinations.
A fully pearlitic matrix that containing alloy levels exceeding that figure also tested
to determine their mechanical properties consequences. It reveals the relationship
between mechanical properties and pearlite content. Regardless whether the castings
produced by Cu or Sn additions for pearlite levels below 100 %, the relationship will
consistent. Further additions of copper on fully pearlitic matrix in Cu-Mn alloy will
increase yield and tensile strength (Warda, 1990). Due to intercellular degenerate
graphite, additions of tin to the fully pearlitic Sn-Mn alloy will decrease tensile
strength.
Matrix structures varying from fully ferritic to fully pearlitic or tempered

martensite are required, and these can be achieved either by modification of the heat
treatment cycle or, in the case of as cast ductile iron, by control of metal composition.
As well as metal composition, the matrix structure is affected by cooling rate and
nodule number. The latter factor is often overlooked, but where a casting contains
various sections, widely different nodule numbers may be produced. For the same
cooling rate, this can be apply in the heat treatment material as well as in as cast
material.
The ratio of ferrite to pearlite varies in the different sections, the highest
ferrite content being associated with the greatest number of graphite nodules. Chills
or denseners are often applied to ductile iron castings, particularly those which are to
31
be subsequently heat treated, and this again can result in different areas of the
castings having widely different nodule numbers.
2.7.6 Inoculation efficiency effect
In general, the most common problems associated with inoculation are the
presence of chill or mottle and poor nodule shape. If mottle occurs in only a
proportion of a batch of a particular casting, the cause is probably variations in the
length of time that the metal is held between inoculating and casting. If the variation
in inoculation is associated with quite wide swings in silicon content from casting to
casting from a single ladle of metal, then the inoculant is not being dispersed
uniformly throughout the metal in the ladle. Variations in the amount of inoculant
added can also produced this effect between different ladles of metal but not in the
same ladle of metal.
In the other hand, if all the castings produced over a period of time contain
more mottle than usual, it is likely that either the current batch of inoculant being
used is less effective than normal or, more commonly, that the metal from the furnace
is contaminated with a carbide forming elements, such as chromium. A further
possibility is that the correct amount of inoculant is not being added. For this reason
accurate metering of the inoculant by some means is critical.
Occasions can be arise when the inoculant is not completely dissolved in the
iron during pouring. This can be arise if the molten metal is too low, if the particle
size of the inoculant is too large, or if the addition is not adequately stirred into the
metal. These undissolved particles which have hardness similar to that of iron
carbide, occur frequently near to the surface and obviously would cause problems
during machining. Undissolved particles of mould or stream inoculant which pass
into the castings will produce similar defects. Large additions of inoculants or
32
alternatively the use of inoculants with high aluminum contents will raise the
aluminum level in the iron with a consequent increase in the risk of dross and pinhole
defects (Warda, 1990).
The most important aspect of inoculation is that the effect of an inoculating

addition is not permanent and as this effect fades the number of nodules form
decreases. As a result, the tendency to produce chill and mottle increases. The
important note is that much of the inoculating effect is lost within first five minutes
and nearly all after ten minutes. In addition, the shape quality of graphite nodules
deteriorates and quasi-flake or exploded nodules can begin to occur. Generally it has
been found that the rate of inoculant fade is much less in ductile iron produced with
treatment alloys containing cerium.
Effect of treated iron and consequently the metallurgical structure and

properties of the castings is due to oxidation of magnesium with time (Chrapov,
1963). The rate of the magnesium losses by oxidation in treated iron is indicate with
magnesium content decrease ratio at a rate of 0.0035%/min during the first 20
minutes after treatment. This rate may increase or decrease, however, depending on
the temperature of the iron. The oxidation losses of magnesium increase about 87%
with an increase of temperature from a lower range of 1400 − 13500 C to a higher one
of 1450 − 14000 C (Grossman, 1966).
Accordingly, it could be expected that the Mg-content, in treated iron

containing 0.05% Mg, reaches about zero percent within 15 minutes after treatment.
This rapid decrease of the Mg-content demands, therefore, a very short pouring time
of the treated iron. The pouring time of Mg treated iron should not exceed 10 minutes
after treatment (Hoffer, 1966). A considerable deterioration of the nodular form
(fading) has been observed, however, after keeping the Mg treated melts more than
five minutes in an acid linear induction furnace. As deterioration proceeds, the
properties of the iron are markedly affected, tending towards those of grey iron.
33
2.8 The technique of ductile iron casting process
There are various technique of ductile iron casting practiced nowadays. The
improvement of the processing is kept advance due to continuous research done by
industrial and education sector. Generally, the technique is base on how to add
magnesium to the molten metal.
During literature, for an alloy which has low density alloy, plunging or
submerged techniques is preferable. This technique is suitable for alloys of higher
magnesium content (15-50%) which have low densities. There is several parameter
needed to consider as the plunger bell size, the number and position of the holes in
the plunger bell, the distance of bottom of the bell from the bottom of the ladle, and
the minimum distance between the sides of the bell and the ladle. Although this
technique has higher capital cost, it offered an ability to use the cheaper and higher
magnesium content alloy.
For an alloy which has medium to high density alloys, more technique can be
applied. The list are direct pour on technique, sandwich process, cover trigger
process, tundish cover process, porous plug ladle process, Inmold process and Flotret
process. The brief of the process is discussed in later section. In the mean time, the
technique of adding pure magnesium is practiced using injection method, pressure
ladle or pressure vessel and George Fischer converter process.
2.8.1 Sandwich process
The simplest technique is direct pour on technique. The molten metal is

poured directly on the weighted magnesium alloy. It is employed only with the higher
34
density alloys such as nickel magnesium, copper magnesium and magnesium
ferrosilicon.
To produce a high magnesium recovery, a sandwich process can be selected.

The theory is the magnesium alloy is holding down for a period of time and produced
at a localized low temperature area. It consists of building a pocket into the bottom of
the ladle, into which is placed the magnesium alloy and a cover of steel scrap, or a
steel or ductile iron plate. The metal stream from the furnace must be directed away
from the pocket (BCIRA Manual, 1988). Magnesium recoveries are increased, for
example, when using the 5% magnesium alloy the value is increased from about 25-
30% (simple pour on technique) to above 40-45%. To obtain the maximum benefit
the pocket should be deep enough to contain all of the alloy and steel scrap, and the
latter should be of small size in order to produce a high packing density.
The sandwich process is often employed with a deep, reaction ladle where the
height to diameter ratio is 1.5 to 2:1. The extra metal depth increases recovery; for
example values slightly in excess of 50% can be obtained when using 5% magnesium
ferrosilicon alloy, even at temperature as high as 15000 C . A pocket in the ladle is
provided to hold the treatment alloy and cover material. The cover material is usually
1-2% addition of steel punching or plate but several large operations use 50%
ferrosilicon as a cover. The cover material serves to delay the magnesium reaction
until a head of iron is built up. Magnesium recovery is expected approximately 40-
50%.
2.8.2 Cover trigger process
Meanwhile, cover trigger process was developed as modification of the

sandwich process, but instead of a steel cover a layer of an inert material, such as
calcium carbide is placed over the magnesium alloy. To ensure a uniform layer of
35
alloy it is advisable to employ the magnesium ferrosilicon in the form of graded fines.
It is found that when metal is poured into the empty half of the ladle and subsequently
flows over the refractory bridge, the inert layer is not dislodged and reaction of the
magnesium does not commence. Using this technique, the ladle can be completely
filled and if necessary transported to different casting station before reaction is
initiated.
2.8.3 Tundish cover process
To increase consistency and more magnesium recovery, a tundish cover

system is designed. The system operated by principle of limiting the amount of air
(oxygen) available for wasteful combination with magnesium. Magnesium recovery
is increased to between 60-65%. Molten metal enters the ladle through a suitably-size
hole in the tundish which forms an integral part of the ladle cover. The entry hole is
so positioned so the first molten metal entering the ladle is directed away from the
portioned treatment alloy.
The process performance is enhancing by diameter measurement that

regulated the molten metal flow and ensure the tundish is remains full throughout
most of the magnesium reaction thereby limiting the ingress of air.
2.8.4 Porous plug process
Porous plug process was practiced since early birth of ductile iron. This
process allows turbulent action to occur for effective addition and buoyant materials
to the surface of the bath. The principle is the material is sucked below the surface
and reaction occurs free from oxygen. Magnesium recoveries are in the range of 40-
36
50%. This technique may be used with the medium density 5-10% magnesium
ferrosilicon alloys when a stream of the granular material is fed into the agitated
metal bath (International Centre for Cast Metals Technology (BCIRA), 1988).
Agitation is most readily practiced by the use of the porous plug ladle, but other
methods such as the shaking ladle may also employ. The probability of desulphurized
with calcium carbide before the addition of magnesium ferrosilicon in the ladle can
be happened.
2.8.5 In mould process
To make the processing of ductile iron casting more robust, the technique of
adding magnesium in the mould cavity, now well known as the Inmold process is
being used in a number of countries. The runner system for each casting contains a
suitably designed chamber in which is placed a weighed amount of magnesium alloy
such magnesium ferrosilicon (BCIRA Manual, 1988). The molten metal will be
flowing over the magnesium alloy, produces a continuous reaction and results in a
consistent pick-up of magnesium throughout the pouring period. This is proved by the
fact that multi impression mold can be satisfactorily cast using this technique. It is
essential that prior to pouring, the sulphur content in molten metal is kept below
0.01%.
In mould treatment is a process where the addition of nodulising alloys in the

mold. It is done by putting inoculant inside the mould (Jain, 1997). The inoculation is
expected to perform totally during pouring. This process incorporates a special
reaction chamber within the runner and gating system of the mold. Recoveries of
magnesium are expected as 90-100%. It is due to processing ability to provide molten
metal for pouring at any rate desired with various capacities. No fume is produced
and the magnesium alloy when used in such a manner produces a self inoculating
effect which is similar in magnitude to that achieved by the use of mold inoculants
37
and conventionally treated metal. It is suggested that in mould inoculation is effective
for extremely thin wall ferritic (less than 5mm) castings, small size (less than 2
kilograms) ferritic castings, and high content of manganese and cuprum composition
(when hardness is demanded) to avoid carbide.
In mould treatment was a practiced of placing a small amount of fine

ferrosilicon at the base of the sprue. However, the result obtained using this technique
tend to be erratic due to tendency of the inoculant to be washed away by the initial
surge of molten metal or pouring. The principle is to use a bonded pellet or pre-cast
slug of inoculant which is either placed in a chamber in the running system or on top
of the strainer core positioned at the bottom of the down sprue. It is customary to
provide a small mixing chamber before the metal enters the casting cavity. The
weight of the inoculant placed in the mold is varied accordance with the weight of the
castings (0.1-0.15%).
The present of small percentages of calcium and cerium mischmetall in the

nodularizing alloy reduces the magnesium consumption by desulphurization and
neutralizes the injurious effects of interfering elements on graphite spheroids
formation.
The mechanics of nodularization inside the mold differs to a great extent from
that carried out in receiving ladles or in specially designed vessels and equipments.
For instance with the addition of nodularizing alloy to the iron inside the mold, the
resulting high pressure of magnesium vapor may destroy the mold, or vapor may be
entrapped in the mold cavity leading to the formation of incomplete castings. The
high vapor pressure of magnesium and its injurious effects on the process can be
diminished by using nodularizing alloys with relatively low magnesium content. The
decrease of the magnesium content in the nodularizing alloy results, however in the
use of higher percentages of alloy which decreases the yield and may remain partially
undissolved after filling the mold.
38
Therefore, the type, size and percentage of inoculant should be carefully
selected in conjunction with the temperature and pouring rate of the molten metal, in
order to ensure a successful and smooth completion of the inoculating process inside
the mold.
Addition of magnesium will decrease the silicon content rapidly due to the
formation of MgS (combined Mg) (Pohl, 1960). The amount of free magnesium,
which is responsible for the graphite spheroid formation, begins first to appear at a
total magnesium content of 0.03%. At 0.05% magnesium in the iron, they found that
the surface tension of the treated melt shows a peak corresponding to the point of
complete transformation of the graphite to the certain nodular form. Further increase
of the magnesium content in the iron melt increases, on one hand, the non metallic
inclusions, the vapor pressure of magnesium and the chilling tendency of the iron and
reduces, on the other hand, the probability of graphite spheroid formation and the
pouring temperature of the iron melt. Generally, the total amount of residual
magnesium necessary for graphite spheroid formation has been given as in range
0.03-0.05% depending on the sulphur content of the iron melt before treatment.
Therefore, it is preferable to treat iron with relatively low sulphur content, in

order to minimize the magnesium consumption by desulphurization as well as its
vapor pressure inside the mold. The amount of magnesium added to iron melt, in the
form of magnesium alloy should also be within the critical range, which can be
defined as the lowest possible magnesium content necessary for graphite spheroid
formation in a certain type of cast iron. During literature, the amount is in range of
0.3-2.0%.
The in mould process also shows concentration gradient of magnesium inside

the casting and consequently the structure and properties with varies of distances
from the reaction chamber. Consequently, lower magnesium content in the
nodularizing alloy than the critical percentage means an increasing of the inoculant
addition, whereas higher magnesium content increases the vapor pressure inside the
39
mold cavity considerably. Both of these effects are undesirable for nodularization
inside the mould.
2.9 Furnace equipment
Foundry melts a large number of different metals and alloys. The melting
requirements and characteristics required of furnaces greatly differ for different
metals. Furnaces can be classified due to its sources of heating (Rao, 1998). The lists
are arc, resistance and induction furnaces are based on electrical heating. While, solid,
oil and gaseous fuel furnaces are based on fossil fuel fired.
2.9.1 Induction furnace
Coreless induction furnaces of mains frequency and above are ideal for
melting ductile iron (BCIRA Manual, 1988). But, a medium frequency furnace
operating at about 1000Hz is being particularly more suitable. The furnace is easy to
charge and operate, provide few refractory problems and is capable of superheating to
temperature in excess of 15000C thus eliminating the problem that can sometimes
occur due to temperature loss during treatment and inoculation. Because induction
heating creates turbulence, metal composition is very consistent and any alloying
additions or trimming additions of carbon and silicon are easily assimilated.
Induction furnaces may be used for all types of materials, as the chief
advantage being the heat directly from the charge instead of the heat source (Rao,
1998). The stirring effect of the electric current would cause fluxes to be entrained in
the melt if they are mixed along with the charge. So, flux is generally added after
switching off the current to the furnace. Then sufficient time must be allowed for the
40
oxides to be removed by the flux as slag before transferring the metal for pouring.
High frequencies help in stirring the molten metal and thus help in using the metal
swarf (chips). Low cost raw materials could, therefore, be used and at the same time
better control of temperature and composition can be achieved.
Induction furnace contains a crucible or a monolithic lining surrounded by

water cooled copper coil (Jain, 1997). The coil represents the primary to which a high
frequency current of 1000 cycles per second (Hz) or higher is supplied by a motor
generator set, a spark gap converter or an electronic solid state converter. By
induction, secondary currents, called eddy currents, are produce in the crucible
charge. The flow of these currents is motivated by potential difference between the
various parts of the charge. Resistivity of metal causes current losses, which are
dissipated into heat energy, thereby melting the metal. In the case of ferrous metals,
which show magnetic property, the loss is due to hysteresis produces extra heat.
Very high temperatures can be obtained by this method of melting, the only
limitation being the ability of the furnace lining to withstand the temperature
developed. Induction furnaces have two different types, cored and coreless. The cored
furnace carries an induction coil, which is immersed within the metal bath and acts as
a core for the eddy currents to flow. The electromagnetic induction effect causes the
liquid metal to move through the channels around the coil and, simultaneously,
secondary currents, which cause heating, are induced in the liquid metal around the
core. This type of furnace, though most efficient, requires a liquid metal charge while
starting and therefore, cannot be used for intermittent operation. The cored furnace is
largely used for melting non ferrous metals on a relatively long run basis.
Modern channel furnaces are the forerunners of conventional cored type

induction furnaces, which are now being extensively used for mixing, superheating,
melting and storing of molten metals for grey, malleable and ductile iron castings.
During periods of power shortage, when the availability of power is limited in
daytime and demand for metal is high, use of channel furnaces enables melting during
41
the night, and pouring during daytime. The arrangement enhances the efficiency of
the casting process and increases productivity. The special characteristics of channel
melting include moderate power input, low bath movement, good holding properties
and low melting losses, large holding capacity and suitability for adoption of the
automatic pouring system.
Coreless induction furnaces, on the other hand, do not have any induction coil
or core and the secondary currents or eddy currents are induced in the charge itself by
electromagnetic induction. Such furnaces are designed particularly for ferrous metals.
Induction furnaces are built in capacities varying from 10kg to 30 tones,

though, for foundry use, a capacity in the range of 1 tone to 5 tones is found most
suitable. The present trend in cast iron and alloy cast iron melting is more and more
towards the use of induction melting and, in many large automotive foundries; the
cupolas are being or have already been replaced by induction furnaces of large
capacities. The approximate power consumption of these furnaces is about 650-
750kWh per tone of metal.
Induction furnaces have largely been of the high frequency type, the
frequency of current ranging as high as 100000 cycles per second (Hz). However,
medium frequency or main frequency induction furnaces, which have proved ideal for
melting cast irons, have also come to use. They work efficiently and melt rapidly if a
small quantity of molten metal (heel) is left in the furnace after tapping. Stirring
action is also better in these furnaces. When a liquid heel is present, even finely
divided scrap can be quickly melted due to the fast stirring action of eddy currents.
When the furnace is to be started from cold, the initial metal charge must consist of a
large piece of metal such as an ingot. This difficulty does not occur in high frequency
furnaces, which can easily melt small pieces of metal from cold.
Above all, induction furnaces have high flexibility in that even a small
quantity of metal of any composition can be melted. The melting process is also quite
42
simple. It also has an extremely high rate of melting. Though the actual time depends
on power input and size, the melting time is generally fast. Therefore, the unit can
deliver metal at regular intervals. The temperature control is very easy and quickly
obtained within a wide range, the upper limit being higher than that in any other
established commercial method. Thus, highly alloyed steels can be melted without
appreciable loss of alloying elements, and can therefore affect large economies. The
actual metallic yield of liquid steel scrap is also exceptionally good.
2.10 Pattern
Pattern is used to replicate the mould cavity at later stage. The main
modifications are the addition of pattern allowances, the provision of core prints and
elimination of fine details which cannot be obtained by casting and hence are to be
obtained by further processing (if any).
The dimensions of pattern are different from the final dimensions of the
casting required. It is happen because of various reasons. Among others is all metal
shrink when cooling. This is due to inter-atomic vibrations which are amplified by an
increase in temperature. The distinction is classified to liquid shrinkage and solid
shrinkage. Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes
from liquid to solid state at solidus temperature. This factor will also reflect to
account of risers system. While solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume due to
metal loses temperature in solid state. The shrinkage allowance is provided to
minimize it.
The rate of contraction with temperature is depending on type of material. For

treated grey cast iron or ductile iron, the amount of graphitization controls the actual
shrinkage. When graphitization is more, the shrinkage would be less. The shrinkage
allowance can be summarized as Table 2.1
43
Table 2.1: Shrinkage allowance (Rao, 1998)
Material Pattern Section Shrinkage

dimension, mm thickness, mm allowance,
mm/m
Grey cast iron Up to 600 - 10.5
Ductile iron - - 8.3 to 10.4
During withdrawing the pattern from sand mould, the vertical surfaces of the
pattern are in contact continuously with the sand. This is probably damage the mould
cavity. To minimize this factor, the vertical surface of the pattern must be tapered
from the parting line (draft allowance). In practiced draft allowance is varies with the
complexity of the job. But in general, inner details of the pattern require higher draft
than outer surfaces.
The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor
(compared with others processing method). Therefore, when the castings
functionality required being good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, the
castings will undergo machining process as Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Machining allowance on patterns for sand castings (Rao, 1998)
Dimensions, Allowance
mm Bore Surface Cope side
Cast iron up to 3.0 3.0 5.5
300 5.0 4.0 6.0
301 to 500
44
2.11 Risering system
Risering design must be done before gating system can be calculated. The
objective of risering system design is a casting without shrinkage defects and
maximizing casting yield. The design principles can be detailed as following order:
i. Determine significant modulus of the castings (MS)
ii. Evaluate mould and iron quality, then select appropriate risering method
iii. Determine corresponding liquid transfer modulus and number of risers required
for each casting
iv. Selection of riser type and compute dimensions
v. Selection of riser contact type and compute dimensions
vi. Checking the available feed volume in riser either it is sufficient for casting
requirement or not, and
vii. Selection of pouring temperature based on selected risering method
The previous principle is applied to perform sound casting without used of

chill and exothermic sleeve. Specific shrinkage for ductile iron is determined as 0.6
(Burns, 1986). The principle should fulfill three requirements as freezing time
requirement; volume feed capacity requirement and length of effective riser to
produce sound casting.
2.12 Gating system
The requirement of gating system is to ensure fast pouring, cleaning apparatus

and economic of casting design. Fast pouring will ensure temperature loss will be
minimizing during mould filling. Thus it will minimize metallurgical fade and rate of
oxidation. As a cleaning apparatus, proper design will trap dross that generated during
45
pouring. The effective design will screen out dross or slag from first iron poured into
mould. While economic of casting design is achieved by maximizing casting yield.
Gating system consisted of several occasion. Each, have different usable

value and information to achieve predicted of sound casting to ensure directional
solidifications (Jain, 1997). Common gating system consists of choke, sprue, runner
and pouring basin.
Choke is a cross sectional area in a gating system which determines mould

filling time. For pressurized gating system, choke is located at the junction of runner
and gate in a simple gate runner system. While for non-pressurized gating system,
choke is located at the junction of sprue and runner in a simple sprue runner system.
Sprue is a passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin
reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.
But, sprue design should not act as a choke.
Runner is the passage ways in the parting plane through which molten metal
flow is regulated before they reach the mould cavity. It exists to reduce flow velocity
of iron stream thus allowing slag particles to float out of iron stream.
Pouring basin is a small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into
which the molten metal is poured. Proper design will ensure minimum splashing at
start of pour.
2.13 Green sand mould
It is sand that freshly prepared from silica grains, clay and moisture (Jain,
1997). The important requirement for sand preparation is through mixing of its
46
variance ingredients. It is essential to ensure uniform distribution of the various
components in the entire sand. During the mixing process, any lump present in sand is
broken up and clay is uniformly enveloped around the sand grains and moisture is
uniformly distributed (Rao, 1998).
Besides manual mixing, equipment called mullers was used to mix the sand.
Batch mullers consist of two muller wheels and equal number of plough blades all of
them connected to a single driving source. The muller wheels are large and heavy,
and continuously agitated. The combined action of both is a sort of kneading action
which makes the clay (bentonite) and the moisture uniformly distributed throughout
the sand. For ductile iron castings with 100kg or less, a value of 3.5-4% bentonite,
1.5-2% coal dust and 4-4.5% water is suitable to produce an efficient high silica sand
(green sand) (Jain, 1997).
In a green sand mould, metal is poured immediately and the castings taken
out. It is commonly used and adapted for rapid production, where the moulding flask
is release quickly. Less floor space is required as no storage is involved. The tendency
of hot tearing of the castings is less in green sand mould. But, it is common for mould
erosion to happen. Thus, the permeability of these mould should be properly
controlled, otherwise blow holes and gas inclusions are likely to form. The expected
green permeability is around 70-90.
Hand moulding technique was used due to its suitability for small batch
production. The mould was first filled by sand into the flask and then raised to a
certain height before it is allowed to free fall. Then, by squeeze ramming, a plate
slightly smaller than the inside dimensions of moulding flask is fitted into the flask
already filled with the moulding sand. A uniform pressure is applied on the plate,
usually by moving it down. The resulting force compact the sand uniformly. The sand
next to the plate rams hardest while the sand below is progressively less hard.
Hardness achieved is also depending upon the pressure applied on the squeeze plate.
47
Due to expected expansion of ductile iron castings, the mould needs to be hard
enough to withstand the force. A spring bar with a certain mass is intended into the
mould prepared. The depth of indentation can be directly measured on the scale
which shows unit 0 to 100. When no penetration occurs, then it is a mould hardness
of 100 and when it sinks completely, the reading is zero indicating a very soft mould.
This indicator will ensure the mould is strong enough to withstand the temperature
and weight of the molten metal, enough resistant criteria to the erosive action of the
flowing hot metal, and generate minimum amount of gases as a result of the
temperature of the molten metal.
2.14 Lining refractories
Refractories are material that can withstand high temperature and resist the
action of slags (Jain, 1997). These materials show no sign of fusion below 15800C
because they are used to serve as receptacles for molten metal. It also do not soften
and able to withstand thermal shock due to sudden change in temperature.
Generally there are three type refractories; acid refractories (silica and fire
clay) that are not attacked by acid slag, basic refractories (magnesite, chrome
magnesite and dolomite) that do not react with basic slag and suitable for lining
furnaces operating on the basic slag practice and neutral refractories (carbon,
graphite, chromite and sillimanite) that are not reacted neither with acid nor with
basic slag and it also permit the use of both acid and basic processes on the same
lining.
48
2.14 Taguchi Method
Dr. Taguchi was the first person who develop this new methods to optimize
the process of engineering experimentation. The techniques that developed was
known as the Taguchi Methods. The Taguchi approach has been successfully applied
in several industrial organizations and has completely changed their outlook on
quality control.
2.14.1 Introduction of Taguchi Method
The risks and a very challenging environment of today’s market place pushed
most companies to find a better way and approaches to improve their product quality
with minimal production cost. Within Taguchi philosophy, it shows how the
statistical design of experiments (SDOE or DOE) can help engineers design and
manufacture products that are both of high quality and low cost. His approach is
primarily focused on eliminating the cause of poor quality and on making product
performance insensitive to variation (Roy, 1990).
His continuing research took him in the direction of random noise study and
its effect on variability. Orthogonal array was used as an effective experimental
design tool for greatly reducing the size of experiments while still achieving new
insights and improving product design and process productivity. Previously, most
experimental studies had been performed using the classical full factorial approach.
The advantage of the Taguchi method is that it integrates statistical methods into the
engineering process. Qualitek-4 is the one of the software design for Taguchi DOE
program. It’s simple to use and may be applied for many experiments in a minimum
time.
49
2.15.2 Contributions to Quality
2.15.2.1 Loss Function
Taguchi defined the loss function as deviation as a quantity proportional to

the deviation from the target quality characteristic. At zero deviation, the performance
is on target, the loss is zero. If Y represents the deviation from the target value, then
the loss function L(Y) is:
L(Y) = k(Y – Y0)2

Where
Y = The quality characteristics, such as a dimension, performance, etc.
Y0 = The target value for the quality characteristic.
k = A constant which is dependent upon the cost structure of a manufacturing
process or an organization.
The loss function possesses the following characteristics:
i. The loss must be zero when the quality characteristic of a product meets its target
value.
ii. The magnitude of the loss increase rapidly as the quality characteristic deviates
from the target value.
iii. The loss function must be a continuous (second order) function of the deviation
from the target value.
50
2.15.2.2 Orthogonal Array
Taguchi recommends a set of fractional factorial design matrices of numbers,

called Orthogonal Arrays (OA), to ensure consistency in experimental results. The
use of these arrays leads to minimum number of experimental runs unlike of
conventional full factorial designs. This is very attractive in situations such as casting
experiments in which a large number of decision variables to be optimized.
Taguchi’s arrays are applied to several experimental conditions. The main

thing is to identify the number of factors and their levels. The most commonly used
orthogonal array designs are L8 (i.e. eight experimental trials), L16 and L18. For
example, the design experiments involving 4, 5, 6 or 7 factors may all be
accompanied by using the orthogonal array L8 as shown in Table 2.3. As a general
rule, the total number of experiments possible for different number of factors at 2 or 3
levels and the corresponding Taguchi number of experiments as shown in Table 2.4.
In this study, orthogonal array L8 was used together with 2 levels for 4 factors.
Table 2.3: Experimental Using an L8 Array (Roy, 1990).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Column
A B C D E F G
Trial Number
T-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
T-2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
T-3 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
T-4 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
T-5 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
T-6 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
T-7 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
T-8 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
51
Table 2.4: Comparison of Factorial Design and Taguchi Design (Roy, 1990).
2.15.2.3 Robustness
A robust design, process or system is one that continues to function within

acceptable parameters despite variabilities (often unanticipated) in its environment.
Its output (such as function and performance) has minimal sensitivity to its input
variations (such as environment, load and power source). In addition, robustness
refers to a product or machine performance being insensitive to tolerance changes that
should not deteriorate significantly over its intended life.
Noise factors (such as weather conditions, machinery wear, etc), according to

Taguchi terminology, are factors which influence the response of a process, but
cannot be economically controlled. Use of the “outer arrays”, he devised an effective
way to study their influence with the least number of repetitions. The end result is a
“robust” design affected minimally by noise.
52
2.15.3 Defining the Quality Characteristic
Some measurable characteristic, generally referred to as the quality

characteristic is used to express how product performs the function. The measure will
possess one of the following three characteristics; the bigger the better, the smaller
the better and the nominal the best.
The bigger the better
The quality of the best design produces the maximum value of the
parameters. In this study, to determine the best design parameters which produce the
maximum material removal rate, surface finish. In this case, will be of the
characteristic “the bigger the better”.
The smaller the better
If on the other hand, the purpose of the study is to determine the least tool
wear, dimensional accuracy. It described by “the smaller the better”.
Nominal the Best
When the object or process under study has the target value, the measure of
quality will possess “the nominal the best” characteristic.
2.15.4 Phases in Taguchi method
Dr. Taguchi proposed that optimization of a process or product should be

carried out in three phases as shown in Figure 2.10:
53
SYSTEM DESIGN
The use of scientific and engineering concept to develop prototype
and select appropriate product and process parameters such as
materials, machines, tools, etc.
PARAMETER DESIGN
The use of statistical and engineering concepts to determine optimal
setting of selected parameters by;
1)Select design parameter levels to maximize performance
statistic (such as S/N ratio).
2)Select control or adjustment parameter levels to shift average
response to target without increasing the variability in
performance.
TOLERANCE DESIGN
The use of engineering statistical concepts to further reduce
variability in performance statistic.
Figure 2.10: Phases in Taguchi method
2.15.5 Taguchi Method Technique
The technique is applied in four steps. First, brainstorm the quality

characteristics and design parameters important to the product/process. Second,
design and conduct the experiments. Third, analyze the results to determine the
optimum conditions. Fourth, run a confirmation test(s) using the optimum conditions.
54
Brainstorming is a necessary and important step in the application process.
Agenda for a brainstorming session is shown in Figure 2.11. A set of Orthogonal
array (OA) are used to design the experiments. Commonly used OAs is available for
2, 3, and 4 level factors. The process of experiment design includes selecting the
suitable OA, assigning the factors are to the appropriate columns and determining the
conditions for the individual experiments.
The results of the Taguchi experiments are analyzed. First, the factorial
effects are evaluated and the influences of the factors are determined in qualitative
terms. The optimum condition and the performance at the optimum condition are
determined from the factorial effects. Next, analysis of the variance (ANOVA) is
performed on the result. ANOVA study identifies the relative influence of the factors
in discrete terms.
Figure 2.11: Agenda for a brainstorming session.
55
When the experiments include multiple runs and the results are measured in
quantitative terms, Taguchi recommended signal to noise ratio (S/N) analysis. The
multiple results of a trial condition are first transformed into S/N ratios and then
analyzed. Finally, the optimum design identified in the analysis should be tested to
confirm that performance is the best and matches performance predicted by analysis.
The results of the Taguchi experiments are analyzed as show in Figure 2.12.
Types of analysis
Without repetition With repeated results
Under noise condition

or simply repeated
Standard analysis S/N Analysis
Bigger is better
Smaller is better
Nominal is best
Figure 2.12: Analysis flow diagrams of the Taguchi experiments.
2.15.6 Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratio
The control factors that may contribute to reduced (improved quality) can be
quickly identified by looking at the amount of variation present as a response.
56
Taguchi has created a transformation of the repetition data to another value which is a
measure of the variation present. The transformation is the signal to noise (S/N) ratio.
The S/N ratio is combined of several repetitions (at least two data points are required)
into one value which reflects the amount of variation present.
Conversion of a set of observations (results) into S/N ratios is performed in

two steps. First, the Mean Standard Deviations (MSD) of the set are calculated.
Second, the S/N ratio is computed from the MSD by the equation,
S/N = - 10 Log (MSD)
1. The bigger is better quality:
MSD = (1/Y12 + 1/Y22 + 1/Y32 + …+ 1/YN2 )/N
2. The smaller is better quality:
MSD = (Y12 + Y22 + Y32 + …+ YN2)/N
3. The nominal is best quality:
MSD = ((Y1 – Y0)2 + (Y2 – Y0)2 + …+ (YN – Y0)2)/N
Where,
Y1, Y2, etc. = results of experiments, observations or quality
characteristics such as surface finish, cutting force, etc.
N = number of trials or repetitions.
Y0= nominal or target value.
When the S/N ratio is used, the estimated result can be converted back to the
scale of units of the original observations. Since
57
S/N = -10 Log (MSD), and
MSD = (Y12 + Y22 + Y32 + …+ YN2)/N (for smaller is better)

2
=Y expected
Therefore,
Y2expected = MSD1/2
The S/N ratio for each level of process parameters is computed based on the
S/N analysis. It depends on the category of the quality characteristic; perhaps a
greater S/N ratio corresponds to better quality characteristics. Therefore, the optimal
level of the process parameters is the level with the greatest S/N ratio.
Furthermore, a statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA) is performed to

observe which process parameters are statistically significant. With the S/N and
ANOVA analysis, the optimal combination of the process parameters can be
predicted.
The major steps of Taguchi method can be summarized as is show in Figure

2.13.
58
1. Selection of factors and / or interactions to be evaluated
2. Selection of number of levels for those factors
3. Selection of the appropriate orthogonal array
4. Assignment of factors and / or interactions to columns
5. Conduct tests
6. Analyze results
7. Confirmation experiment
Figure 2.13: Major steps of Taguchi methodology
59
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
The experiment was conducted into two separate stages. The first stage was
preliminary trial to determine fixed parameter namely pattern and mould design
suitability, pouring and melting process parameters. The second stage of the
experiment was conducted to establish the controlling factors with the relevant level
range of value. The design of the experiment was based on Taguchi Method
approach. The methodology can be summarized as Figure 3.1.
60
Experimental Results and
Objectives Methodology discussions Conclusions
Preliminary experiment trials to

determine fixed parameters namely
Taguchi Method
pattern and mould design suitability,
application pouring and melting process parameters
Controls factors of selected parameters with

range of level namely distance from reaction
Casting trials
chamber, MgFeSi percentage, MgFeSi
particles size and size of casting cavity
Conformation Optimum condition

casting trials parameters of range
selected
Figure 3.1: Flowchart of experimental methodology
3.1 Preliminary experiment to determine the optimum parameter combination
The objective of the preliminary experiment is to determine a fixed parameter

that was identified earlier as not affected objectives directly. The main purpose of
preliminary experiment is to obtain sound casting. A defective part due to castings
defect will considered unsuccessful. The parameters studied is the suitability of
pattern and reaction chamber volume, mould and sand mix selection, material to be
cast, MgFeSi to be inoculated and pouring process parameter suitability.
61
3.1.1 Pattern
Lost foam pattern was used to replicate the casting cavity. It has several
advantages such as easily formed. The pattern was designed to cylinder shape for ease
of machining purpose and schematically drawn as Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Lost form pattern design
The range of size for pattern design for determines relative effective volume
of reaction chamber is as Table 3.1.
There was no draft applied for the pattern since it will evaporate during metal
pouring. The sprue and riser size was determined from gating and risering calculation
as in appendix C.
62
Table 3.1 Pattern designed for effective reaction chamber volume and pouring
temperature range
Trial Cavity diameter Cavity length Pouring Reaction chamber

(m) (m) temperature volume based on
(0C) cavity (% m3)
1 0.1 0.1 1300+50 0.1
2 0.1 0.1 1400+50 0.1
3 0.1 0.1 1500+50 0.1
4 0.3 0.3 1300+50 0.3
5 0.3 0.3 1400+50 0.3
6 0.3 0.3 1500+50 0.3
3.1.2 Green sand mould
The selected type of sand mould is green sand mould. The sand was prepared
from silica grains, clay and moisture. Batch muller with two muller wheels and
numbers of plough blades was used to ensure uniform distribution of various
components in the entire sand.
Since the weight of ductile iron cavity is less than 100kg, approximation of
3.5-4.0% bentonite, 1.5-2.0% coal dust and 4.0-4.5% water of overall silica sand were
mixed manually to produce efficient high silica sand.
Once drag mould was located, hand moulding technique was used to fill the
sand due to its suitability for small batch production. The flask was first filled with
sand. Then, by squeeze ramming, a plate slightly smaller than the inside dimensions
of moulding flask is fitted into the flask already filled with the moulding sand. A
63
uniform pressure is applied on the plate, usually by moving it down. The resulting
force compact the sand uniformly. The sand next to the plate rams hardest while the
sand below is progressively less hard. Hardness achieved is also depending upon the
pressure applied on the squeeze plate.
enough to withstand the force. The mould hardness was measured. A spring bar with
a certain mass is intended into the mould prepared. The depth of indentation can be
directly measured on the scale which shows unit 0 to 100. An average of 90 units was
used during this process. Green sand mould that ready for casting is as Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 Arrangement of green sand mould before pouring
64
3.1.3 Ladle preparation
Ladle was covered by refractories lining for melting unit preparation.

Refractories are material that can withstand high temperature and resist the action of
slags. These materials show no sign of fusion below 15800C because they are used to
serve as receptacles for molten metal. It also do not soften and able to withstand
thermal shock due to sudden change in temperature.
Coloidal silica binder was used as lining refractories as Figure 3.4. It is acid
based and not reacted to acid slag. This criterion will ensure the relatively free
flowing of molten metal during metal pouring. The moisture arise during lining
preparation was avoided by pre-heating of ladle (Figure 3.5) before casting conducted
for 1 hour.
Figure 3.4: Lining preparation for ladle.
65
Figure 3.5: Pre-heating of ladle before pouring
3.1.4 Charging material (pig iron) preparation
The charging material (pig iron) was determined its composition by using
GDS spectrometer and the average of major elements is as Table 3.2. The selected pig
iron was weighted at 50 kg for each of casting batch.
Table 3.2: Pig iron average chemical composition used for the experiment
Elements Composition
Carbon 3.15%
Silicon 2.29%
Sulphur 0.0258%
Ferrous base 93.80%
Others 0.73%
100.00%
66
3.1.5 MgFeSi inoculant preparation
The inoculant used is VI-270. It is produced by Vastly Casting Ltd. The

chemical composition is claimed as Table 3.3. The percentage use for each trial batch
of casting is 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5% of casting cavity volume.
Table 3.3: VI-270 Inoculant chemical composition
Silicon Balanced
Barium 1.5-2.5%
Calcium 1.0-2.0%
Aluminum 2.0%
Ferrous base Balanced
Magnesium 5.0-10.0%
100.00%
3.1.6 Induction furnace preparation
Before the furnace is ready to used, the coil is inspected. Then, the inside of
the coil is rammed with a thin layer of silliminate refractory to form a melting
chamber. The thin layer is rammed by hand around a core which is made in the form
of a steel or asbestos cylinder. During charging of material, the core will be melted
with the first charge.
67
3.1.7 Melting procedure
Light return scrap in the amount of 10% of the total charge was charged in the
induction furnace after being pre-heated for 1 hour. When the return was melted, grey
iron ingot was charged. The total charge for each melting was 50 kg as Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Melting of pig iron
To ensure clean molten metal and ladle/ furnace walls, slag was removed by
adding ferrogen based flux. As the melting proceeds, extra scrap was added, till the
required metal temperature is reached. Once the temperature rose to 1500 + 200C
(measured using V-smart Thermotech thermocouple as Figure 3.7), the furnace was
shutdown. Slag was skimmed and pouring was conducted when the melt reached the
temperature 1400+500C. The furnace was tilted at convenience degree to allow
molten metal poured into ladle as Figure 3.8.
68
Figure 3.7: Temperature measurement with V-smart Thermotech thermocouple
Figure 3.8 Pouring of molten grey iron into ladle for treatment
3 moulds were poured from 1 batch metal charging. The mould was weighted
to ensure the expanding factor due to solidification of molten metal and erosion of
pouring metal was minimized as Figure 3.9.
69
Figure 3.9: Pouring molten metals into CO2 mould
After series of casting processes conducted, the casting cavity was allowed to
solidify and cool in the mould itself. For simple casting using green sand mould with
mass lower than 20 kg, the cooling time was 1 hour.
3.1.8 Fettling
Casting cavity was fettled to remove gates and risers, surface cleaning and
chipping of any unnecessary projections on surfaces. The dry sand was removed
simply by knocking off with iron bar. The gates were removed by arc cutting and the
risers using abrasive cutoff.
Then, the casting was checked to determine any defect. Any irregularity in the
moulding, melting and pouring process causes defects which either can be tolerated
or eliminated. Gas defect such bow holes and open blows was measured visually but
air inclusion and pin holes porosity was determined after machining process.
70
3.2 Experiment to determine the control factors
After the preliminary experiment done, the actual experiment to determine

the control factor that affected the nodularization parameters of in mould casting was
conducted. Taguchi method was used as medium to identify main effects,
interactions, significance contribution of factors and its expected optimum value in
range selected.
Controllable factors with significance impact to inoculation effect were

studied. Adjustable parameters and it range was determined using data from
preliminary experiment, literature review and direct study of the system. The list of
factors are effective distance from reaction chamber (m), percentage of FeSiMg used
during inoculation (%), size of FeSiMg used during inoculation (mm) and size of
casting cavity (kg). The range of factors was between two levels of design parameter.
Output of control factors experimented were tensile strength (MPa),

magnesium concentration (%), material hardness (BHN) and nodule count
(unit/mm2).
Appropriate orthogonal array (OA) was based on standard selection of

orthogonal array as Table 3.4
Table 3.4: Rules for standard selection of orthogonal array (OA) (Roy,
1990).
No of factors Orthogonal array to used

2-3 L4
2-7 L8
8-11 L12
12-15 L16
71
Since there was four set of factor and two level of maximum and minimum
range was selected, the suitable orthogonal array is L8. For this study, orthogonal
array L8 (24) with two interactions is applied is shown in Table 3.5. The value “4”
indicates the number of factors and value “2” indicates the levels of experiments.
Table 3.5: L8(24) orthogonal array with 2 interactions
Control factor
Trial
Distance from reaction
no. for
FeSiMg size (mm)
Casting size (kg)

chamber (m)
L8 array
Interaction
Interaction
FeSiMg %
AxC
BxC
A
D
C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 2 2 2
3 1 2 2 1 1 2
4 1 2 2 2 2 1
5 2 1 2 1 2 1
6 2 1 2 2 1 2
7 2 2 1 1 2 2
8 2 2 1 2 1 1
Experimental performance was evaluated with 8 sets of experiment reading

taken. The experiment is conducted with two repetitions. The experiment matrix is
shown as Table 3.6.
72
Table 3.6: Experimental matrix
Factors Results
A C B D Repetition 1 Repetition 2
Random order
tensile strength (MPa)

No of trial
FeSiMg size (mm)
concentration (%)
concentration (%)
Casting size (kg)
hardness (BHN)
hardness (BHN)
nodule count
nodule count
chamber (m)
magnesium
magnesium
FeSiMg %
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 2 1 1 2 2
2 3 1 2 1 1
3 4 1 2 2 2
7 5 2 1 1 2
5 6 2 1 2 1
8 7 2 2 1 2
6 8 2 2 2 1
S/N ratio and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) are used to analyze the
experimental data. The term ‘signal’ represents the desirable value (mean) while the
term ‘noise’ represents the undesirable value (S.D.) for the characteristic output.
Therefore, the S/N ratio is the ratio of the mean to the S.D. Taguchi used the S/N ratio
to measure the quality characteristic deviating from the desired value.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a table of information that displays the

contribution of each factor. The purpose of the analysis of variance is to investigate
which design parameters significantly affect the quality characteristic. This is to
accomplish by separating the total of the variability of the S/N ratios, which is
73
measured by the sum of the squared deviations from the total mean S/N ratio, into
contributions by each of the design parameters and error.
The performance at the optimum condition is estimated only from the

significant factors. By using Qualitek-4 software, the results can be transforming into
graph. From the graph, the interaction can be identifying either linear or non-linear
interaction. These both type of interactions may occur when the level more than two.
If there were only two levels, only linear interaction will occurred.
The results analysis will be discussed. This analysis will capture the optimal
setting, contribution for each factor and these results will lead us to complete the
study by doing the confirmation experiments.
Confirmation test is very necessary and important step in a Taguchi method

as it is direct proof of methodology. For verification of the optimal design parameters
through the confirmation experiment, the levels set at optimum condition obtained
from analysis. The confirmation experiments were conducted after the possible
optimal settings were identified. Then, the expected result from the analysis was
compare to the results obtained from conformation experiments.
Result from the confirmation test should agree with the optimum
performance (Yopt) estimated by the analysis. Overall Taguchi method application
can be presented by Figure 3.10.
74
Taguchi Method
Control Factors:
- Effective runner distance (mm)
- % of inoculation (%)
- Size of castings
- FeSiMg size
Experimental design
Measuring data:
- Tensile strength
- Nodule count
- Hardness
-Magnesium concentration
Analysis of data:
- Main effect
- ANOVA and interaction
- Optimum method condition
Conformation test
Result and recommendation
Figure 3.10 Experimental procedure using Taguchi method application
75
3.2.1 Experimental setup to determine the control factors
The experimental setup was utilized the orthogonal array designed to

determined the control factors. The experiment preparation for green sand mould,
ladle preparation, charging material (pig iron) and induction furnace was almost the
same as preliminary experiment.
For pattern design, control factor contribute directly since it located two
parameters studied, distance reactive from reaction chamber and size of casting
cavity. So, it will be based on Table 3.7: L8(24) orthogonal array with 2 interactions.
Schematic drawing of pattern design is as Figure 3.11.
FeSiMg inoculant percentage used also reflected directly as the parameters

studied needed two level range of percentage. Minimum level inoculated was 0.3%
and maximum level inoculated was 0.7%. While a mesh was used to differentiate
particles at minimum level (0.5mm) and maximum level (3.0mm) as Table 3.7.
iron ingot was charged. The total charge for each melting was 50 kg.
molten metal poured into ladle.
76
Targeted location
for inspection
Figure 3.11: Schematic pattern drawing
Factors
A C B D
Random order
No of trial
reaction chamber
Casting size (kg)

Distance from
FeSiMg size
FeSiMg %
(mm)
(m)
1 1 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.75

4 2 0.3 0.1 3.0 2.0
2 3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.75
3 4 0.3 0.3 3.0 2.0
7 5 0.7 0.1 0.5 2.0
5 6 0.7 0.1 3.0 0.75
8 7 0.7 0.3 0.5 2.0
6 8 0.7 0.3 3.0 0.75
77
chipping of any unnecessary projections on surfaces. Then, the casting was checked
to determine any defect. The casting was sent to machining for specimen shaping as
tensile strength specimen, spectrometer specimen and microstructure specimen
according to required standard testing specimen.
The rough casting was machine using manual milling and lathe machine until
19mm diameter size. After that, the sample was further machine using CNC machine
for detailed specification. The specimen was machine according to American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) A370 standard size with 12.5+mm round tension
test, 50mm gage length, 10mm radius of fillet and 60mm length of reduce section.
The tensile strength test was conducted using universal tensile test machine
with automatic data processing system. The ends of the specimen are enlarged where
they fit in the grips so that failure will not occur near the grip itself. Failure at the
ends would not produce the desired information about the specimen, because the
stress distribution near the grips is not uniform and is affected by the stress
concentrations.
As the specimen is pulled, the load P is measured and recorded. The

elongation over the gage length is measured simultaneously by mechanical gage and
electrical resistance strain gage. For material does not have an obvious yield point and
ductile such ductile iron, it may not be easy to determine the exact location on the
stress-strain curve at which yielding occurs, because the slope of the straight (elastic)
portion of the curve begin to decease slowly. So, a define Y as the point on the stress-
strain curve that is offset by a strain of 0.002, or 0.2% elongation. A line is drawn on
the stress-strain diagram parallel to the initial linear of the curve. The intersection of
the offset line and stress-strain curve will define the yield stress. So, because the
stress is determined by an arbitrary rule and is not an inherent physical property of the
material, it should be referred to as the offset yield stress.
78
The engineering stress or nominal stress is established as;
Engineering stress, σ = Applied load, P
Original cross sectional area, A0
While,The engineering strain established as;

Engineering strain, e = Instantaneous length of specimen,l – Original gauge length,l0
Original gauge length,l0
The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region is known as the modulus of elasticity,
E or Young’s modulus;
σ
Modulus of elasticity, E =
e
The same tensile strength specimen was machined to 1cm2 size each using
abrasive cutoff for microstructure sample and spectrometer sample. Then, a
magnesium concentration was determined using GDS spectrometer. The result will
show how much magnesium recovery to determine the processing efficiency. The
variations in magnesium yield are established as indicated by NovaCast AB;
Mg yield % = %Mg from spectrometer*100*100

%Added FeSiMg*%Mg in the alloy
In an optimum process the yield should be >65% and the variations less than +/- 5%.
After the specimen was cutoff to 0.5cm2 sizes, mounting and grinding process
was done according to microstructure requirement as Table 3.8. Then, the specimen
was polish until reflective view occurs before it was etched with 3% nital (3% nitric
acid and 97% alcohol). The microstructure was determined by 100 xs, 200x and 400x
magnification using Nikon attached camera.
79
Table 3.8 Specimen grinding steps for microstructure preparation
Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Mesh 240 320 400 600 800 1000 4000
Direction
Once the microstructure picture captured, the calculation of nodule count

utilized the manual point count suggested by Kenawy. There is 5 step applied as
referred to Figure 3.12.
1 mm
0.1 mm
1 mm
Figure 3.12 Microstructure preview at 200 magnifications for nodule count
80
Step1:
From actual picture size (illustrated by microscope) (20.5cm x 25.5cm), it then
converts to 200x magnification as;
20.5cm / 200 x = 0.1025cm actual size @ 1.025mm ~ 1.00mm
Step 2:
Convert the picture pixel to stretch and skew format using Paint Software by 55%
horizontal and 55% vertical size. The picture now is in 13.5cm x 17.0cm size where if
20.5cm distance at step 1 represent 1.00mm, means the exact distance at step 2 (100
micrometer unit) is;
20.5cm picture = 1cm actual
13.5cm picture = x actual
X = 0.66 cm will represent 1 micrometer
Step 3:
Particles with > 15micrometer2 were accounted (for sample >10mm thickness). The
reported values correspond to the average at least 5 measurement.
Step 4:
4 xπxarea
The approximation of sphericity is accounted as =
perimeter 2
Step 5:
no.of .acceptable
The nodularity by count is counted as =
no.of .acceptable + no.of .unacceptable
The sphericity > 0.5 considered accepted.
Solidification or cooling rate and eutectic value will determine an iron

solidified as grey, white or mottled. So, the carbon equivalent is used to examine
whether an iron is hypoeutectic or hypereutectic, and by how much. The
understanding is the eutectic of iron and carbon occurs with a carbon content of 4.3
percent and melts at temperature of 11530C. It helps to distinguish the irons which
cool into a microstructure containing graphite and white irons where the carbon is
present mainly as cementite. The carbon equivalent is defined as;
81
Si + P
CE (wt %) = C +
3
A CE value more than 4.3% is called hypereutectic. It leads to carbide or
graphite solidifying first or a low cooling rate or a high carbon equivalent promotes
grey cast iron. While a CE less than 4.3% is called hypoeutectic.
Hardness test was conducted in unit of Vickers before converted to Brinell

(BHN) hardness number. In Vickers hardness test, a square base pyramid diamond
indentor having 1360 between the opposite faces is used. The number (VHN) is
calculated as;
1.854 L
VHN =
D2
Where, L is the applied load, in kg which is normally 30kg though provision

up to 120kg would be available on the testing machine for harder materials. For
ductile iron specimen, 30kg applied load is satisfied enough. D is stand for average
diagonal of the indentation measured in mm. An average of 3 times indentation was
acceptable for each of reading taken. Then, the reading was converted using
comparison of different hardness scales to Brinell (BHN) hardness number.
82
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
The experiment was conducted into two separate stages. The first stage was
preliminary trial to determine fixed parameter namely pattern and mould design
suitability, pouring and melting process parameters. The second stage of the
experiment was conducted to establish the controlling factors with the relevant level
range of value. The design of the experiment was based on Taguchi Method
approach. The methodology can be summarized as Figure 3.1.
60
Experimental Results and
Objectives Methodology discussions Conclusions
Preliminary experiment trials to

determine fixed parameters namely
Taguchi Method
pattern and mould design suitability,
application pouring and melting process parameters
Controls factors of selected parameters with

range of level namely distance from reaction
Casting trials
chamber, MgFeSi percentage, MgFeSi
particles size and size of casting cavity
Conformation Optimum condition

casting trials parameters of range
selected
Figure 3.1: Flowchart of experimental methodology
3.1 Preliminary experiment to determine the optimum parameter combination
The objective of the preliminary experiment is to determine a fixed parameter

that was identified earlier as not affected objectives directly. The main purpose of
preliminary experiment is to obtain sound casting. A defective part due to castings
defect will considered unsuccessful. The parameters studied is the suitability of
pattern and reaction chamber volume, mould and sand mix selection, material to be
cast, MgFeSi to be inoculated and pouring process parameter suitability.
61
3.1.1 Pattern
Lost foam pattern was used to replicate the casting cavity. It has several
advantages such as easily formed. The pattern was designed to cylinder shape for ease
of machining purpose and schematically drawn as Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Lost form pattern design
The range of size for pattern design for determines relative effective volume
of reaction chamber is as Table 3.1.
There was no draft applied for the pattern since it will evaporate during metal
pouring. The sprue and riser size was determined from gating and risering calculation
as in appendix C.
62
Table 3.1 Pattern designed for effective reaction chamber volume and pouring
temperature range
Trial Cavity diameter Cavity length Pouring Reaction chamber

(m) (m) temperature volume based on
(0C) cavity (% m3)
1 0.1 0.1 1300+50 0.1
2 0.1 0.1 1400+50 0.1
3 0.1 0.1 1500+50 0.1
4 0.3 0.3 1300+50 0.3
5 0.3 0.3 1400+50 0.3
6 0.3 0.3 1500+50 0.3
3.1.2 Green sand mould
The selected type of sand mould is green sand mould. The sand was prepared
from silica grains, clay and moisture. Batch muller with two muller wheels and
numbers of plough blades was used to ensure uniform distribution of various
components in the entire sand.
Since the weight of ductile iron cavity is less than 100kg, approximation of
3.5-4.0% bentonite, 1.5-2.0% coal dust and 4.0-4.5% water of overall silica sand were
mixed manually to produce efficient high silica sand.
Once drag mould was located, hand moulding technique was used to fill the
sand due to its suitability for small batch production. The flask was first filled with
sand. Then, by squeeze ramming, a plate slightly smaller than the inside dimensions
of moulding flask is fitted into the flask already filled with the moulding sand. A
63
uniform pressure is applied on the plate, usually by moving it down. The resulting
force compact the sand uniformly. The sand next to the plate rams hardest while the
sand below is progressively less hard. Hardness achieved is also depending upon the
pressure applied on the squeeze plate.
enough to withstand the force. The mould hardness was measured. A spring bar with
a certain mass is intended into the mould prepared. The depth of indentation can be
directly measured on the scale which shows unit 0 to 100. An average of 90 units was
used during this process. Green sand mould that ready for casting is as Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 Arrangement of green sand mould before pouring
64
3.1.3 Ladle preparation
Ladle was covered by refractories lining for melting unit preparation.

Refractories are material that can withstand high temperature and resist the action of
slags. These materials show no sign of fusion below 15800C because they are used to
serve as receptacles for molten metal. It also do not soften and able to withstand
thermal shock due to sudden change in temperature.
Coloidal silica binder was used as lining refractories as Figure 3.4. It is acid
based and not reacted to acid slag. This criterion will ensure the relatively free
flowing of molten metal during metal pouring. The moisture arise during lining
preparation was avoided by pre-heating of ladle (Figure 3.5) before casting conducted
for 1 hour.
Figure 3.4: Lining preparation for ladle.
65
Figure 3.5: Pre-heating of ladle before pouring
3.1.4 Charging material (pig iron) preparation
The charging material (pig iron) was determined its composition by using
GDS spectrometer and the average of major elements is as Table 3.2. The selected pig
iron was weighted at 50 kg for each of casting batch.
Table 3.2: Pig iron average chemical composition used for the experiment
Carbon 3.15%
Silicon 2.29%
Sulphur 0.0258%
Ferrous base 93.80%
Others 0.73%
100.00%
66
3.1.5 MgFeSi inoculant preparation
The inoculant used is VI-270. It is produced by Vastly Casting Ltd. The

chemical composition is claimed as Table 3.3. The percentage use for each trial batch
of casting is 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5% of casting cavity volume.
Table 3.3: VI-270 Inoculant chemical composition
Silicon Balanced
Barium 1.5-2.5%
Calcium 1.0-2.0%
Aluminum 2.0%
Ferrous base Balanced
Magnesium 5.0-10.0%
100.00%
3.1.6 Induction furnace preparation
Before the furnace is ready to used, the coil is inspected. Then, the inside of
the coil is rammed with a thin layer of silliminate refractory to form a melting
chamber. The thin layer is rammed by hand around a core which is made in the form
of a steel or asbestos cylinder. During charging of material, the core will be melted
with the first charge.
67
3.1.7 Melting procedure
iron ingot was charged. The total charge for each melting was 50 kg as Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Melting of pig iron
molten metal poured into ladle as Figure 3.8.
68
Figure 3.7: Temperature measurement with V-smart Thermotech thermocouple
Figure 3.8 Pouring of molten grey iron into ladle for treatment
3 moulds were poured from 1 batch metal charging. The mould was weighted
to ensure the expanding factor due to solidification of molten metal and erosion of
pouring metal was minimized as Figure 3.9.
69
Figure 3.9: Pouring molten metals into CO2 mould
After series of casting processes conducted, the casting cavity was allowed to
solidify and cool in the mould itself. For simple casting using green sand mould with
mass lower than 20 kg, the cooling time was 1 hour.
3.1.8 Fettling
chipping of any unnecessary projections on surfaces. The dry sand was removed
simply by knocking off with iron bar. The gates were removed by arc cutting and the
risers using abrasive cutoff.
Then, the casting was checked to determine any defect. Any irregularity in the
moulding, melting and pouring process causes defects which either can be tolerated
or eliminated. Gas defect such bow holes and open blows was measured visually but
air inclusion and pin holes porosity was determined after machining process.
70
After the preliminary experiment done, the actual experiment to determine

the control factor that affected the nodularization parameters of in mould casting was
conducted. Taguchi method was used as medium to identify main effects,
interactions, significance contribution of factors and its expected optimum value in
range selected.
Controllable factors with significance impact to inoculation effect were

studied. Adjustable parameters and it range was determined using data from
preliminary experiment, literature review and direct study of the system. The list of
factors are effective distance from reaction chamber (m), percentage of FeSiMg used
during inoculation (%), size of FeSiMg used during inoculation (mm) and size of
casting cavity (kg). The range of factors was between two levels of design parameter.
Output of control factors experimented were tensile strength (MPa),

magnesium concentration (%), material hardness (BHN) and nodule count
(unit/mm2).
Appropriate orthogonal array (OA) was based on standard selection of

orthogonal array as Table 3.4
Table 3.4: Rules for standard selection of orthogonal array (OA) (Roy,
1990).
No of factors Orthogonal array to used

2-3 L4
2-7 L8
8-11 L12
12-15 L16
71
Since there was four set of factor and two level of maximum and minimum
range was selected, the suitable orthogonal array is L8. For this study, orthogonal
array L8 (24) with two interactions is applied is shown in Table 3.5. The value “4”
indicates the number of factors and value “2” indicates the levels of experiments.
Table 3.5: L8(24) orthogonal array with 2 interactions
Control factor
Trial
no. for
FeSiMg size (mm)
Casting size (kg)

chamber (m)
L8 array
Interaction
Interaction
FeSiMg %
AxC
BxC
A
D
C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 2 2 2
3 1 2 2 1 1 2
4 1 2 2 2 2 1
5 2 1 2 1 2 1
6 2 1 2 2 1 2
7 2 2 1 1 2 2
8 2 2 1 2 1 1
Experimental performance was evaluated with 8 sets of experiment reading

taken. The experiment is conducted with two repetitions. The experiment matrix is
shown as Table 3.6.
72
Factors Results
A C B D Repetition 1 Repetition 2
Random order

No of trial
FeSiMg size (mm)
concentration (%)
concentration (%)
Casting size (kg)
hardness (BHN)
hardness (BHN)
nodule count
nodule count
chamber (m)
magnesium
magnesium
FeSiMg %
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 2 1 1 2 2
2 3 1 2 1 1
3 4 1 2 2 2
7 5 2 1 1 2
5 6 2 1 2 1
8 7 2 2 1 2
6 8 2 2 2 1
S/N ratio and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) are used to analyze the
experimental data. The term ‘signal’ represents the desirable value (mean) while the
term ‘noise’ represents the undesirable value (S.D.) for the characteristic output.
Therefore, the S/N ratio is the ratio of the mean to the S.D. Taguchi used the S/N ratio
to measure the quality characteristic deviating from the desired value.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a table of information that displays the

contribution of each factor. The purpose of the analysis of variance is to investigate
which design parameters significantly affect the quality characteristic. This is to
accomplish by separating the total of the variability of the S/N ratios, which is
73
measured by the sum of the squared deviations from the total mean S/N ratio, into
contributions by each of the design parameters and error.
The performance at the optimum condition is estimated only from the

significant factors. By using Qualitek-4 software, the results can be transforming into
graph. From the graph, the interaction can be identifying either linear or non-linear
interaction. These both type of interactions may occur when the level more than two.
If there were only two levels, only linear interaction will occurred.
The results analysis will be discussed. This analysis will capture the optimal
setting, contribution for each factor and these results will lead us to complete the
study by doing the confirmation experiments.
Confirmation test is very necessary and important step in a Taguchi method

as it is direct proof of methodology. For verification of the optimal design parameters
through the confirmation experiment, the levels set at optimum condition obtained
from analysis. The confirmation experiments were conducted after the possible
optimal settings were identified. Then, the expected result from the analysis was
compare to the results obtained from conformation experiments.
Result from the confirmation test should agree with the optimum
performance (Yopt) estimated by the analysis. Overall Taguchi method application
can be presented by Figure 3.10.
74
Taguchi Method
Control Factors:
- Effective runner distance (mm)
- % of inoculation (%)
- Size of castings
- FeSiMg size
Experimental design
Measuring data:
- Tensile strength
- Nodule count
- Hardness
-Magnesium concentration
Analysis of data:
- Main effect
- ANOVA and interaction
- Optimum method condition
Conformation test
Result and recommendation
Figure 3.10 Experimental procedure using Taguchi method application
75
3.2.1 Experimental setup to determine the control factors
The experimental setup was utilized the orthogonal array designed to

determined the control factors. The experiment preparation for green sand mould,
ladle preparation, charging material (pig iron) and induction furnace was almost the
same as preliminary experiment.
For pattern design, control factor contribute directly since it located two
parameters studied, distance reactive from reaction chamber and size of casting
cavity. So, it will be based on Table 3.7: L8(24) orthogonal array with 2 interactions.
Schematic drawing of pattern design is as Figure 3.11.
FeSiMg inoculant percentage used also reflected directly as the parameters

studied needed two level range of percentage. Minimum level inoculated was 0.3%
and maximum level inoculated was 0.7%. While a mesh was used to differentiate
particles at minimum level (0.5mm) and maximum level (3.0mm) as Table 3.7.
iron ingot was charged. The total charge for each melting was 50 kg.
molten metal poured into ladle.
76
Targeted location
for inspection
Figure 3.11: Schematic pattern drawing
Factors
A C B D
Random order
No of trial
reaction chamber
Casting size (kg)

Distance from
FeSiMg size
FeSiMg %
(mm)
(m)
1 1 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.75

4 2 0.3 0.1 3.0 2.0
2 3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.75
3 4 0.3 0.3 3.0 2.0
7 5 0.7 0.1 0.5 2.0
5 6 0.7 0.1 3.0 0.75
8 7 0.7 0.3 0.5 2.0
6 8 0.7 0.3 3.0 0.75
77
chipping of any unnecessary projections on surfaces. Then, the casting was checked
to determine any defect. The casting was sent to machining for specimen shaping as
tensile strength specimen, spectrometer specimen and microstructure specimen
according to required standard testing specimen.
The rough casting was machine using manual milling and lathe machine until
19mm diameter size. After that, the sample was further machine using CNC machine
for detailed specification. The specimen was machine according to American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) A370 standard size with 12.5+mm round tension
test, 50mm gage length, 10mm radius of fillet and 60mm length of reduce section.
The tensile strength test was conducted using universal tensile test machine
with automatic data processing system. The ends of the specimen are enlarged where
they fit in the grips so that failure will not occur near the grip itself. Failure at the
ends would not produce the desired information about the specimen, because the
stress distribution near the grips is not uniform and is affected by the stress
concentrations.
As the specimen is pulled, the load P is measured and recorded. The

elongation over the gage length is measured simultaneously by mechanical gage and
electrical resistance strain gage. For material does not have an obvious yield point and
ductile such ductile iron, it may not be easy to determine the exact location on the
stress-strain curve at which yielding occurs, because the slope of the straight (elastic)
portion of the curve begin to decease slowly. So, a define Y as the point on the stress-
strain curve that is offset by a strain of 0.002, or 0.2% elongation. A line is drawn on
the stress-strain diagram parallel to the initial linear of the curve. The intersection of
the offset line and stress-strain curve will define the yield stress. So, because the
stress is determined by an arbitrary rule and is not an inherent physical property of the
material, it should be referred to as the offset yield stress.
78
The engineering stress or nominal stress is established as;
Engineering stress, σ = Applied load, P
Original cross sectional area, A0
While,The engineering strain established as;

Engineering strain, e = Instantaneous length of specimen,l – Original gauge length,l0
Original gauge length,l0
The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region is known as the modulus of elasticity,
E or Young’s modulus;
σ
Modulus of elasticity, E =
e
The same tensile strength specimen was machined to 1cm2 size each using
abrasive cutoff for microstructure sample and spectrometer sample. Then, a
magnesium concentration was determined using GDS spectrometer. The result will
show how much magnesium recovery to determine the processing efficiency. The
variations in magnesium yield are established as indicated by NovaCast AB;
Mg yield % = %Mg from spectrometer*100*100

%Added FeSiMg*%Mg in the alloy
In an optimum process the yield should be >65% and the variations less than +/- 5%.
After the specimen was cutoff to 0.5cm2 sizes, mounting and grinding process
was done according to microstructure requirement as Table 3.8. Then, the specimen
was polish until reflective view occurs before it was etched with 3% nital (3% nitric
acid and 97% alcohol). The microstructure was determined by 100 xs, 200x and 400x
magnification using Nikon attached camera.
79
Table 3.8 Specimen grinding steps for microstructure preparation
Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Mesh 240 320 400 600 800 1000 4000
Direction
Once the microstructure picture captured, the calculation of nodule count

utilized the manual point count suggested by Kenawy. There is 5 step applied as
referred to Figure 3.12.
1 mm
0.1 mm
1 mm
Figure 3.12 Microstructure preview at 200 magnifications for nodule count
80
Step1:
From actual picture size (illustrated by microscope) (20.5cm x 25.5cm), it then
converts to 200x magnification as;
20.5cm / 200 x = 0.1025cm actual size @ 1.025mm ~ 1.00mm
Step 2:
Convert the picture pixel to stretch and skew format using Paint Software by 55%
horizontal and 55% vertical size. The picture now is in 13.5cm x 17.0cm size where if
20.5cm distance at step 1 represent 1.00mm, means the exact distance at step 2 (100
micrometer unit) is;
20.5cm picture = 1cm actual
13.5cm picture = x actual
X = 0.66 cm will represent 1 micrometer
Step 3:
Particles with > 15micrometer2 were accounted (for sample >10mm thickness). The
reported values correspond to the average at least 5 measurement.
Step 4:
4 xπxarea
The approximation of sphericity is accounted as =
perimeter 2
Step 5:
no.of .acceptable
The nodularity by count is counted as =
no.of .acceptable + no.of .unacceptable
The sphericity > 0.5 considered accepted.
Solidification or cooling rate and eutectic value will determine an iron

solidified as grey, white or mottled. So, the carbon equivalent is used to examine
whether an iron is hypoeutectic or hypereutectic, and by how much. The
understanding is the eutectic of iron and carbon occurs with a carbon content of 4.3
percent and melts at temperature of 11530C. It helps to distinguish the irons which
cool into a microstructure containing graphite and white irons where the carbon is
present mainly as cementite. The carbon equivalent is defined as;
81
Si + P
CE (wt %) = C +
3
A CE value more than 4.3% is called hypereutectic. It leads to carbide or
graphite solidifying first or a low cooling rate or a high carbon equivalent promotes
grey cast iron. While a CE less than 4.3% is called hypoeutectic.
Hardness test was conducted in unit of Vickers before converted to Brinell

(BHN) hardness number. In Vickers hardness test, a square base pyramid diamond
indentor having 1360 between the opposite faces is used. The number (VHN) is
calculated as;
1.854 L
VHN =
D2
Where, L is the applied load, in kg which is normally 30kg though provision

up to 120kg would be available on the testing machine for harder materials. For
ductile iron specimen, 30kg applied load is satisfied enough. D is stand for average
diagonal of the indentation measured in mm. An average of 3 times indentation was
acceptable for each of reading taken. Then, the reading was converted using
comparison of different hardness scales to Brinell (BHN) hardness number.
82
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.0 Introduction
Experimental results were divided into two separate stages. Preliminary

experiment result was used to narrow down possible factors variable. It will act as a
guidance to determine fixed parameter. Main concern arise was availability of the
parameters to ensure sound casting. Second stage of experiment that consist control
factor will utilized those fixed parameters. With a level of confident, an experiment
can be conducted acknowledge those fixed parameter will not affected the control
factors.
Preliminary experiment result was treated manually; while second stage of

experiment was analysis using Taguchi method application.
84
4.1 Preliminary experiment
1st preliminary experiment shows that temperature exceeding 1400+500C

during molten metal pouring enough to produce sound casting. While 10% volume of
reaction chamber based on casting cavity size was appropriate to ensure smooth
mixing of MgFeSi particles and molten metal. Both defect discovered (trial 1 and 2)
was shrinkage and undissolved particles in casting cavity. This may happen due to
lower pouring temperature. While physical and visual checked discovered the rest of
casting cavity was intricate the pattern shapes without a single defect.
Cavity
Shrinkage on casting
cavity
Figure 4.1 Defect casting during preliminary experiment

85
Table 4.1: 1st preliminary experiment result
Trial Cavity Cavity Pouring Reaction Result

diameter length (m) temperature chamber volume
(m) (0C) based on cavity
(% of m3)
1 0.1 0.1 1300+50 10 Defect
2 0.1 0.1 1400+50 10 Sound casting
3 0.1 0.1 1500+50 10 Sound casting
4 0.3 0.3 1300+50 30 Defect
5 0.3 0.3 1400+50 30 Sound casting
6 0.3 0.3 1500+50 30 Sound casting
2nd preliminary experiment conducted utilizing the 1st preliminary experiment

result is as Table 4.2. 2nd preliminary experiment shows that the range of effective
MgFeSi percentage was from 0.3% to 0.7%. There are no undissolved particles
discovered. But, the rest of casting experiment was not successful. Undissolved
particles were discovered along reaction chamber to casting cavity cross section. This
may happen due to saturated of MgFeSi in casting cavity.
Casting cavity (machine

to 19 mm2mm size)
Undissolved MgFeSi
particles
Specimen
mounting
Figure 4.2: Undissolved MgFeSi particles in casting cavity

86
Table 4.2: 2nd preliminary experiment result
Trial Cavity Cavity Pouring MgFeSi Result

diameter length (m) temperature percentage
(m) (0C)
1 0.1 0.1 1400+50 0.3 Sound casting
2 0.1 0.1 1500+50 0.5 Sound casting
3 0.1 0.1 1400+50 0.7 Sound casting
4 0.3 0.3 1500+50 0.9 Defect
5 0.3 0.3 1400+50 1.1 Defect
6 0.3 0.3 1500+50 1.3 Defect
87
There was 16 trial conducted during this stage of experiment. All trial
successfully produced a sound casting specimen as Figure 4.3.
Flask
Casting cavity
Green sand
mould
Figure 4.3: Sound casting produced during experiment to determine the

control factors
The results and analysis of experiment consist of tensile strength (MPa),

magnesium concentration (%), nodule count (unit/mm2) and hardness (BHN).
88
4.2.1 Tensile strength
16 samples was test for tensile strength. The maximum value achieving
443.32 MPa (trial 6, sample 2) and the lowest was 340.78 MPa (trial 4, sample 1) as
indicated in Table 4.3. During trial 1 to 4, the value ranged between 340.78 MPa to
366.31 MPa. While during trial 5 to 8, the value ranged between 380.23 MPa to
443.32 MPa.
Table 4.3: Tensile strength experimental trial results
Trial Sample 1 (MPa) Sample 2 (MPa)

1 360.73 361.22
2 350.11 345.98
3 360.45 366.31
4 340.78 349.44
5 380.23 385.11
6 443.32 440.12
7 412.35 416.79
8 421.63 433.56
89
The S/N ratios of experimental trial results are as Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: S/N ratio of experimental trial results
Trial S/N ratio

1 51.149
2 50.832
3 51.206
4 50.757
5 51.655
6 52.902
7 52.351
8 52.618
Where, the main effects of each control factors with two levels are as Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Main effects for tensile strength test
Factors Level 1 Level 2 L2 – L1

1 MgFeSi % 50.986 52.382 1.396
2 Distance from r.c(m) 51.635 51.733 0.097
4 MgFeSi size(mm) 51.590 51.777 0.186
5 Casting size(kg) 51.969 51.399 -0.571
6 INTERACT 2 X 4 51.545 51.823 0.277
There is interaction between control factors as Figure 4.4 – 4.6.

90
Figure 4.4: Interaction of MgFeSi particles size and casting size when level of
MgFeSi size control factor changes.
Figure 4.5: Interaction of distance from reaction chamber and MgFeSi size when
level of distance reactive from reaction chamber control factor changes
Figure 4.6: Interaction between MgFeSi % and MgFeSi size when level of MgFeSi
control factor changes.
91
The significance factor and interaction influence graph is as Figure 4.7. The analysis
of variance (ANOVA) for these sets of trial is as Table 4.6.
Figure 4.7: Significance factor and Interaction influences of tensile strength
Table 4.6: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of tensile strength
Factors DOF Sums of Variance F-ratio Pure sum Percent

squares
1 MgFeSi % 1 3.894 3.894 67.995 3.837 78.273
2 Distancefrom r.c 1 0.019 0.019 0.336 0.000 0.000
4 MgFeSi size 1 0.071 0.071 1.244 0.014 0.285
5 Casting size 1 0.649 0.649 11.343 0.592 12.084
6 INTERACT 1 0.153 0.153 2.672 0.095 1.953
2X4
Other/error 2 0.113 0.056 7.405
Total 7 4.902 100%
92
Since there are three factors (distance from reaction chamber (m),
INTERACT 2X4 and magnesium size (mm)) that have less percent contribution
(refer table 4.6), pooling of control factors was applied. All factors was pooled with
90 % confidence level and only for factors having value F-ratio less than 8.5263
(refer table B-1.F Table F.10(f1,f2), 90% confidence). The improvement of analysis of
variance (ANOVA) for these sets of trial is as Table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of tensile strength (pooled).

squares
1 MgFeSi % 1 3.894 3.894 54.369 3.545 77.994
2 Distance from r.c (1) (0.019) Pooled (CL=*NC*) 0.000
4 MgFeSi size (1) (0.071) Pooled (CL=74.97%) 0.000
5 Casting size 1 0.649 0.649 9.069 0.531 11.793
6 INTERACT 2X4 (1) (0.153) Pooled (CL=87.36%) 0.000
Other/error 4 0.357 0.071 10.213
Total 7 4.902 100%
So, the improvement of optimum condition and performance to determine the

significance factors that affect tensile strength is as 4.8.
Table 4.8: Optimum condition and performance of tensile strength (pooled)
Factors Level Level Contribution

description
1 MgFeSi % 0.7 2 0.697
5 Casting size(kg) 0.75 1 0.284
Total contribution from all factors…….0.980
Current grand average of performance...51.684
Expected result at optimum condition…52.665
93
The estimation of expected result from optimum condition can be done by S/N ratio
(THE BIGGER THE BETTER) as;
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
MSD = [ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ... + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ]/n
⎝ y1 ⎠ ⎝ y2 ⎠ ⎝ yn ⎠
⎛S ⎞
[ − ⎜ ⎟ / 10 ]
⎝N⎠
MSD = 10
MSD = 10 [− (52.665 ) / 10 ]
MSD = 0.0000054
Expected performance in QC units (or overall evaluation criteria) is;
Yexp = SQR (1/MSD)
Yexp = 429.78 MPa tensile strength
And, the improvement significant factor and interaction influences for tensile strength
are as Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Significance factor and Interaction influences of tensile strength (pooled)
94
Clearly, percentage of MgFeSi plays a vital role to determine the ductile iron
tensile strength (achieving 80% of total influences). Casting cavity size also
influenced but at much less important.
4.2.2 Magnesium concentration
16 samples was test for magnesium concentration. The maximum value

achieving 0.058 % (trial 6, sample 1 and 2) and the lowest was 0.054 % (trial 2, 4 and
7) as indicated in Table 4.9. Although the trial conducted through different sets of
MgFeSi percentage, the range of magnesium concentration was only between 0.004
%.
Table 4.9: Magnesium concentration experimental trial results
Trial Sample 1 (%) Sample 2 (%)

1 0.057 0.056
2 0.054 0.054
3 0.057 0.056
4 0.054 0.054
5 0.057 0.057
6 0.058 0.058
7 0.054 0.055
8 0.056 0.056
95
The S/N ratios of experimental trial results are as 4.10.
Trial S/N ratio

1 -29.562
2 -42.737
3 -33.806
4 -35.785
5 -19.662
6 -26.67
7 -52.063
8 -52.619
Table 4.11: Main effects for magnesium concentration test.

1 MgFeSi % -25.083 -24.981 0.101
2 Distance from r.c(m) -24.982 -25.082 -0.101
4 MgFeSi size(mm) -24.946 -25.118 -0.172
5 Casting size(kg) -24.849 -25.215 -0.366
6 INTERACT 2 X 4 -25.058 -25.006 0.051
96
There is interaction between control factors as Figure 4.9 – 4.10.
Figure 4.9: Interaction between MgFeSi % and distance from reaction chamber when
level of MgFeSi percentage changes
Figure 4.10: Interaction between MgFeSi % and MgFeSi % particle size when level
of MgFeSi percentage changes
97
Figure 4.11: Significance factor and Interaction influences of magnesium

concentration
Table 4.12 Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

squares
1 MgFeSi % 1 0.020 0.020 0.299 0.000 0.000
2 Distance from r.c 1 0.019 0.019 0.286 0.000 0.000
4 MgFeSi size 1 0.059 0.059 0.858 0.000 0.000
5 Casting size 1 0.269 0.269 3.857 0.199 38.694
6 INTERACT 2X4 1 0.005 0.005 0.082 0.000 0.000
Other/error 2 0.139 0.069 61.306
Total 7 0.515 100%
98
INTERACT 2X4 was pool since it having the lowest F-ratio that have less
percent contribution (refer table 4.12). It was pooled with 90 % confidence level and
only for factors having value F-ratio less than 8.5263 (refer table B-1.F Table
F.10(f1,f2), 90% confidence). The improvement of analysis of variance (ANOVA) for
these sets of trial is as table 4.13.
Table 4.13: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (pooled)

squares
1 MgFeSi % 1 0.020 0.020 0.299 0.000 0.000
2 Distanc from r.c 1 0.019 0.019 0.286 0.000 0.000
4 MgFeSi size 1 0.059 0.059 0.858 0.000 2.231
5 Casting size 1 0.269 0.269 3.857 0.199 42.867
6 INTERACT 2X4 (1) (0.005) POOLED (CL=*NC*) 0.000
Other/error 3 0.144 0.048 54.902

Total 7 0.515 100%
So, the improvement of optimum condition and performance to determine the

significance factors that affect magnesium concentration is as Table 4.14.
99
Table 4.14: Optimum condition and performance for magnesium concentration

(pooled)

description
1 MgFeSi % 0.7 2 0.050
2 Distance from r.c(m) 0.1 1 0.050
4 MgFeSi size(mm) 0.5 1 0.086
Current grand average of performance…-25.032
Expected result at optimum condition…-24.637
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
MSD = [ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ... + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ]/n
⎝ y1 ⎠ ⎝ y2 ⎠ ⎝ yn ⎠
⎛S ⎞
[ − ⎜ ⎟ / 10 ]
⎝N⎠
MSD = 10
MSD = 10 [ − (−24.637 ) / 10 ]
MSD = 290.871
Yexp = SQR (1/MSD)
Yexp = 0.058% magnesium concentration
And, the improvement significant factor and interaction influences for magnesium
concentration are as Figure 4.12.
100
Figure 4.12: Significance factor and Interaction influences of magnesium

concentration (pooled)
Casting cavity size was the most significance factor to determine the
magnesium concentration for ductile iron castings (achieving 43%) . The indication
was the smaller casting cavity during inoculation, the bigger the magnesium
concentration is.
101
4.2.3 Nodule count
16 samples was test for nodule count. The maximum value achieving 99
nodule/mm2 (trial 6, sample 1) and the lowest was 67 nodule/mm2 (trial 4, sample 2)
as indicated in Table 4.15. During trial 1 to 4, the value ranged between 67
nodule/mm2 to 82 nodule/mm2. While during trial 5 to 8, the value ranged between 85
nodule/mm2to 99 nodule/mm2.
Table 4.15 Nodule count experimental trial results
Trial Sample 1 Sample 2

(nodule/mm2) (nodule/mm2)
1 82 81
2 72 73
3 78 77
4 68 67
5 89 88
6 99 98
7 85 86
8 96 95
The microstructure was determined by 100 xs, 200x and 400x magnification
using Nikon attached camera as Figure 4.13 – 4.33. The successful MgFeSi
inoculation will give microstructure view as 4.13 – 4.15. While, Figure 4.16 is a
common microstructure of grey iron.
Figure 4.17 and 4.25 used 400 magnifications. Figure 4.30, 4.31 and 4.32 used
200 magnifications. The rest used 100 magnifications.
102
100 μ m
Figure 4.13: 400x magnification specimen
100 μ m

103
100 μ m
100 μ m
Figure 4.16: Grey iron microstructure at 400x magnification

104
100 μ m 100 μ m
Figure 4.17:Trial 1 sample 1 Figure 4.18:Trial 1 sample 2
100 μ m 100 μ m
Figure 4.19: Trial 2 samples 1 Figure 4.20: Trial 2 sample 2
100 μ m 100 μ m
Figure 4.21: Trial 3 sample 1 Figure 4.22: Trial 3 samples 2

105
100 μ m 100 μ m
100 μ m 100 μ m
100 μ m 100 μ m

106
100 μ m 100 μ m
100 μ m 100 μ m
The S/N ratios of experimental trial results are as;
Trial S/N ratio

1 38.222
2 37.206
3 37.785
4 36.585
5 38.938
6 39.868
7 38.638
8 39.599
107
Table 4.17: Main effects for nodule count

1 MgFeSi % 37.449 39.261 1.812
2 Distance from r.c(m) 38.558 38.152 -0.406
4 MgFeSi size(mm) 38.396 38.314 -0.083
5 Casting size(kg) 38.869 37.842 -1.028
6 INTERACT 2 X 4 38.336 38.374 0.038
There is interaction between control factors as Figure 4.33 and 4.34.
Figure 4.33: Interaction between MgFeSi size and casting cavity size when level of
MgFeSi size control factor changes.
108
Figure 4.34: Interaction between MgFeSi % and MgFeSi size when level of MgFeSi
percentage control factor changes.
The significance factor and interaction influence graph is as figure 4.35. The analysis
of variance (ANOVA) for these sets of trial is as 4.18.
Figure 4.35: Significance factor and Interaction influences of nodule count.

109
Table 4.18: Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

squares
1 MgFeSi % 1 6.562 6.562 407.453 6.546 72.305
2 Distance from r.c 1 0.330 0.330 20.523 0.314 3.473
4 MgFeSi size 1 0.014 0.014 0.896 0.000 0.000
5 Casting size 1 2.110 2.110 131.005 2.093 23.127
6 INTERACT 2X4 1 0.004 0.004 0.253 0.000 0.000
Other/error 2 0.031 0.015 1.095
Total 7 9.053 100%
MgFeSi particles size and INTERACT 2X4 factors were pool since it having
the lowest F-ratio that have less percent contribution (refer Table 4.18). It was pooled
with 90 % confidence level and only for factors having value F-ratio less than 8.5263
variance (ANOVA) for these sets of trial is as Table 4.19.

squares
1 MgFeSi % 1 6.562 6.562 517.327 6.549 72.351
2 Distanc from r.c 1 0.330 0.330 26.058 0.317 3.511
4 MgFeSi size (1) (0.014) Pooled (CL=*NC*) 0.000
5 Casting size 1 2.110 2.110 166.331 2.097 23.167
6 NTERACT 2X4 (1) (0.004) Pooled (CL=*NC*) 0.000
Other/error 4 0.049 0.012 0.971
Total 7 9.053 100%
So, the optimum condition and performance to determine the significance factors that
affect nodule count is as Table 4.20.
110
Table 4.20: Optimum condition and performance for nodule count (pooled)

description
1 MgFeSi % 0.7 2 0.905
2 Distance from r.c 0.1 1 0.203
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
MSD = [ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ... + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ]/n
⎝ y1 ⎠ ⎝ y2 ⎠ ⎝ yn ⎠
⎛S ⎞
[ − ⎜ ⎟ / 10 ]
⎝N⎠
MSD = 10
MSD = 10 [− (39.976 ) / 10 ]
MSD = 0.00001005
Yexp = SQR (1/MSD)
Yexp = 99.7 nodule/mm2
The significance factor and interaction influence graph is as Figure 4.36.
111
Figure 4.36: Significance factor and Interaction influences of nodule count (pooled)
MgFeSi percentage was the most significant factor influenced nodule count
(achieving 70%). It was followed by size of casting cavity (25%).More nodule count
is expected whenever more MgFeSi was used. Less cavity size will raise more nodule
count compared to bigger size of cavity.
112
4.2.4 Hardness test
16 samples was test for hardness test. The maximum value achieving 185
BHN (trial 4, sample 1) and the lowest was 144 BHN (trial 6, sample 2) as indicated
in Table 4.21. During trial 1 to 4, the value ranged between 161 BHN to 185 BHN.
While during trial 5 to 8, the value ranged between 144 BHN to 159 BHN.
Table 4.21: Hardness test experimental trial results
Trial Sample 1 (BHN) Sample 2 (BHN)

1 162 161
2 181 182
3 175 176
4 185 183
5 155 154
6 145 144
7 159 158
8 151 152
113
The S/N ratios of experimental trial results are as Table 4.22.
Trial S/N ratio

1 44.163
2 45.177
3 44.885
4 45.295
5 43.778
6 43.197
7 44.000
8 43.608
Where, the main effects of each control factors with two levels are as 4.23.
Table 4.23: Main effects for hardness test

1 MgFeSi % 44.880 43.646 -1.235
2 Distance from r.c(m) 44.079 44.447 0.368
4 MgFeSi size(mm) 44.206 44.319 0.112
5 Casting size(kg) 43.963 44.563 0.600
6 INTERACT 2 X 4 44.211 44.315 0.103
There is interaction between control factors as Figure 4.37 and 4.38.

114
Figure 4.37: Interaction between MgFeSi size and casting cavity size when level of
MgFeSi size control factor change.
Figure 4.38: Interaction between MgFeSi % and MgFeSi particles size when level of
MgFeSi percentage control factor change.
115
Figure 4.39: Significance factor and Interaction influences of hardness test.
Table 4.24: Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

squares
1 MgFeSi % 1 3.047 3.047 75.081 3.007 72.133
2 Distance from r.c 1 0.272 0.272 6.719 0.232 5.569
4 MgFeSi size 1 0.026 0.026 0.659 0.000 0.000
5 Casting size 1 0.718 0.718 17.709 0.678 16.270
6 INTERACT 2X4 1 0.021 0.021 0.529 0.000 0.000
Other/error 2 0.081 0.040 6.028
Total 7 4.169 100%
MgFeSi particles size factor and INTERACT 2X4 was pooled since it having
the lowest F-ratio that have zero percent contribution (refer table 4.24). It was pooled
with 90 % confidence level and only for factors having value F-ratio less than 8.5263
116
variance (ANOVA) for these sets of trial is as table 4.25.

squares
1 MgFeSi % 1 3.047 3.047 94.168 3.015 72.333
2 Distanc from r.c 1 0.272 0.272 8.427 0.240 5.766
4 MgFeSi size (1) (0.026) Pooled CL=*NC* 0.000
5 Casting size 1 0.718 0.718 22.211 0.686 16.468
6 INTERACT 2X4 (1) (0.021) Pooled CL=*NC* 0.000
Other/error 4 0.129 0.032 5.433
Total 7 4.169 100%
So, the optimum condition and performance to determine the significance

factors that affect hardness is as table 4.26.
Table 4.26: Optimum condition and performance for hardness (pooled)

description
1 MgFeSi % 0.3 1 0.617
2 Distance from r.chamber 0.3 2 0.184
5 Casting cavity size 2 2 0.299
117
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
MSD = [ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ... + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ]/n
⎝ y1 ⎠ ⎝ y2 ⎠ ⎝ yn ⎠
⎛S ⎞
[ − ⎜ ⎟ / 10 ]
⎝N⎠
MSD = 10
MSD = 10 [− (45.363 ) / 10 ]
MSD = 0.0000291
Yexp = SQR (1/MSD)
Yexp = 185.42 BHN hardness
The significance factor and interaction influence graph is as Figure 4.40.
Figure 4.40: Significance factor and Interaction influences of hardness test (pooled).
MgFeSi percentage was the most significance factor influenced hardness test
(achieving 70%). It was followed casting cavity size (20%) and distance reactive
from reaction chamber (5%).
118
4.3 Experiment to validate the control factors (Confirmation Test)
Confirmation casting trial was done to ensure the estimated result at optimum
condition is reliable. There are four different castings trial done for determine and
differentiate the analyzed data. It can be summarized as Table 4.27.
Table 4.27: Confirmation casting trial parameters
Process: In mold casting of ductile iron

Material: Pig iron and MgFeSi with selected range of composition
Casting dimension: Up to 2kg cavity weight
Other parameters (fixed): 14000C +100 temperature, green silica sand with 3.5-4% bentonite, 1.5-2% coal dust and 4-
4.5% water, and green permeability up to 90 hardness, fire clay of hydrated aluminum silicate (Al2O32SiO22h2O) lining
refractories ladle, up to 0.75 hour cooling time
Verification test Factors Level
Tensile strength (MPa) MgFeSi % = 0.7% (opt condition) 2
Distance reactive from r.chamber = 0.3m 2
MgFeSi particles size = 3mm 2
Casting cavity size = 0.75kg (opt condition) 1
Magnesium concentration MgFeSi % = 0.7% (opt condition) 2
(%) Distance reactive from r.chamber = 0.1m (opt condition) 1
MgFeSi particles size = 0.5mm (opt condition) 1
Nodule count number MgFeSi % = 0.7% (opt condition) 2
(unit) Distance reactive from r.chamber = 0.1m (opt condition) 1
MgFeSi particles size = 0.5mm 1
Hardness (BHN) MgFeSi % = 0.3% (opt condition) 1
Distance reactive from r.chamber = 0.3m (opt condition) 2
MgFeSi particles size = 3mm 2
Casting cavity size = 2kg (opt condition) 2
The result of validation test were 452.37 MPa for tensile strength, 0.058% for
magnesium concentration, 88 nodule/mm2 for nodule count, and 209 BHN for hardness.
119
The error percentage is calculated by using the following equation:
Pr edicted − Actual
% Error = x 100
Actual
Table 4.28: Comparison of validation experiment and control factor predicted

experiment
Trial Theoretical value Control factors Validation Error (%)

Predicted result result (Actual)
Tensile 414 MPa (min) 429.78 MPa 452.37 MPa 5.26%
Mg % 0.03-0.06% 0.059% 0.058% -1.69%
Nodule no - 99.7 88 -12.00%
Hardness 143-187 BHN 185.42 BHN 209 BHN 12.72%
4.4 Discussion
Discussion will relate the main effect, interactions, significance parameter

based on ANOVA analysis and verification and validation results.
4.4.1 Tensile strength
Based on Table 4.5, MgFeSi percentage is the main effect influencing tensile
strength. It is followed by casting cavity size as second control factor that affected the
parameter studied.
120
There is interaction between control factors as shown on Figure 4.4 – 4.5.

Both MgFeSi particles size and and casting cavity size was reacted when level of
MgFeSi particles size changed. Also, distance from reaction chamber and MgFeSi
size will interact with each other when level of distance reactive from reaction
chamber changed. Furthermore, whenever level of MgFeSi percentage was changed,
control factor of MgFeSi percentage and MgFeSi particles size interact with each
other.
So, after the ANOVA analysis conducted, the most significance factor
affected tensile strength is percentage of MgFeSi used during inoculation treatment. It
contributes 80% of overall factor. Validation experiment (452.37 MPa) was 5.26%
error compared to predicted control factors experiment (429.78 MPa).
4.4.2 Magnesium concentration
Based on Table 4.11, MgFeSi percentage, distance reactive from reaction

chamber and casting cavity size are the main effect influenced the concentration of
magnesium in cavity of casting. Size of MgFeSi particles is fewer contributors.
There is interaction between MgFeSi percentage used and distance reactive

from reaction chamber when level of MgFeSi percentage changed as shown on Figure
4.9. Another interaction also occurred between MgFeSi percentage used and MgFeSi
particles size when level of MgFeSi percentage changed (Figure 4.10).
After ANOVA analysis conducted, the most significance factor affected

magnesium concentration is casting cavity size. It contributes 40% of overall factor.
Validation experiment (0.058%) was -1.69% error compared to predicted control
factors experiment (0.059%).
121
4.4.3 Nodule count
Based on Table 4.17, MgFeSi percentage and casting cavity size are the main
effect influenced the number of nodule count. Other factors not contribute much.
Whenever level of MgFeSi particles size changed, MgFeSi particles size

factor and casting cavity size factor interact with each other (Figure 4.33). Second
interaction occurred between MgFeSi percentage and MgFeSi particles size when
level of MgFeSi percentage changed (Figure 4.34).
Further analysis using ANOVA revealed that the most significance factor
influenced nodule count number is the percentage of MgFeSi used during inoculant
(Figure 4.36). It contributes 70% of overall factors and followed by casting cavity
size factor that contributes 20%. The rest is considered do not significance. Validation
experiment (88 nodule/mm2) was -12.00% error compared to predicted control factors
experiment (99.7 nodule/mm2).
4.4.4 Hardness
Based on Table 4.23, main effect of hardness is MgFeSi percentage followed

by casting cavity size. Distance reactive from reaction chamber contributes fewer.
Whenever level of MgFeSi particles size changed, interaction happened

between MgFeSi particles size and casting cavity size (Figure 4.37). Another
interaction occurred between MgFeSi percentage and MgFeSi particles size when
level of MgFeSi percentage control factor change (Figure 4.38).
122
ANOVA analysis insisted that MgFeSi percentage is the most significance

parameter to determined hardness with 70% contribution (Figure 4.40). Second
successive factor is casting cavity size with 20% contribution followed by distance
reactive from reaction chamber (5%). Validation experiment (209 BHN) was 12.72%
error compared to predicted control factors experiment (185.42 BHN).
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE WORK
5.1 Conclusions
Taguchi method had been successfully utilized to study the effect of

nodularisation parameters and establish the optimum combinations on the quality of
ductile iron with selected range. Four significant nodularisation parameters have
been selected. These parameters are effective distance from reaction chamber,
particles size of FeSiMg used, percentage of FeSiMg used and size of casting cavity.
Including in this experiment are interactions between volume of reaction chamber
and temperature of pouring.
Experimental results and optimum conditions also successfully analyzed and

discovered for each quality characteristics. Four quality characteristics were studied;
tensile strength, magnesium concentration, number of nodule count and hardness of
material. Based on the experimental results, the main conclusions of this project can
be drawn as follows:
(a) The most significance factor affecting tensile strength is percentage of MgFeSi
used during inoculation treatment and followed by the size of casting cavity.
(b) The most significance factor affecting magnesium concentration is the size of
casting cavity.
(c) The most significance factor influencing the nodule count is the percentage of
MgFeSi used during nodularisation and followed by the size of casting cavity.
124
(d) MgFeSi percentage is the most significance parameter to determined hardness,

followed by the size of casting cavity and distance reactive from reaction
chamber.
All of significant control factors are summarized in table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Significant factors for effect of nodularisation parameters on the quality of
ductile iron
Quality Significant factors
characteristic effective size of FeSiMg % casting cavity
distance FeSiMg size
Tensile strength (MPa) X
Hardness (BHN) X
Magnesium concentration X
(%)
Nodule count (unit/mm2) X
Note: X = significant effect
Subsequently, for control factors namely MgFeSi percentage, distance from

reaction chamber, MgFeSi particles size and size of casting cavity with selected
ranged, the tensile strength is 452.37 MPa. While magnesium concentration is
0.058 %, nodule count is 88 nodule/mm2 and hardness is 209 BHN.
5.2 Recommendation for Future Work
Study, analysis and testing various significance parameters, main effect and
relevance interaction to succeed economic and manufacturability of thin section
ductile iron. The applicable of various shape and contour of thin section will ensure
the conformation of controlled parameters. Upon succeeded, the replacement of
aluminum based component can be done in Malaysian automotive industry.
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www.acipco.com
www.AFS.com
www.ductileironsociety.com
www.flowserve.com
www.foundry.elkem.com
www.foundrysolution.com
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www.metallography.com
www.novacast AB.com
www.vastlycasting.com
APPENDIX A
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF DATA ANALYSIS USING TAGUCHI METHOD

(SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO ANALYSIS)
The following sample calculation illustrates the complete steps involved in ‘In
mould’ processing of ductile iron.
1) Signal to Noise (S/N) ratio (refer table 4.4)

From equation S/N = -10 log10 (MSD)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
MSD = ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟ / 2
⎝ y1 y 2⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
MSD = ⎜ + 2 ⎟
/2
⎝ 360.73 361.22 ⎠
2
MSD = 7.6745 x 10-6

S/N = -10 log10 (MSD)
S/N = -10 log10 (7.6745 x 10-6)
S/N = 51.149
2) Main effect of each control factors with two levels (refer table 4.5)
Main effect = L2-L1
Main effect = [(51.149 + 50.832 + 51.206 + 50.757)/4] – [(51.655 + 52.902 + 52.351 +
52.618)/4]
Main effect = 52.382 – 50.986
Main effect = 1.396
3) ANOVA
3.1) Correction factor (C.F.) (refer table 4.6)
C.F. = T2/n
C.F. = [(S/N)1 + (S/N)2 +….(S/N)8]2/8
C.F. = [51.149 + 50.832 + 51.206 + 50.757 + 51.655 + 52.902 + 52.351 + 52.618]2/8
C.F. = 21369.68
3.2) Total for Sum of squares, ST (refer table 4.6)
ST = [(S/N)12 + (S/N)22 + …. (S/N)82] – C.F.
ST = [51.1492 + 50.8322 + 51.2062 + 50.7572 + 51.6552 + 52.9022 + 52.3512 + 52.6182] –
21369.68
ST = 21374.582 – 21369.68
ST = 4.902
3.3) Sum of squares, SFeSiMg (refer table 4.6)

Average effect of FeSiMg % for tensile strength at level 1;
Level Effects
1 = [(S/N)1 + (S/N)2 + (S/N)3 + (S/N)4]/4
= [51.149 + 50.832 + 51.206 + 50.757]/4
= 203.944 / 4
= 50.986
Contribution of FeSiMg % for tensile strength at level 1;

FeSiMg%1 = average effect at level 1 x 2
FeSiMg%1 = 50.986 x 2
FeSiMg%1 = 101.972
Average effect of FeSiMg % for tensile strength at level 2;

Level Effects
2 = [(S/N)5 + (S/N)6 + (S/N)7 + (S/N)8]/4
= [51.655 + 52.902 + 52.351 + 52.618]/4
= 209.526 / 4
= 52.3815
Contribution of FeSiMg % for tensile strength at level 2;

FeSiMg%2 = average effect at level 2 x 2
FeSiMg%2 = 52.3815 x 2
FeSiMg%2 = 104.763
Sum of squares SFeSiMg;
SFeSiMg = (FeSiMg%12 + FeSiMg%22) – C.F.
SFeSiMg = (101.9722 + 104.7632) – 21369.68
SFeSiMg =3.894
3.4) Degree of freedom, f* (DOF) (refer table 4.6)

f* = number of level – 1
f* = 2 – 1
f* = 1
3.5) Variance (V) (refer table 4.6)

VFeSiMg% = SFeSiMg /f*
VFeSiMg% = 3.894 / 1
VFeSiMg% = 3.894
3.6) F-ratio, F (refer table 4.6)

F = VFeSiMg / VT
F = 3.894 / 0.056
F = 69.536
F ~ 67.995
3.7) Percentage contribution (refer table 4.6)

PFeSiMg% = (SFeSiMg / ST) x 100
PFeSiMg% = (3.894 / 4.902) x 100
PFeSiMg% = 79.437
PFeSiMg% ~ 78.273
APPENDIX B
IMPLEMENTATION STEPS UTILIZING TAGUCHI METHOD USING

QUALITEK-4 SOFTWARE TO DETERMINE MAIN EFFECTS,
INTERACTIONS, SIGNIFICANCE FACTORS AND EXPECTED OPTIMUM
CONDITION IN SELECTED RANGE OF PARAMETER.
(a) Access the Qualitek-4 software
(b) Select L8 orthogonal array, key in the factors and their levels.
(c ) Determine the experiment configuration based on the orthogonal array
(d) Select the quality characteristics based on expected result requirement

(e) Entering the experimental result. The S/N ratio will calculated automatically to
determine main effect at selected range
(f) Main effects of selected parameter (in this case, tensile strength). The bigger the value
(either +ve or –ve value), the stronger effect was.
(g) Determination of interaction presence between control factors. Severity index
percentage value will show how closes the interaction between factors occurred
(h) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the most significance factor and its
interaction for selected parameter. Bigger percentage means the most significance.
(i )Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with pooling factor. It means the any factor that
have F-Ratio lower than 8.5263 value (refer Table B-1. F Table F.10(f1,f2), 90%
confidence) can be treated as a factor that not contribute towards parameter studied.
(j) Expected optimum condition after pooling of factor done. Only two factors (FeSiMg
percentage and casting cavity size) played major role to determine tensile strength. It is
expected that FeSiMg percentage will react much at 0.7% usage while casting cavity size
at 0.75kg.
APPENDIX C
RISERING AND GATING SYSTEM CALCULATION
Risering system calculation
The objective of applied principle is to perform sound casting without used of

chill and exorthemic sleeve. Specific shrinkage for ductile iron is determined as 0.6
(Burns, 1986). The principle should fulfill three requirements as freezing time
requirement; volume feed capacity requirement and length of effective riser to
produce sound casting. The calculation is as;
First, to determine freezing time requirement, the overall length of casting cavity is
set to 60.0cm with 4.0cm radius. So,
Casting volume,Vc = πr 2t
= π (4) 2 (60)
= 960π cm3
Casting area, Ac = 2πrt
= 2π (4)(60)
= 480π cm2
In the other hand, the time required for casting to solidify established as indicated by
Chovrinov (Jain, 1997);
2
⎛V ⎞
Time required for casting to solidify,ts = B ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A⎠
With V is volume of the casting and A is surface area of the casting in contact with
the mould. While, B is mould constant this depends on properties and initial
temperature of the metal and mould. So,
Vc
Casting modulus, Mc =
Ac
960π
=
480π
=2
The coefficient value as recommended by BCIRA is between 0.9-1.3, so the value of
1.2 is selected.
MR = 1.2Mc
MR = 1.2 (2)
MR = 2.4
Assuming riser shape is cylindrical, the modulus of simple geometric shape as
indicated by P. N Rao is as t/6 with h/d equal to 1.So,
t
MR =
6
t
2.4 =
6
t = 14.4cm and reviewed as;
d
Then, a second requirement for volume feed capacity is determined as;

⎛ S ⎞
VR = ⎜ ⎟Vc With specific casting shrinkage (S) is 0.6
⎝ 14 − S ⎠
⎛ 0.6 ⎞
VR = ⎜ ⎟960π
⎝ 14 − 0.6 ⎠
VR = 135.04cm3
πD 2 H
Then, with VR = and D is equal with H,
4
πD 3
135.04cm3 =
4
D = 5.56 cm. Then,
πD 2
AR = 2 + πDH
4
π (5.56) 2
AR = 2 + π (5.56)(5.56)
4
AR = 145.68cm2 . So,
VR
MR =
AR
135.04cm3
MR =
145.68cm 2
M R = 0.927 And applied again the modulus of simple geometric shape as t/6 with h/d
equal to 1.So,
t
MR =
6
t
0.927 =
6
t = 5.56 cm. So the riser value of 14.4cm of riser height is selected to fulfill both
requirements.
Then, a third requirement to determine effective length of riser distance is as;
6 T 5.56cm 6 T
Effective length is 6 T (Rao, 1998) and the calculation done in unit of inch as,
=6 T
= 6 1.57 where 4cm casting thick ~ 1.57”
= 19.1cm
Then, the total length to produce sound casting,
= 2 (6 T ) + diameter of riser
= 2 (19.1cm) + 5.56cm
= 43.76 cm
~ 44 cm
With total length of casting cavity need to be fed is 60cm, the required riser is,
60cm
=
44cm
= 1.36 unit of riser
~ 2 unit of riser
Gating system calculation
The calculation of gating system consisted of several occasion. Each, have

different usable value and information to achieve predicted of sound casting. Each of
casting cavities should be determined its critical thickness as it affects directional
solidifications (Jain, 1997). Minimum section thicknesses required is 4cm (diameter).
This part has uniform thickness accordingly. So, there’s no estimation of critical
thicknesses appeared.
The first step is to determine the pouring rate of molten metal. Due to material
selected (cast iron based), so the pouring rate, R in the kg per second is given by
formula
Wp
R=
t
1.34 +
13.77
Where W is the weight of the casting in kg (2.00 kg), t is the critical casting
thickness in mm and p is a quotient whose value depends on the weight of the
castings. Because the weight of castings is around 0 to 500 kg, the value of p is 0.50.
So,
20.50
R=
40
1.34 +
13.77
R= 0.333 kg per second
Estimation of metal fluidity k from the composition factor is based on % of

total carbon, 1/4 % of total silicon and 1/2 % of total phosphorus appeared in molten
metal expected. Comparison between literature and GDS spectrometer analysis, the
average composition factor selected (value 4.0) and the metal fluidity (k) given is
0.75 to 1.0.
The next step is prediction of adjusted pouring rate Ra. It is based on metal
fluidity k and the effect of friction in the gating system (c factor). The c factor has a
value of 0.85 -0.90 for tapered sprues as selected. The formula,
R
Ra =
kc
0.333
Ra =
(0.75)(0.85)
Ra = 0.522 kg per second
Then, the effective sprue height H according to the placement of the pattern in
the mould with formula
a2
H=h-
2c
Where, h is the height of the sprue, c as total height of the mould cavity and a
as height of the mould cavity in the cope.
Figure 3.3 Effective sprue heights
2
⎛ 40 ⎞
⎜ + 55.60 ⎟
H = (100 - ⎝ ⎠ ) mm
2
2 x95.60
H = 70.10 mm
So, the area of sprue base As will be according to formula
As = Ra (d 2 gH )
kg
With d is the density of molten metal,
cm3
kg 1 m
As = 0.522 kg per second x (7200 3
x 2 x9.81 x70.10mx10 − 3 )
m 1x106 sec 2
As = 4.41x10-3 m2
As = 44.10 cm2
So, the minimum downsprue radius can be calculated as;
πrt = 44.10cm 2
π (7.01cm)r = 44.10cm 2
r = 1.50cm
The sprue area is 44.10 cm2at heights of 7.01 cm from expected parting line where’s
runner located. So, the velocity at the end of sprue area is calculated as;
Vs= 2 gh
With g is force of gravity and h is height of sprue area.
cm
Vs= 2 x981 x7.01cm
sec 2
cm
Vs= 117.28
sec
Chosen gating system used is unpressurised system with ratio 1:4:4 (BCIRA, 1988).
So, using law of continuity equation,
VsAs = VrAr = VgAg
cm
117.28 x (1.50 cm2 x 1) = Vg x (1.50 cm2 x 4) cm2
sec
cm
Vg = 29.32 , this is the velocity entered casting cavity. In the mean time, the flow
sec
type entered casting cavity can be calculated using Reynolds equation as;
ρ mVd
Re =
η
With Re is Reynolds number, ρ m as molten metal density, V as molten metal velocity
at area calculated, d as area diameter (width for rectangular shape) and η as kinetic
kg
viscosity (assume 0.00496 in this case). So,
m.sec
kg m
7200 3
x 29.32 x10 − 2 x1.96 x10− 2 m
Re = m sec
kg
0.00496
m. sec
Re = 8342.01, and this number is twice than 4000. So, turbulence flow is expected
happens during castings. Then, the pattern is designed according to combination
parameter of risering and gating system calculated.
APPENDIX D
GENERAL DATA
The Approximate Range of Carbon and Silicon Contents for family of ferrous alloys
Microstructure of white cast iron
In white cast iron, the carbon in the molten iron remains combined with iron in
the form of iron carbide or cementite, which is a hard brittle compound. White cast iron is
therefore relatively hard and brittle and shows a “white” crystalline fractured surface.
Microstructure of gray cast iron

Gray cast irons are the most fluid of the ferrous alloys and as a result, intricate
and thin section can be produced. These irons have excellent machinability at hardness
levels to provide good wear resistance. The fractured surface appearance of gray cast iron
has a gray sootish color and hence the term “gray cast iron”. During the solidification of
gray cast iron, various sizes, shapes, and distributions of graphite flakes can develop.
Five basic types of graphite flakes (types A to E) have been established by ASTM
specification A 247 and AFS as standards. Large flakes that are randomly oriented will
form when the nucleation and solidification rates are low and graphitization is easy.
Small flakes occur when the nucleation rate is high due to moderate under-cooling and
there is time for graphitization. Severe under-cooling prevents graphitization and results
in the formation of white cast iron.
The addition of inoculants to molten gray iron just before casting can affect the
eutectic cell size, graphite pattern and metallic matrix. If ferrosilicon or some other
graphitizing agent is added in small amounts (0.05 to 0.25 percent) to hypoeutectic gray
irons, the formation of type-A graphite and fine eutectic cells is favored. It is believed
that the inoculation provides nuclei for the graphite eutectic formation and thereby
prevents under-cooling of the solidification temperature. Hypoeutectic gray irons
respond well to inoculation, but little or no effect is obtained for eutectic or hypereutectic
gray irons.
Five types of flake graphite as established by ASTM specification A 247. Type A

(upper left) is uniform distribution and random orientation. Type B (upper centre) is
rosette groupings and random orientation. Type C (upper right) is superimposed flake
size and random orientation. Type D (lower left) is interdendritic segregation and random
orientation. Type E (lower right) is interdendritic segregation and preferred orientation.
The matrix metal provides the basic strength of gray cast irons. The harder and
stronger the matrix metal is, the harder and stronger the gray iron will be. The graphite
flakes have a weakening effect on strength by acting like notches.
The class 20 gray irons have essentially a matrix of ferrite. However, dark bands
of pearlite occur at the cell boundaries. Therefore, the ferrite matrix is relatively weak in
cast iron, as it is in steel and thus the strength of this class of gray irons is relatively low.
Class 30 gray irons are stronger (30,000 psi min) and their microstructures have a
matrix of mixed pearlite and ferrite. However, the graphite flakes are rather coarse,
although of the desirable type-A. The mixed pearlite-ferrite matrix is stronger than the
straight ferrite type.
The microstructure of a class 40 gray cast irons is a matrix of fine pearlite and
type-D graphite flakes, which are create due to rapid solidification. Numerous carbide
particles can also be seen, and were created by the rapid solidification too.
The rate of solidifications has a major effect on the microstructure and hence
upon the mechanical properties of a gray cast iron. Slow cooling rates leads to a
coarsening of graphite flakes and of the pearlite lamellae. Very slow cooling favors a
ferrite matrix. Thus, slow cooling results in lower strength structures which are the class
20 gray cast irons. Rapid solidification favors a pearlite matrix and even some iron
carbides, resulting in higher strengths. This type of microstructure makes the class 40
gray cast irons.
Microstructure of malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iron is first cast as white iron of a suitable composition. Then,
during an annealing treatment often called malleablizing, the graphite nucleates and
grows from the cementite of the white iron to form nodules. A wide range of mechanical
properties can be obtained in malleable iron by varying the annealing heat treatment.
Microstructure of Ductile cast iron

The spheroidal graphite in these irons is obtained by adding a very small amount
of magnesium to the molten iron before casting. Ductile iron has its free carbon in the
form of spheres instead of flakes. The chemical compositions of ductile cast irons are
similar to gray cast irons, but with low levels of minor elements such as sulfur and
phosphorus.
APPENDIX E
LIST OF TABLES
Table ASTM standard for ductile iron castings (Warda, 1990)

Standard Remarks
ASTM A395 -Ferritic ductile iron pressure retaining castings for
use at elevated temperature
ASTM A439 -Austenitic ductile iron castings
ASTM A476 -Ductile iron castings for paper mill dryer rolls
ASTM A536 -Ductile iron castings
ASTM A571 -Austenitic ductile iron castings for pressure
containing parts suitable for low temperature service
Table Others standard for ductile iron castings (Warda, 1990)

Standard Remarks
SAE J434C (Japan) -Automotive ductile iron castings
ISO 1083-1976 -International Organization for Standardization
(International) Spheroidal Graphite or Nodular Graphite Cast Iron
ISO 2892-1973 -International Organization for Standardization
(International) Austenitic Cast Iron with Nodular Graphite
France NF A 32-201:1976 -Castings in unalloyed spheroidal graphite cast iron
Italy UNI 4544:1979 -Spheroidal graphite cast iron
Japan JIS G5502:1982 -Spheroidal graphite iron castings
Sweden SIS 14 07:1981 -Spheroidal graphite iron
UK BS 2789-1985 -Specification for spheroidal graphite or nodular
graphite cast iron
West Germany DIN -Cast Iron with Nodular Graphite
1693:1973
Table the use of magnesium alloys in production of ductile iron (International Centre for
Cast Metals Technology, 1988)
Treatment alloy Process
Nickel magnesium Pour on technique
Copper magnesium
Nickel silicon magnesium Sandwich technique
Copper silicon magnesium
Magnesium ferrosilicon (9%Mg) Sandwich and cover techniques
Magnesium ferrosilicon (5%Mg)
Magnesium ferrosilicon (5-9%Mg) Tundish cover
Magnesium ferrosilicon (5%Mg) In mould
Magnesium ferrosilicon (9%Mg) Flotret
Magnesium ferrosilicon Plunging or submerged method

Magnesium impregnated coke techniques
Iron/ magnesium briquettes
Magnesium bar Pressure vessel, converter, injection
Magnesium powder

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THE EFFECT OF NODULARISATION PARAMETERS ON THE QUALITY

MOHD RASHIDI BIN MAAROF

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

My deepest appreciation goes towards my supervisor, Dr Mohd Hasbullah

Special thanks must go to Mr.Nazri, Mr. Latif, Mr Hamid, Mr Asri, Mr

Finally, my very special, sincere and heartfelt gratitude goes to my beloved

Mohd Rashidi bin Maarof

Pada dasarnya permintaan produk plastik di negara ini sangat menggalakkan

Di sebabkan produk plastik ini boleh dihasilkan dengan menggunakan pelbagai

Demand on plastic product in this country is very tremendous because plastic

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEWS

2.4 Inoculated cast iron- ductile iron 12

2.6 Castings chemical composition 19

2.15.5 Taguchi Method Technique 54

3.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.4.2 Magnesium concentration 120

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

4.13 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (pooled) 98

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Microstructure comparison between (a) cast iron with

3.7 Temperature measurement with V-smart Thermotech

4.13 400x magnification specimen 102

size when level of MgFeSi percentage control factor

APPENDICES NO. TITLE

Inoculation mechanism for in mould differs to great extent from other

The injurious effect of nodularization can be screening by using nodularizing

With it, confirmation of parameters influence such percentage of

1.3 Problem statement

There is a need to establish a clear understanding the effect of nodularisation

1.4 Objectives of the study

The project is aimed at;

Ductile or nodular iron contains trace amounts of magnesium which, by

2.1 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram

Figure 2.2 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagrams (Jain, 1997)

2.2 Iron-carbon microstructure

A microstructure of grey cast iron may show graphite flakes existing in

When approximately 3.5 % to 3.8 % carbon is added, Fe3C exceeds its

2.3 Effects of alloying elements on iron-carbon microstructure

Phosphorus is usually found in small amounts in iron not exceeding 1%. It is

Crushing and riddling

Puddling furnace Molten pig iron

Cupola Alloy iron castings

Controlled grades of iron CG iron

Ductile iron Grey cast iron Wrought iron Steel

White cast iron Malleable iron

Based on literature, the inoculation of cast iron was discovered by a ladle

Inoculation means by the addition of material to liquid iron in order to increase

Inoculation treatment is is used to established nucleation centers for the

There are three different phenomena or mechanism of the formation of

Observations of foreign particles in the center of graphite nodules have

Figure 2.5 Formation of graphite spherulites by nucleation on the surfaces of sulphide

When the concept of homogeneous nucleation arises, it tends to be the

The mechanism of solidification in thin section ductile iron castings is due to

Second, after the nucleation of the austenitic dendrites, graphite spheroids

Figure 2.6 Schematic representation of the sequence of solidification of normal

In the opposite direction, Karsay and Campomanes and Stadelmaier,

The matrix material may have different microstructures according to the

The general understanding for inoculation mechanism is solidification of

2.6 Castings chemical composition