Cement in Vertical Shaft Kilns

Cement Production in Vertical Shaft
Kilns in China
-
Status and Opportunities for
Improvement
Report to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UNIDO Contract RB-308-D40-8213110-2005
31 January 2006
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Table of content
Table of content ........................................................................................................................... 2

Acronyms and abbreviations........................................................................................................ 5
Glossary ......................................................................................................................... 10
Executive summary ..................................................................................................................... 12
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 17
1.1 Objective of this study ................................................................................................... 22
2. Cement production .............................................................................................................. 23
2.1 Main processes ............................................................................................................... 23
2.1.1 Quarrying ........................................................................................................ 24
2.1.2 Raw materials preparation .............................................................................. 25
2.1.3 Fuels preparation............................................................................................. 25
2.1.4 Clinker Burning............................................................................................... 27
2.1.5 Cement grinding.............................................................................................. 28
2.1.6 Mineral additions preparation ......................................................................... 29
2.1.7 Cement dispatch.............................................................................................. 29
2.2 Material characteristics .................................................................................................. 30
2.2.1 Main clinker phases ........................................................................................ 30
2.2.2 Raw mix components...................................................................................... 32
2.2.3 Fuels ................................................................................................................ 32
2.2.4 Cement constituents ........................................................................................ 33
2.3 The four main process routes in rotary kiln cement production .................................... 33
2.3.1 The dry process ............................................................................................... 34
2.3.2 The semi-dry process ...................................................................................... 36
2.3.3 The semi-wet process...................................................................................... 38
2.3.4 The wet process............................................................................................... 39
2.3.5 Circulating elements ....................................................................................... 39
2.3.6 Clinker coolers ................................................................................................ 41
2.3.7 Operating characteristics rotary kilns - a summary ........................................ 42
2.4 Cement production using Vertical Shaft Kilns .............................................................. 43
2.4.1 Black meal process.......................................................................................... 44
2.4.2 Process conditions and quality aspects ........................................................... 49
3. Environmental significance of cement production ........................................................... 54
3.1 Dust ......................................................................................................................... 54
3.2 Gaseous atmospheric emissions..................................................................................... 55
3.2.1 Carbon dioxide................................................................................................ 56
3.2.2 Nitrogen oxides ............................................................................................... 56
3.2.3 Sulfur oxides ................................................................................................... 57
3.2.4 Organic compounds ........................................................................................ 59
3.3 PCDD/F emissions ......................................................................................................... 60
3.3.1 Trace elements ................................................................................................ 62
3.4 Other emissions.............................................................................................................. 64
3.5 Normal emission levels from rotary kilns...................................................................... 64
3.6 Air pollution control in cement production.................................................................... 65
3.6.1 Inherent "scrubbing" of exit gases in preheater kiln ....................................... 72
Kåre Helge Karstensen

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3.6.2 Emission control in VSKs............................................................................... 73

4. Resource consumption in cement production ................................................................... 76
4.1 Consumption of raw materials ....................................................................................... 77
4.2 Consumption of energy .................................................................................................. 77
4.3 Options for resource reduction....................................................................................... 79
4.3.1 Use of energy .................................................................................................. 80
4.4 Utilisation of alternative fuels and raw materials in modern cement production .......... 81
5. Cement production in China - general challenges............................................................ 86
5.1 Production ...................................................................................................................... 86
5.2 Geographic location ....................................................................................................... 88
5.3 Raw material consumption............................................................................................. 88
5.4 Energy consumption....................................................................................................... 89
5.5 Emissions ....................................................................................................................... 90
5.6 Comparison of performance........................................................................................... 91
5.7 Health and Safety ........................................................................................................... 93
5.8 Efficiency - a summary .................................................................................................. 94
6. Cement production in China - general opportunities for improvement ....................... 95
6.1 Policy and regulation...................................................................................................... 95
6.1.1 Environmental regulation of the Chinese cement industry............................. 96
6.1.2 Enforcement .................................................................................................... 98
6.1.3 Emissions of persistent organic pollutants POPs............................................ 99
6.2 Technology development ............................................................................................. 102
6.2.1 Best available techniques (BAT) .................................................................. 103
6.2.2 Best available techniques and best environmental practise for controlling
and minimising PCDD/F emission............................................................................... 105
6.3 Cleaner production opportunities................................................................................. 106
6.3.1 Emission reduction........................................................................................ 106
6.3.2 Water pollution and dust recovery ................................................................ 108
6.3.3 Energy consumption ..................................................................................... 109
6.3.4 Health and safety........................................................................................... 110
6.3.5 Impacts on land use....................................................................................... 111
6.3.6 Communication............................................................................................. 112
7. Vertical Shaft Kilns ........................................................................................................... 113
7.1 Centralised close-down policy ..................................................................................... 113
7.2 Replacement of VSKs by a combination of market forces and regulation .................. 114
7.2.1 Key economic indicators for VSKs .............................................................. 115
7.3 Demonstration projects for VSK improvement ........................................................... 116
7.3.1 Suggested activities in a VSK demonstration project................................... 120
7.3.2 Exit gas sampling and chemical analysis...................................................... 123
8. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 125
9. References and bibliography ............................................................................................ 127
Annex 1 Demonstration project - Improvement of environmental performance and
energy efficiency in Vertical Shaft Kilns................................................................................. 137
Annex 2 Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for the ........................................................... 144
Cement Industry in China........................................................................................................ 144
Annex 3 Chinese companies providing equipment to the cement industry ......................... 162

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Annex 4 Chinese research institutes providing service to the cement industry .................. 178

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Acronyms and abbreviations
AFR Alternative fuel and raw material

APCD Air pollution control device
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
AWFCO Automatic waste feed cut-off
BAT Best available techniques
BEP Best environmental practise
BHF Bag house filter
BIF Boiler and industrial furnace
Btu British thermal unit
o
C Degree Celsius
CAA Clean Air Act
CEMBUREAU European Cement Association
CEMS Continuous emissions monitoring system
CEN European Standardisation Organisation
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CKD Cement kiln dust
Cl2 Molecular chlorine
CSI Cement Sustainability Initiative
DL Detection limit
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
DE Destruction efficiency
Dioxins A term/abbreviation for polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and
polychlorinated dibenzofurans (see also PCDD/Fs)
DRE Destruction and removal efficiency
Dscm Dry standard cubic meter
EC European Commission
EF Emission factor
e.g. For example
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPER European Pollutant Emission Register

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ESP Electro static precipitator

EU European Union
FF Fabric filter
g Gram
GC-ECD Gas chromatography with electron capture detector
GC-MS Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry
HAPs Hazardous air pollutants
HCB Hexachlorobenzene
HCI Hydrogen chloride
HF Hydrofluoric acid
i.e. That is
IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
I-TEF International Toxicity Equivalency Factor
I-TEQ International Toxic Equivalent
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
J Joules
K (Degree) Kelvin
kcal Kilocalorie (1 kcal = 4.19 kJ)
kg Kilogramme (1 kg = 1000 g)
kJ Kilojoules (1 kJ = 0.24 kcal)
kPa Kilo Pascal (= one thousand Pascal)
L Litre
lb Pound
LCA Life cycle analysis
LOD Limit of detection
LOl Loss of ignition
LOQ Limits of quantification
3
m Cubic meter (typically under operating conditions without
normalization to, e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity)
MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology
MJ Mega joule (l MJ= 1000 kJ)
mg/kg Milligrams per kilogram
MS Mass spectrometry
mol Mole (Unit of Substance)

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Na Sodium
NA Not applicable
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
ND Not determined/no data (in other words: so far, no measurements available)
NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
ng Nanogram (1 ng = 10-9 gram)
Nm3 Normal cubic metre (101.3 kPa, 273 K)
NH3 Ammonia
NOx Nitrogen oxides (NO+NO2)
NR Not reported
N-TEQ Toxic equivalent using the Nordic scheme (commonly used in the
Scandinavian countries)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
O2 Oxygen
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCA Portland Cement Association (USA)
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
PCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
PCDD/Fs Informal term used in this document for PCDDs and PCDFs
PIC Product of incomplete combustion
pg Picogram (1 pg = 10-12 gram)
PM Particulate matter
POHC Principal organic hazardous constituent
POM Polycyclic organic matter
POP Persistent organic pollutants
ppb Parts per billion
ppm Parts per million
ppmv Parts per million (volume basis)
ppq Parts per quadrillion
ppt Parts per trillion
ppt/v Parts per trillion (volume basis)
ppm Parts per million

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QA/QC Quality assurance/quality control

QL Quantification limit
RACT Reasonably Available Control Technology
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RDF Refuse derived fuel
RT Residence time
sec Second
SINTEF Foundation for Industrial and Scientific Research of Norway
SNCR Selective non catalytic reduction
SiO2 Silicon dioxide
SCR Selective catalytic reduction
SO2 Sulfur dioxide
SO3 Sulfur trioxide
SOx Sulfur oxides
SQL Sample quantification limit
SRE System removal efficiency
t Tonne (metric)
TCDD Abbreviation for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobidenzo-p-dioxin
TCDF Abbreviation for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobidenzofuran
TEF Toxicity Equivalency Factor
TEQ Toxic Equivalent (I-TEQ, N-TEQ or WHO-TEQ)
TEQ/yr Toxic Equivalents per year
THC Total hydrocarbons
TOC Total organic carbon
tpa Tonnes per annum (year)
TRI Toxics Release Inventory
TSCA Toxics Substances Control Act
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
UK United Kingdom
UNEP United Nation Environment Programme
UNIDO United Nation Industry Development Organisation
US United States of America
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
VDZ Verein Deutsche Zementwerke

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VOC Volatile organic compounds

VSK Vertical shaft kilns
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WHO World Health Organization
y Year
% v/v Percentage by volume
µg/m3 Micrograms per cubic meter
µg Microgram

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Glossary
AFR Alternative fuel and raw materials, often wastes or secondary products
from other industries, used to substitute conventional fossil fuel and
conventional raw materials.
Cementitious Materials behaving like cement, i.e. reactive in the presence of

water; also compatible with cement.
Co-processing Utilisation of alternative fuel and raw materials in the purpose

of energy and resource recovery.
Dioxins Together with PCDD/Fs used as term/abbreviation for

Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and Polychlorinated
dibenzofurans in this document
DRE/DE Destruction and Removal Efficiency/Destruction Efficiency.

The efficiency of organic compounds destruction under
Combustion in the kiln.
Kiln inlet/outlet Were the raw meal enters the kiln system and the clinker leaves
the kiln system.
Pozzolana Pozzolanas are materials that, though not cementitious in themselves,

contain silica (and alumina) in a reactive form able to combine with
lime in the presence of water to form compounds with cementitious
properties. Natural pozzolana is composed mainly of a fine, reddish
volcanic earth. An artificial pozzolana has been developed that
combines a fly ash and water-quenched boiler slag.
Pozzolanic cement Pozzolanic cements are mixtures of Portland cement and a pozzolanic
material that may be either natural or artificial. The natural pozzolanas

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are mainly materials of volcanic origin but include some diatomaceous

earths. Artificial materials include fly ash, burned clays, and shale’s.
Siliceous limestone Limestone that contains silicon dioxide (SiO2)

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Executive summary
Cement production in China has grown steadily the last 20 years and increased by
more than 10 % yearly. The Chinese cement industry produced 1,060 billion ton cement in
2005, accounting for 808 kg per capita and approximately 50 % of the world production. The
cement production will probably reach its saturation point around year 2010 with an annual
cement output at the upper limit of 1200 million tonnes.
Approximately 60 % of the cement was produced in approximately 4000 Vertical

Shaft Kilns (VSKs) in 2005. This part of the cement industry is characterized by its irrational
structure, low production efficiency, high energy consumption and heavy environmental
pollution. Many VSKs plants have virtually no environmental controls in place; and indeed,
the nature of the old technology preclude effective use of modern dust (and other emission)
controls. Compared with preheater/precalciner kilns, VSKs seems to consume from 14 % to
105 % more coal pr ton of clinker. Vertical shaft kilns generally produce lower quality (#325
grade or less) cement which is neither suitable for large structures nor for major infrastructure
projects such as bridges, airports, etc. It is also not suitable for export to international
markets.
Improved mechanical shaft kilns have a production capacity of 250-350 tons/day and
constituted 1150 and 1240 kilns in 2003 and 2004 respectively. Mechanical shaft kilns have a
production capacity of 100-250 tons/day and constituted 9280 and 9060 kilns in 2003 and
2004 respectively. Ordinary shaft kilns have a production capacity of 50-150 tons/day and
constituted 3150 and 2400 kilns in 2003 and 2004 respectively.
China announced already in 1999 that it would close thousands of small or antiquated
cement operations. There have however been many barriers to closure due to worker
displacement and retraining costs; potential political instability, and opposition from local
leaders who have economic interests in the plants. The key issue is retaining political stability
in the face of greater unemployment. The problem is exacerbated compared to similar issues
in other developing countries because Chinese cement plants employ up to ten times the
labour of plants in developed countries, and because China has a less robust system of

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protective social security. Many of the closed plants will be in rural areas and it is hoped that
released workers can fall back on their agricultural jobs or be absorbed in the rapidly growing
private sector. Many provincial and local governments are not enthusiastically implementing
these centrally planned plant closures.
Some VSK will own its position to the disparity in the regional economic development
of China still for some years to come, but within the year 2020 it is expected that all ordinary
and all mechanised shaft kilns will have been closed down and that less than 10 % of
improved mechanical shaft kilns will be in operation. The Chinese government has
acknowledged that the replacement of VSKs with modern technology seems to be better off
with a combination of economic incentives, regulation, and enforcement and market
mechanisms. The new emission standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry in China, GB
4915-2004, has been effective for one year only. The standard gives identical emission limits
for rotary kiln and shaft kiln for particulate emissions. Low quality cement is currently
oversupplied and cheap in China, while high quality cement is rarer and more expensive.
Profit margins for most cement producers have decreased and are near zero. Despite the
growth in construction, cement prices have fallen the last two years, in some provinces with
more than 50 %. New dry preheater/precalciner kilns is more cost-efficient than VSKs, both
with regards to the number of labours and fuel costs, and they produce stable high quality
cement. Energy prices and cost for labour has been increasing steadily the last years and is
forecasted to continue to increase; this will favour dry preheater/precalciner kilns.
New and modern dry process production lines with preheater and precalciner
constituted 508 units by the end of 2004 and more than 704 will be in operation in the near
future. This technology is considered to constitute the best available techniques with regards
general cost-efficiency, to energy consumption, emissions and product quality.
1326 limestone quarries are currently known in China containing approximately

56,120 million tonnes of limestone. Taking into account future growth of cement production
this deposits can only maintain the need for manufacturing of cement for 59 years (other
industry exploitation not taken into account). In addition, cement production usually needs
limestone sources of high quality and current quarrying methods are wasting large amounts of
non-spec material. The raw material sources is neither uniformly distributed around the
country and provinces with high production may not be self-sufficient for a long time. In

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addition, cement is a low profit product and the transportation distance is usually limited to a
radius of 200 kilometres.
The cement industry consumed about 129 million tons of standard coal, equal to 148
million tons of common coal in 2003. This amounts to approximately 11 % of whole
consumption of coal in that year. For 2005 the consumption would be equivalent to
approximately 200 million tonnes of common coal. The Chinese energy supply is mainly
based on the utilization of coal. In 2002, the geological investigation showed that the storage
of coal is about 130,000 million tons and will meet the domestic requirement for another 54 to
81 years. The quality and the distribution of coal are uneven along the country and require
long transportation distances in some situations.
The electricity consumption in the Chinese cement industry was 94,930 million kWh,
amounting to approximately 5 % of the electric consumption in the whole country in 2003.
It is estimated that the Chinese cement industry emitted more than 13 million tons of
dust, about 27 % of all emissions from the national industry, about 22 % of all CO2 emissions,
and about 4.85% of all SO2 emissions in 2003.
Data developed the Chinese Enterprise Confederation point to significantly lower

efficiencies for Chinese plants with respect to power use (approximately 25 % less efficient),
fuel use (approximately 75 % less efficient), and labour (approximately six – thirty times
more employees per ton of product) and product losses (nearly 2 % product loss through dust
emissions in China). As a general rule, larger facilities have and continue to invest more in
energy and process efficiency programs than smaller ones.
There were more than 5000 cement producers employing approximately 1.5 million
workers by the end of 2004. These companies were owned by the state, by townships,
communities, collectives and by private companies. It is not clear if detailed employee
accident and incident records are kept, or used to make safety improvements. Health and
safety performance information is lacking. There is relatively little use of traditional personal
protective equipment, like safety shoes, facemasks (for dust), and safety glasses in Chinese
facilities.

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The use of alternative fuels in Chinese plants is almost totally absent, reflecting both
the lack of infrastructure to collect and recycle these materials and the inability of vertical
shaft kilns to use these materials safely or easily. This is an issue of growing concern, as
China faces increasing waste management and disposal challenges. Enforcement of
environmental regulations appears uneven, with small or no penalties for violation of
environmental standards. Small facilities are frequently excused from compliance for lack of
resources.
The cement manufacturing process is generally well suited for co-processing by-
products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw materials and fuels substitutes and
as mineral additions. There is no doubt that the most effective way of reducing raw material
consumption, energy use and emissions from the cement industry is to reduce the clinker
content of cement products by using secondary raw materials; then both thermal CO2 from
fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials are reduced. With the
substitution of fossil fuels by alternative fuels, the overall output of thermal CO2 is reduced.
Fuel substitution is however not feasible for vertical shaft kilns. VSKs are applying the
black-meal process which cannot replace the coal or coke by waste or alternative energy
containing materials.
The available information in English on the general performance of VSKs doesn't

seem to be scientifically well document by real measurements or studies, i.e. there is a need to
document the normal baseline conditions. A well documented and thorough knowledge of the
normal energy consumption and the normal emission levels from VSKs is a prerequisite for
issuing stricter regulation, for reporting statistics, for implementing measures and for
measuring improvement. A pilot project is therefore suggested to demonstrate the potential
for improvement in energy efficiency and emission reduction of VSKs.
No VSKs has been monitored for dioxins and furans and no emission factors have so
far been developed for this industry category. China is obliged to provide data on PCDD/F
emissions to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and to
suggest an action plan with reduction targets for PCDD/F emissions from the different source
categories. To be able to do this task properly the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in
VSKs should be known. The understanding of the formation mechanism will enable the

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environmental authorities to provide measures and strategies for emission reduction and
control.

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1. Introduction
China is expected to remain the world’s most populous country through year 2040. Its
gross domestic product (GDP) has averaged growth of more than 9 percent each year since
liberalization and economic reforms began in the late 1970s (Soule et al, 2002). In 1985,
China became the world’s leading producer of cement, and today produces almost half of the
total global output. While China’s cement industry is relatively insulated from a global
perspective, changes are underway to improve product quality, management practices and
profitability, including further opening the sector to participation by international players. In
2001, the Chinese government decentralized its industrial ministries and the organizational
structure of the cement industry. The Ministry of Building Materials and the State
Administration of Building Materials Industry has been changed into several quasi-
governmental organisations: China Cement Association, China Building Materials Industry
Association, China Building Materials Academy and Institute of Technical Information for
Building Materials Industry of China (ITIBMIC). Changes in top officials have also occurred
and provincial authorities now exert more control over the industry (Soule et al, 2002).
A shrinking number of cement companies remain state-owned, while a growing

number are foreign invested enterprises. Collective enterprises account for over 50 percent of
companies while 10 percent are privately owned. There also is a trend toward consolidation.
The estimated number of Chinese cement producers is approximately 5000, although the
actual number is uncertain due to the fragmented nature of the industry, the small size of
many plants, the fact that some plants exist illegally, and data reliability issues. About 50
percent of these facilities are rural township enterprises with average annual output of less
than 30,000 tonnes. Only about 570 of the 8,500 cement producers had production capacities
exceeding 275,000 tonnes per year in 1995, and only ten plants produce more than one
million tonnes annually (Soule et al, 2002). For comparison, industrialized cement producing
countries average 40 to 50 major producers that manufacture up to four million tonnes
annually.
China plans to increase the average production capacity at facilities throughout the
industry through plant closures and upgrades. The country plans to raise average plant

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production to 200,000 tonnes per year by 2005, 300,000–400,000 by 2010, and 400,000–
500,000 by 2015 (Soule et al, 2002).
China announced in 1999 that it would close thousands of small or antiquated cement
operations. As many as 6,000 plants are slated to be closed, with 4,000 closures scheduled by
the end of 2001. Given current progress, this level of closure by year end 2001 seems
unlikely. Initially targeted for closure are 2,000 illegal or improperly licensed cement
producers as well as outdated cement operations. China plans to close (through non-
recertification) plants that (Soule et al, 2002):
• Produce #325 and lower grades (by 2005);
• Have vertical kiln diameters smaller than 2.2 meters and/or produce <30,000
tonnes/year, and
• Have wet process kilns (either to be closed or converted to dry processes).
Cement production in China has grown steadily the last 20 years and increased
by more than 10 % yearly. It is estimated that the Chinese cement industry produced 1,060
billion ton cement in 2005 (Cui and Wang, 2005). Approximately 60 % of this cement was
produced in approximately 4000 Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSKs). New and modern dry process
production lines constituted 508 units by the end of 2004 and as much as 704 will be in full
operation within the near future (Cui and Wang, 2005). Today, 138 million tonnes, or one
quarter of Chinese cement production comes from rotary kilns; the remaining 433 million
tonnes from vertical kilns that will be slowly phased out. Vertical shaft kilns currently
contribute 60 percent of production, a number expected to decline only to 50 percent by 2015.
Cement production generally tracks well against population density, but there are
production concentrations in Shandong and Guangdong provinces and among the coastal
provinces generally. The central government is emphasizing the future development of the
poorer western provinces to help alleviate regional income differentials that result in
migration to the more crowded east. The western provinces account for comparatively little
cement production. As urban land development rationalizes (where land uses are determined

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by economic and environmental considerations), local governments are reclaiming land from
urban cement plants and replacing them with less noxious and more profitable activities.
Companies are being displaced to the urban fringes and also moving closer to limestone
deposits, employing conveyer systems to transport limestone over medium distances.
Growth in Chinese cement production is due to the construction boom accompanying

high GDP growth rates. Only rotary kiln cement can be used legally to build high-rise
buildings in China and demand for the higher grade cements increases. Forty percent of
China’s cement is now used for basic infrastructure construction (an area regularly neglected
during the period of heavy central planning), with about one-third of that used in rural areas.
Twenty-five percent is used for maintenance activities. China’s transport sector uses cement
in road construction rather than asphalt. As China lacks an adequate national highway system
and its rail network is so overburdened, investment can be expected in highways over the
medium term.
Low quality cement is oversupplied and cheap, while high quality cement is rarer and
more expensive. Profit margins for most cement producers hover near zero. Despite the
growth in construction, cement prices have fallen, in some provinces with more than 50 %.
Because cement is a bulk commodity, transportation costs are a significant component of the
industry’s cost structure. The main issue, however, is with the transport of coal because it is
an important input into cement production and because it is the primary source of pressure on
a strained transport infrastructure network. Cement industry sources indicate that the
availability of coal has not constrained the cement industry to date. Unless long-term
investment is made to improve the rail network this situation will worsen. Foreign investment
in bulk cement storage and transportation facilities is promoted.
China is the second leading cement exporter in the world, accounting for about 17
percent of total world cement trade. Shaft kiln cements comprise a significant percentage of
total exports. Major exporting regions include Shandong, Jiangsu, Guangdong, Liaoning,
Guangxi, and Hebei provinces. The largest exporting companies include Daewoo Shandong
Metal and Minerals Import/Export and Taiheiyo Cement. The United States is the largest
market for Chinese cement, accounting for 42 percent of trade in 1998 (Soule et al, 2002).

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The cement industry is very energy intensive and China relies almost exclusively on
coal to produce cement. Energy accounts for roughly 40 percent of the total manufacturing
cost of cement in China. Unlike some industrialized countries, China has not yet moved to
alternative energy sources in its cement kilns. If China were to succeed in replacing output
from plants that produce #325 cement with more efficient plants, it would save approximately
15 million tonnes of coal each year (Soule et al, 2002). Improving energy efficiency is
important to a wide range of stakeholders because it cuts energy costs, improves local
environmental quality, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
China has significant environmental problems. Ambient air levels of total suspended
particulates (TSP) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in Chinese cities are among the highest in the
world. In turn these heavy pollutant loads are closely associated with significant respiratory
illness and approximately 200,000 premature deaths each year in urban areas (Soule et al,
2002). China’s contribution to global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is approximately 14
percent. Cement plants are responsible for over 40 percent of total industrial particulate (dust)
emissions (Soule et al, 2002). Chinese cement plants are also responsible for about 6 to 8
percent of the country’s carbon dioxide emissions. These emissions are produced in roughly
equal parts from fuel combustion and the calcinations of limestone at high temperature.
Carbon dioxide emissions from small Chinese plants are two or more times higher than plants
in industrialized nations, because of poor efficiencies requiring more fuel use, etc. (Soule et
al, 2002). Increasing the efficiency of cement kilns is one way to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions.
Cement production is also associated with a number of other environmental problems

including possible contamination of local water sources, mercury emissions, excessive noise,
erosion surrounding limestone quarries, and nitrogen oxide emissions. Dry rotary kilns,
including precalciner kilns, are the most energy efficient technology currently available in
China. The associated reduction in coal combustion accompanying the closure of #325 plants
would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by about 30 million tonnes, sulfur dioxide by 250,000
tonnes, and solid waste and dust by over 5 million tonnes each year.
China has developed a range of environmental laws to deal with air pollution, solid
waste, water pollution, etc. In April of 2000, China announced that emission limits would be
reduced to 100 milligrams per cubic meter of exhaust. For comparison, cement plants in

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Europe conform to a limit of 50 milligrams. Enforcement of laws is not uniform and remains
an issue. Provincial level environmental protection agencies are responsible for enforcing
emission limits and can direct capital toward polluters to upgrade their equipment. However,
production and profit often supercede enforcement. Environmental regulations tend to be
strictly enforced when foreign companies are involved.
It is difficult to obtain domestic financing for investment projects within China.

Financial needs are many, and sources limited. Chinese stock markets have been an
important but insufficient source of low-cost capital for listed enterprises. In recent years, it
has become easier for foreign companies to obtain permits for cement projects. But the
paperwork, time, and dedication necessary to bring an investment to closure remain daunting,
and the sentiment is shared that this situation will only change slowly (Soule et al, 2002).
Even with sometimes vicious competition and difficulties in operating in an opaque

market, key opportunities are open for both domestic and foreign companies. Promising areas
include investment in:
• Bulk cement transport and storage infrastructure,
• Environmental control equipment,
• Precalcinator and dry rotary cement kilns, and
• Specialty cements.
China is the world’s largest market for cement machinery but with the exception of
advanced mills and control system more and more plant are fully Chinese made technology.
Foreign investment will be focused on precalcined production lines with capacities of 4,000
tonnes or more using new dry processes for cement clinker. A key ready Chinese built
cement plant can now be built in two years at a third of the price of a foreign built plant.

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To address regional income disparities, the western provinces have investment priority
during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan. These regions include: Xinjiang, Ningxia, Qinghai,
Shaanxi (including Xian), Gansu, Sichuan, Tibet (Xizang), Chongqing City, Guizhou, and
Yunnan (including Kunming). Eastern provinces should not expect new plants, but there will
be many opportunities for technology upgrades in these areas. China has ambitious plans to
prepare for the 2008 Olympic Games. There will be much new construction in Beijing to
accommodate the games. Strict environmental measures to improve air and water quality also
will be in force in the capital region.
1.1 Objective of this study
The objective of this study has been to review and compare Vertical Shaft Kiln
(VSKs) cement production technologies with other production technologies and to suggest a
pilot project demonstrating the potential for improvement in energy efficiency and emission
reduction. A few VSKs have been visited in China and discussion has been carried out with
stakeholders on the possibilities for cleaner production options in general and environmental
improvement in particular. Interviews have been made with Chinese government officials,
cement associations and cement companies. Other sources used for this study include Internet
sources, commercial database articles, and statistical compendia. All visits and meetings were
arranged by SEPA / FECO.
It should be noted however, that data availability limits the ability to conduct in-depth
and accurate analysis and there are some conflicting numbers in the text. The available
information in English on the general performance of VSKs doesn't seem to be scientifically
well document by real measurements or comprehensive studies. The statements made in
different documents vary and is even contradictory in some cases. The general impression is
that the newest data from 2004 and 2005 is the most reliable, and of course the most updated.
The scope of this study has consisted of two weeks of preparation, two weeks visit in
China and two weeks reporting.

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2. Cement production
The description of the cement production process using rotary kilns is an excerpt from
the European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control document “Reference document on
Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries” (IPPC, 2001),
CEMBUREAUs BAT document (1999), the UK Environment Agency “Integrated pollution
prevention and control – Guidance for the Cement and Lime sector" (Environment Agency,
2001) and, from Duda (1985) and Roy (1985).
2.1 Main processes
There are four main process routes in the manufacturing of cement using rotary kilns –
the dry, semi-dry, semi-wet and wet process. The main features of these processes are
described in more detail in the following chapters; the production of cement using Vertical
Shaft Kilns is different and dealt with separately in chapter 3. However, common to all
processes are the following sub-processes:
• Quarrying;
• Raw materials preparation;
• Fuels preparation;
• Clinker burning;
• Mineral additions preparation;
• Cement grinding;
• Cement dispatch.

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Figure 1 Processes identification and system boundaries of cement production using

rotary kilns (Environment Agency, 2001)
2.1.1 Quarrying
Natural (“primary”) raw materials such as limestone/chalk, marl, and clay/shale are
extracted from quarries which, in most cases, are located close to the cement plant. After
extraction, these raw materials are crushed at the quarry site and transported to the cement
plant for intermediate storage, homogenization and further preparation.
“Corrective” materials such as bauxite, iron ore or sand may be required to adapt the
chemical composition of the raw mix to the requirements of the process and product
specifications. The quantities of these corrective materials are usually low compared to the
huge mass flow of the main raw materials.

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To a limited extent, “secondary” (or “alternative”) raw materials originating from

industrial sources are used to substitute for natural raw materials and correctives. In the same
way as traditional raw materials, they may be fed to the quarry crusher or – more commonly –
directly to the cement plant’s raw material preparation system. Today, modern computerised
methods are available to evaluate the raw material deposits and to optimise the long-term and
short-term production schedule.
2.1.2 Raw materials preparation
After intermediate storage and pre-homogenisation, the raw materials are dried and
ground together in defined and well-controlled proportions in a raw mill to produce a raw
meal for the dry (and semi-dry) process. In the wet (and semi-wet) process, the raw materials
are slurried and ground with addition of sufficient water to produce raw slurry. Depending on
the technological process applied, additional steps may be required such as preparing raw
meal “pellets” from dry meal (semi-dry process) or “filter cake” by dewatering of the slurry in
filter presses (semi-wet process).
The resulting intermediate product – i.e. raw meal or raw slurry (or their derivatives) –
is stored and further homogenised in raw meal silos, storage bins or slurry basins to achieve
and maintain the required uniform chemical composition before entering the kiln system. As
a rule of thumb, approximately 1.5 – 1.6 tons of (dry) raw materials are required to produce
one ton of the burnt product clinker.
2.1.3 Fuels preparation
Conventional (fossil) fuels used in the cement industry are mainly coal (lignite and
hard coal), petcoke (a product from crude oil refining), and heavy oil (“bunker C”). Natural
gas is rarely used due to its higher cost. “Alternative” fuels – i.e. non-fossil fuels derived
from industrial (“waste”) sources – are widely used today to substitute in part for the
traditional fossil fuels.

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Fuels preparation – i.e. crushing, drying, grinding, and homogenising – usually takes
place on site. Specific installations are required such as coal mills, silos and storage halls for
solid fuels, tanks for liquid fuels, and the corresponding transport and feeding systems to the
kilns. The thermal fuel consumption is largely dependent on the basic process design applied
in the burning of clinker.
The physical nature of the fuels used in a cement plant – solid, liquid or gaseous –
determines the design of the storage, preparation and firing systems – both for conventional
fossil fuels and for alternative fuels from industrial sources. The main fuel input has to be
delivered in a form that allows uniform and reliable metering as well as easy and complete
combustion. This is usually the case with all pulverised, liquid and gaseous fuels. A limited
input (up to 35 %) may also be delivered by the addition of coarse materials at specific feed
points.
Coal and petcoke are ground to fineness similar to raw meal in coal mills (tube mills,
vertical roller mills or impact mills). For safety reasons, the whole coal preparation system is
designed for protection from fire or explosion. The pulverised fuel may be fed directly to the
burner (without intermediate storage and metering system) or – which is common practice
today – may be stored in fine coal silos with adequate metering and feeding systems.
Fuel oil is stored in large tanks on site. Handling is facilitated by heating up the oil to
a temperature of about 80 °C. Metering and combustion are facilitated by additional heating
of the oil up to a temperature of 120-140 °C, resulting in a reduction of the viscosity.
Natural gas is delivered by national or international distribution systems without on-

site storage. Prior to combustion in the kiln, the pressure of the gas has to be reduced to the
plant’s network pressure in gas transfer stations where also the fuel metering takes place.
Alternative fuels originating from industrial sources may require specific treatment.
Gaseous, liquid and pulverised or fine crushed solid fuels can be fed to the kiln system
similarly to the fossil fuels mentioned above. Coarsely shredded or even bulky materials can
be fed to the preheater/precalciner section or, rarely, to the mid kiln section only. For process

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reasons, the contribution of bulky fuels to the total heat consumption should be limited to
about 15 to 30% depending on the kiln system.
Alternative fuels are frequently prepared and blended outside the cement plant by
specialised companies in facilities specifically designed for this purpose. The cement plant
has to provide the storage and feeding systems only on site. Alternative fuel plants are often
designed as “multi-purpose plants” in order to handle a variety of different wastes.
2.1.4 Clinker Burning
The prepared raw material (“kiln feed”) is fed to the kiln system where it is subjected
to a thermal treatment process consisting of the consecutive steps of drying/preheating,
calcination (e.g. release of CO2 from limestone), and sintering (or “clinkerisation”, e.g.
formation of clinker minerals at temperatures up to 1450 °C). The burnt product “clinker” is
cooled down with air to 100-200 °C and is transported to intermediate storage.
The kiln systems commonly applied are rotary kilns with or without so-called
“suspension preheaters” (and, in more advanced systems, “precalciners”) depending on the
main process design selected. The rotary kiln itself is an inclined steel tube with a length to
diameter ratio between 10 and 40. The slight inclination (2.5 to 4.5%) together with the slow
rotation (0.5–4.5 revolutions per minute) allow for a material transport sufficiently long to
achieve the thermal conversion processes required.
Exhaust heat from the kiln system is utilised to dry raw materials, solid fuels or
mineral additions in the mills. Exhaust gases are dedusted using either electrostatic
precipitators or bag filter systems before being released to the atmosphere.

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Clean gas
Electrostatic
precipitator
Raw gas
Raw meal
Dust recycling
Clean gas
Mill dryer
Cyclone
preheater
Evaporation cooler
Burner
Dust collection
Rotary kiln
Cooling air
Grate cooler Clinker
Figure 2 Rotary kiln with cyclone preheater and gas dust collection
2.1.5 Cement grinding
Portland cement is produced by intergrinding cement clinker with a few percent of

natural or industrial gypsum (or anhydrite) in a cement mill. Blended cements (or
“composite” cements) contain other constituents in addition such as granulated blast-furnace
slag, natural or industrial pozzolana (for example, volcanic tuffs or fly ash from thermal
power plants), or inert fillers such as limestone.
Mineral additions in blended cements may either be interground with clinker or

ground separately and mixed with Portland cement. Grinding plants may be located remotely

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from the clinker production facility. The different cement types have to be stored separately
in cement silos prior to bagging and dispatch.
2.1.6 Mineral additions preparation
Mineral additions from natural or industrial sources intended to be used in blended

cements may need to be dried, crushed or ground in separate installations on site. Separate
“grinding plants” where mineral additions and blended cements only are produced may also
be located remote from the clinker production facility.
Mineral additions used in the manufacture of blended cements require separate

installations for storage, preblending, crushing, drying and feeding. Commonly used mineral
additions include natural materials such as volcanic rocks, limestone or calcined clay, and
materials originating from industrial sources such as granulated blast-furnace slag, pulverised
fly ash from power stations, or micro silica.
Pre-drying may be required for materials with a high moisture content, for example,
granulated blast-furnace slag. Rotary tube driers or flash driers make use of the kiln exhaust
gases or cooler exhaust air or are operated with a separate hot gas source. Mineral additions
may be interground with cement clinker and gypsum in a cement mill or may be ground
separately and blended with Portland cement subsequently. Separate grinding and blending is
mainly applied in the production of slag cements. For separate grinding of mineral additions,
the same installations are used as in cement grinding.
2.1.7 Cement dispatch
Cement may be shipped as bulk cement or – usually to a lesser extent – packed into
bags and palletised for dispatch. Transport methods used (i.e. road, railway, waterways)
depend on local conditions and requirements.

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2.2 Material characteristics
Portland cement clinker is produced from a mixture of raw materials containing

calcium, silicon, aluminium, and iron as the main elements. When mixed in the correct
proportions, new minerals with hydraulic properties – the so-called clinker phases – are
formed upon heating up to the sintering (or clinkerisation) temperature as high as 1450 °C.
2.2.1 Main clinker phases
The main mineral components in clinker are silicates, aluminates and ferrites of the
element calcium. The four main oxides make up four major clinker phases, called alite,
belite, aluminate and ferrite.
Tri-calcium silicate 3 CaO x SiO2 C3S Alite
Di-calcium silicate 2 CaO x SiO2 C2S Belite
Calcium aluminate 3 CaO x Al2O3 C3A Aluminate
Calcium ferrite 4 CaO x Al2O3 x Fe2O3 C4AF Ferrite
In general, C3S contributes to early and late strength (from first day) and increases the
heat of hydration; C2S contributes to late strength (from 28 days); C3A also contributes to
early strength, heat of hydration and to the resistance to sulphate attack; C4AF mainly affects
the clinker colour.
The clinker formation process can be divided into 4 steps:

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• Drying and preheating (20 – 900 °C): release of free and chemically bound water;
• Calcination (600 – 900 °C): release of CO2: initial reactions with formation of clinker
minerals and intermediate phases;
• Sintering or clinkerisation (1250 – 1450 °C): formation of calcium silicates and liquid
phase;
• Kiln internal cooling (1350 – 1200 °C): crystallisation of calcium aluminates and calcium
ferrite.
Minor mineral constituents in cement clinker include uncombined calcium oxide

(“free lime”) and magnesium oxide, as well as alkali sulphates. Additional chemical elements
present in the raw materials such as manganese, phosphorus, titanium or heavy metals are
mainly incorporated in the mineral structure of the major clinker phases.
The properties of clinker (and thus, of the cement produced from it) are mainly
determined by its mineral composition and its structure. Some elements in the raw materials
such as the alkalis, sulfur and chlorides are volatilised at the high temperatures in the kiln
system resulting in a permanent internal cycle of vaporisation and condensation (“circulating
elements”). A large part of these elements will remain in the kiln system and will finally
leave the kiln with the clinker. A small part will be carried with the kiln exhaust gases and
will be mainly precipitated with the particulates in the dedusting system.
At a high surplus of volatile elements, the installation of a preheater “bypass” may

become necessary where part of the dust laden exhaust gases of the rotary kiln is extracted
from the system. Both filter and bypass dust can totally or partially be recycled to the cement
manufacturing process.

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2.2.2 Raw mix components
A well designed raw mix in clinker manufacturing typically consists of calcareous

components rich in calcium, e.g. > 75% of carbonates (limestone, chalk, marble, calcareous
marl), argillaceous components rich in aluminium, silicon and iron (marl, marly clay, shale,
clay) and corrective components specifically enriched in one of the four main elements
(bauxite, iron ore, sand, high-grade limestone, etc.). Correctives are used in small quantities
only to adjust the chemical composition of the raw mix to the required quality targets.
Depending on availability and chemical composition, both main and corrective raw
mix components may also originate from industrial (“non-fossil”) sources (“alternative” raw
materials). Examples are coal fly ash from power stations, steel slag, foundry sand, sewage
sludge, lime sludge, FCC catalysts from oil refineries, and many more.
A proper raw mix design is based on the given raw materials situation, on the process
design and process requirements, on the product specifications, and on environmental
considerations. A well designed raw mix, adequate fineness of the raw meal and constant
chemical composition are essential both for a good product quality and for a smooth kiln
operation. Homogeneity and uniformity of the raw mix composition has to be carefully
controlled on a permanent basis by adequate sampling and chemical analysis.
2.2.3 Fuels
Main fossil fuels (“primary” fuels) in the cement industry are coal, petcoke, heavy oil,
and – to a lesser extent – natural gas. Non-fossil “alternative” fuels derived from industrial
sources such as tyres, waste oil, plastics, solvents and many more are commonly used as
substitute fuels today. The chemical components of the ash of solid fuels combine with the
raw materials and will be fully incorporated in the clinker produced. Thus, the chemical
composition of the ash has to be considered in the raw mix design.
In the same way as the major elements, metals which may be introduced with liquid or
solid fuels will also be incorporated into the clinker structure to a large extent. Exceptions are

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metals which are partly or completely volatilised in the kiln system such as mercury, thallium
or cadmium. These elements will be captured in the kiln (filter) dust or may to some extent
escape with the stack emissions (mercury and thallium) if not managed appropriately.
2.2.4 Cement constituents
Portland cement is produced by intergrinding clinker with a few percent of natural or

industrial gypsum or anhydrite (calcium sulphate) acting as a set regulator. In many
countries, the addition of up to 5% of “minor constituents” such as raw meal, limestone or
filter dust is allowed.
In blended (or “composite”) cements, part of the cement consists of mineral additions
originating from natural or industrial sources. These mineral additions may have hydraulic
(granulated blast furnace slag), pozzolanic (volcanic rocks, coal fly ash, micro silica, calcined
clay) or filler properties (limestone). The composition of blended cements is specified in the
national cement standards. The standards usually also includes quality specifications for the
individual mineral additions used.
2.3 The four main process routes in rotary kiln cement production
Historically, the development of the clinker manufacturing process was characterised

by the change from “wet” to “dry” systems with the intermediate steps of the “semi-wet” and
“semi-dry” process routes. The first rotary kilns – introduced around 1895 – were long wet
kilns.
“Wet” kilns allowed for an easier handling and homogenisation of the raw materials,
especially in cases when the raw materials are wet and sticky or exhibit large fluctuations in
the chemical composition of the individual raw mix components. With more advanced
modern technology however, it is possible to prepare a homogeneous raw meal using the
“dry” process, i.e. without addition of water to prepare raw slurry. The main advantage of a

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modern dry process over a traditional wet system is the far lower fuel consumption and thus,
lower fuel cost. Today, the selection of the wet process is only feasible under very specific
raw material and process conditions.
The four different basic processes can be briefly characterised as follows:
• Dry process: Dry raw meal is fed to a cyclone preheater or precalciner kiln or, in some
cases, to a long dry kiln with internal chain preheater.
• Semi-dry process: Dry raw meal is pelletised with water and fed to a travelling grate
preheater prior to the rotary kiln or in some cases, to a long kiln equipped with internal
cross preheaters.
• Semi-wet process: Raw slurry is first dewatered in filter presses. The resulting filter
cake is either extruded into pellets and fed to a travelling grate preheater or fed
directly to a filter cake drier for (dry) raw meal production prior to a
preheater/precalciner kiln.
• Wet process: The raw slurry is fed either directly to a long rotary kiln equipped with
an internal drying/preheating system (conventional wet process) or to slurry drier prior
to a preheater/precalciner kiln (modern wet process).
All processes have in common that the kiln feed is first dried, then calcined by
dissociation of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the CaCO3 in the feed material, and finally sintered
to clinker at temperatures between 1,400 ºC and 1,450 ºC. During this process the feed loses
approximately one third of its original dry mass. The hot clinker is cooled by air to 100-200
ºC in a clinker cooler. The heated air is used as secondary combustion air in the kiln.
2.3.1 The dry process

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For dry and semi-dry kiln systems, raw meal is prepared by drying and grinding of the
raw material components in tube mills or vertical roller mills, making use of the hot kiln
exhaust gases or cooler exhaust air for drying. Prior to being fed to the kiln, the raw meal is
homogenised and/or blended either in batch type or in continuously operating homogenising
silo systems.
In suspension preheater kilns, the raw meal is fed to the top of a series of cyclones
passing down in stepwise counter-current flow with hot exhaust gases from the rotary kiln
thus providing intimate contact and efficient heat exchange between solid particles and hot
gas. The cyclones thereby serve as separators between solids and gas.
Prior to entering the rotary kiln, the raw meal is heated up to a temperature of
approximately 810-830 °C where the calcination (i.e. the release of CO2 from the carbonates)
is already about 30% complete. The exhaust gases leave the preheater at a temperature of
300-360 °C and are further utilised for raw material drying in the raw mill. 4-stage preheater
kilns are susceptible to blockages and build-ups caused by excessive input of elements such as
sulfur, chlorides or alkalis which are easily volatilised in the kiln system. This input has to be
carefully controlled. Excessive input may require the installation of a system which allows
part of the rotary kiln gases to bypass the preheater. Thereby part of the volatile compounds
are extracted together with the gas.
A bypass system extracts a portion (typically 5-15 %) of the kiln gases from the riser
pipe between the kiln and preheater. This gas has a high dust burden. It is cooled with air,
volatile compounds are condensed onto the particulates and the gas then passes through a dust
filter.
Modern suspension preheater kilns usually have 4 cyclone stages with a maximum
capacity limited to approximately 4000 t/d. In some cases, 2-stage cyclone preheaters or 1-
stage preheaters supported by internal chain heat exchangers are still in operation.
A considerable capacity increase can be obtained with precalciner kilns with a second
combustion device between the rotary kiln and the preheater section. In the precalciner, up to
60 % of the total fuel of the kiln system can be burnt. At an exit temperature of about 880 °C,
the hot meal is calcined to a degree of around 90 % when entering the rotary kiln.

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Kiln systems with 5 to 6 stage cyclone preheater and precalciner are considered
standard technology for new plants today, as the extra cyclone stages improve thermal
efficiency.
In some cases, the raw meal is fed directly to a long dry kiln without external
preheater. A system of chains in the inlet part of the rotary kiln provides the heat exchange
between the hot combustion gases from the hot zone of the kiln and the kiln feed. Long dry
kilns have high heat consumption and high dust cycles requiring separate dedusting cyclones.
Figure 3 Production of cement by the dry process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)
2.3.2 The semi-dry process
In the semi-dry process, dry raw meal is pelletised with 10-12 % of water on an
inclined rotating table (“granulating disc”) and fed to a horizontal travelling grate preheater

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in front of the rotary kiln (“Lepol” system). The pelletised material is dried, pre-heated and
partly calcined on the two-chamber travelling grate making use of the hot exhaust gases from
the kiln. A higher degree of calcination can be achieved by burning part of the fuel in the hot
chamber of the grate preheater.
The hot exhaust gases from the kiln first pass through a layer of preheated pellets in
the hot chamber. After intermediate dedusting in cyclones, the gases are drawn once again
through a layer of moist pellets in the drying chamber of the grate. As much of the residual
dust is precipitated on the moist pellet bed, the total dust load of the exhaust gases at the
preheater outlet is low.
Figure 4 Production of cement by the semi-dry process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)
As a drawback of the semi-dry process, kiln exhaust gases cannot be utilised in the
raw meal drying and grinding system due to the low temperature level. The maintenance
costs of grate preheaters are high. Modern installations rarely use the semi-dry process.

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2.3.3 The semi-wet process
In the semi-wet process the raw slurry is dewatered in filter presses. Typically,
modern chamber filtration systems produce filter cakes with a residual moisture content of 16-
21 %. In the past, filter cakes were further processed in extruders to form pellets which were
then fed to grate preheater kilns with three chambers.
With modern cement plants, slurry filtration is applied only where raw materials have
a very high natural moisture content, i.e. chalk. Filter cake coming from the filter presses is
kept in intermediate storage bins before it is fed to heated crushers or dryers where a dry raw
meal is produced which is fed to a modern preheater or precalciner kiln. With the
dryers/crushers operating full time in parallel with the kiln (compound operation), these
systems have a very good energy recovery by making full use of the kiln exhaust gases and
the cooler exhaust air.
Figure 5 Production of cement by the semi-wet process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)

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2.3.4 The wet process
Conventional wet process kilns are the oldest type of rotary kilns to produce clinker.
Wet kiln feed (raw slurry) typically contains 28 to 43 % of water which is added to the raw
mill (slurry drums, wash mills and/or tube mills). Batch blending and homogenisation is
achieved in special slurry silos or slurry basins where compressed air is introduced and the
slurry is continuously stirred.
The slurry is pumped into the rotary kiln where the water has to be evaporated in the
drying zone at the kiln inlet. The drying zone is designed with chains and crosses to facilitate
the heat exchange between the kiln feed and the combustion gases. After having passed the
drying zone, the raw material moves down the kiln to be calcined and burnt to clinker in the
sintering zone.
Conventional wet kiln technology has high heat consumption and produces large
volumes of combustion gases and water vapour. Wet rotary kilns may reach a total length of
up to 240 m compared to short dry kilns of 55 to 65 m length (without the preheater section).
In modern wet kiln systems, the raw slurry is fed to slurry drier where the water is
evaporated prior to the dried raw meal entering a cyclone preheater/precalciner kiln. Modern
wet kiln systems have a far lower specific heat consumption compared to conventional wet
kilns.
2.3.5 Circulating elements
Volatile components such as alkalis, sulfur and chlorine introduced with raw materials
and fuels may give rise to problems in kiln operation when present in high concentrations.
Build-up formation in the preheater cyclones or rings in the rotary kiln inlet zone may lead to
reduced kiln availability and productivity. Thus, the input of these volatile components is

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carefully controlled for operational and economic reasons. Input control is also required to
achieve and maintain the required quality of clinker and cement.
Figure 6 Production of cement by the wet process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)
Depending on their volatility, alkalis, sulfur and chlorides evaporate in the sintering
zone of the rotary kiln and recondense at cooler parts of the system either on the raw meal
particles or on the surrounding walls. With the raw meal, they are reintroduced to the
sintering zone again thus establishing a permanent "internal cycle” of volatile “circulating”
elements. By reaching equilibrium between input and output, a major part of the volatile
components will finally leave the system incorporated in the clinker.
Part of the volatile components however, may form new compounds such as alkali
chlorides or alkali sulphates and other intermediate phases such as spurrite which will then
contribute to the build-up phenomena mentioned above by producing a “sticky” raw meal
adhesive to the walls of the cyclones, the ducts or the kiln tube. A small part only of the

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circulating elements leaves the kiln with the exhaust gas dust and is precipitated in the
dedusting device of the system.
With excessive input of volatile elements, the installation of a kiln gas bypass system
may become necessary in order to extract part of the circulating elements from the kiln
system. This bypass dust which is usually highly enriched in alkalis, sulfur or chlorides is
cooled down and then passed through a dust collector before being discharged.
2.3.6 Clinker coolers
Clinker leaving the rotary kiln at a temperature around 1200-1250 °C has to be cooled
down rapidly to allow further transport and handling. This process also recovers heat from
the clinker back to the kiln by preheating the air used for combustion in the main burner and
in any secondary firing. In addition, rapid cooling prevents undesired chemical reactions in
the clinker which may negatively affect the quality and the grindability of the clinker. Three
main types of clinker coolers are used:
• Rotary (tube) coolers

• Planetary (satellite) coolers, and
• Grate coolers
Tube coolers placed underneath the kiln outlet make use of the same principle as the
rotary kiln for clinker burning, but for reverse heat exchange with cooling air drawn through
the tube in counter-current flow to the hot clinker. This cooler type is rarely used in the
cement industry nowadays.
In a planetary (or satellite) cooler, 9 to 11 tubes are arranged peripherally at the

discharge end of the rotary kiln. Hot clinker enters the tubes through inlet ports and passes
through the tubes in cross counter-current to the cooling air. Due to their design, planetary
coolers are susceptible to comparatively high wear and to thermal shock effects, and –
similarly to tube coolers – clinker exit temperatures may still be high without additional

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cooling by water injection. Planetary coolers are not suited for precalciner kilns as exhaust air
cannot be extracted for combustion in the secondary firing.
Grate coolers are preferably used in modern installations. Cooling is achieved by

cross-flow air blown through a clinker layer travelling slowly on a reciprocating grate which
consists of perforated plates. The whole cooling zone includes a “recuperation zone” and an
“aftercooling zone”. From the recuperation zone, preheated air is recovered for combustion
of the main burner fuel (“secondary air”) and of the precalciner fuel (“tertiary air”). The hot
air from the aftercooling zone can be used for drying of raw materials or coal. Grate coolers
thus provide the most efficient and most flexible heat recovery system for modern dry process
kilns.
2.3.7 Operating characteristics rotary kilns - a summary
A summary of the operating characteristics of the four main process routes is given in
the figure below.
Figure 7 Operating characteristics of kiln processes (CEMBUREAU, 1999)

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2.4 Cement production using Vertical Shaft Kilns
The raw materials used for cement production in Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSKs) are
exactly the same as in any other production process, i.e. limestone/chalk, marl, and clay/shale.
These raw materials are extracted from quarries which, in most cases, are located close to the
cement plant. After extraction, these raw materials are crushed at the quarry site and
transported to the cement plant for intermediate storage, homogenization and further
preparation.
“Corrective” materials such as bauxite, iron ore or sand may be required to adapt the
chemical composition of the raw mix to the requirements of the process and product
specifications. The quantities of these corrective materials are usually low compared to the
huge mass flow of the main raw materials.
Figure 8 Limestone transport from a nearby quarry (Chinese cement plant)

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2.4.1 Black meal process
After intermediate storage and pre-homogenisation, the raw materials are dried and
ground together solid fuel, approximately 13 % of coal or coke, in defined and well-controlled
proportions, usually in a vertical roller mill, with a sieve residue of 16 % R 90 µm (depend on
the burnability and reactivity of raw meal) and ~ 0.5 to 0.8 % R 200 µm (representing quartz
grain). The ratio of fuel and raw meal will depend of the lower calorific value of the fuel.
It may be possible to grind separately raw meal and solid fuel and then mix them
together but this may influence the homogeneity of the final raw meal and subsequently the
clinker quality. The black meal is nodulised, (as in Lepold kiln) on an inclined rotary plate,
by addition of water, about 12%, before fed to the top of the kiln.
The kiln is fed from the top and air is blown from the bottom. The material goes
through the same process steps as other production processes, i.e. evaporation of water,
calcination of CaCO3 and production of CaO and CO2, and clinker formation as it goes down
the kiln in counter current with the combustion air coming from bottom.
The limestone must be mixed with clay which have some plasticity properties, if not
the nodules will not have enough strength and will turn back to powder in the kiln. This will
again influence the air flow through the kiln and consequently the combustion and production
of clinker. The uniformity of the nodule size is important both for air circulation and nodule
mechanical resistance, as well as burning. A big nodule will hardly be burned in its centre,
even if the combustion air can easily flow through the kiln. On the contrary, small nodule
may be overburnt even if combustion air may encounter more resistance to go up the kiln.
The size of nodule is determined by visual control done by the operator, usually the
size is around 10 to 14 mm (~fingernail size).

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Figure 9 Black meal preparation and feeding from an inclined rotary plate at the
top of the Vertical Shaft Kiln
Shaft kilns consist of a refractory-lined, vertical cylinder 2-3 meter in diameter and 8-
10 meter high. They are fed from the top with a raw material and fuel mix called black meal.
The material travels through a short sintering zone in the upper, slightly enlarged part
of the kiln, where free and chemically bound water are released through drying and preheating
at a temperature of 20 – 900 °C. Calcination releases of CO2 at a temperature of 600–900 °C
and the formation of calcium silicates and liquid phase, clinkerisation at a temperature of
1250 – 1450 °C. The clinker is then cooled by the combustion air blown in from the bottom
and leaves the lower end of the kiln on a discharge grate in the form of clinker.

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Figure 10 Black meal nodules entering the top of the Vertical Shaft Kiln
The material flows through the kiln in about 8 hours and the retention time above 1200
°C is around 30 to 40 minutes. The peak material temp is 1450 0C as in other kilns and tri-
calcium silicate, or C3S is formed at this temperature (see figure below).
The temperature inside the kiln, or 1 to 2 meter under the surface at the top of the kiln,
is checked by the operator by using a long 3 meter iron stick which is put it inside the kiln bed
surface. If the colour of the end of the stick is red after a while, the temperature is
satisfactory.
Vertical shaft kilns produce usually less than 300 tonnes of clinker per day. They are
only economic for small plants, and for this reason their number has been diminishing. The
best demonstrated practice is a production capacity of 190~200 t/d.

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Figure 12 Formation of the four major clinker phases as a function of temperature
Figure 11 Controlling the process at the top of the Vertical Shaft Kiln

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Figure 13 Three vertical shaft kilns in parallel

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Figure 14 Bottom of the three parallel kilns
2.4.2 Process conditions and quality aspects
The normal air flow pr ton clinker is approximately 750 Nm3/t, i.e. for a clinker
production of 8 t/h, approximately 6000 Nm3/h of air is fed from the bottom. Additional air
can be blown in the middle of the kiln if necessary, usually <20 % of the total volume. The
gas flow at stack will be approximately ~20 000 Nm3/h, additional volume coming from the
release CO2 and H2O vapour. Increasing the air flow would increase the production rate and
the quality of the clinker. The position where to input this additional air (for combustion and
cooling effect) may be of particular effect on the result.
The air flow is probably not constant through the whole section of the kiln, if the
centre of the kiln is compared with the wall. This would imply that the burning conditions are

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slightly different in the centre compared to wall as well as the temperature, and the bigger the
diameter the bigger the difference may be.
The incoming air at the bottom performs also the cooling effect to crystallize C3S
(alite) and C2S (belite). Calculating the chemical composition is the same for VSKs as other
kiln processes; the ash from the fuel will be absorbed by the clinker and this chemical
composition must be taken into account when proportionate the raw meal composition. The
final chemical composition will influence the lime saturation factor (LS), the alumina ratio
(AR) and the silicate ratio (SR). The resulting clinker is discharged at the bottom of the kiln
through a triple gate device to ensure air tightness.
Figure 15 The shape of the VSK clinker is more irregular than the round nodules
formed in rotary kilns

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A rotary kiln will ensure that the material is always agitated, witch improve the heat
transfers and the chemical reaction between CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. In a VSK this is
not the case, no CaO molecule in excess inside one single nodule will move to the neighbour
nodule to combine with any "free" molecules of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 present here. It is a
static process and each nodule can be considered as one single ”independent kiln”, i.e. the
homogenisation is really of primary importance in a VSK process. Pre-blending and raw
meal homogenizing silos after grinding can improve homogenisation.
Figure 16 Raw meal and gypsum storage at a VSK in China
The free lime (unreacted CaO) of the clinker will depend on the lime saturation factor
(LSF) and kiln operation but usually the free lime will be between 1,5 % at the best to 5 % at
the worse. The LSF is a measure to which extent the CaO-richest compounds C3S, C3A and
C4AF can be formed without the necessary presence of free lime. If the LSF is 100 % this

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means that you have exact stoicheiometric amount of CaO needed combine with SiO2, Al2O3
and Fe2O3. If your LSF is 104 %, this means that you have 4 % of CaO in excess and it will
not be combined with the other molecules, i.e. at least 4 % free lime in the clinker. Free lime
in the clinker is very dependant on the combustion conditions and the temperature in the kiln
(see figure 12).
The strength of the clinker is related to the mineral composition but also to the final
grinding (blaine) and to the mineral component (pozolana).
Figure 17 Quality control at the VSK laboratory
In a modern rotary kiln the thermal energy is coming from the main burner 40 % and
the precalciner burner 60 %. The operator can adjust the thermal energy in the process to
control the final product, which is impossible in a VSK. The black meal is defined at an early

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stage, and cannot be modified during the burning process. It is not possible to adjust the
thermal input and what you get out the kiln is what you have fed in.

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3. Environmental significance of cement production
The main environmental impacts of the manufacture of cement in general are related
to the following categories:
• Dust from stack emissions and fugitive sources;
• Gaseous atmospheric emissions of CO2, NOx, SO2, VOC and others;
• Other emissions like noise and vibrations, odour, process water, production waste, etc.
3.1 Dust
Historically, the emission of dust – particularly from kiln stacks – has been the main
environmental concern in cement manufacture. “Point source” dust emissions originate
mainly from the raw mills, the kiln system, the clinker cooler, and the cement mills. A
general feature of these process steps is that hot exhaust gas or exhaust air is passing through
pulverised material resulting in an intimately dispersed mixture of gas and particulates.
Primary reduction measures are therefore hardly available. The nature of the particulates
generated is linked to the source material itself, i.e. raw materials (partly calcined), clinker or
cement.
Dust emissions in the modern cement industry have been reduced considerably in the
last 20 years, and state-of-the-art abatement techniques now available (electrostatic
precipitators, bag filters) result in stack emissions which are insignificant in a modern and
well managed cement plant.
Dust from dispersed sources in the plant area (“fugitive dust”) may originate mainly
from materials storage and handling, i.e. transport systems, stockpiles, crane driving, bagging,
etc., and from traffic movement on unpaved roads. Techniques for control and containment

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of fugitive dust include dedusting of material transfer points, closed storage installations with
proper ventilation, or vacuum cleaning equipment, etc.
As the chemical and mineralogical composition of dust in a cement plant is similar to

that of natural rocks, it is commonly considered as a “nuisance”. Reduction and control of
dust emissions in a modern cement plant requires both investments and adequate management
practices but is not a technical problem.
Kiln dust collected from the gas cleaning devices is highly alkaline and may contain
trace elements such as heavy metals corresponding to the contents in the source materials.
Usually, kiln dust is completely returned to the process – either to the kiln system or to the
cement mill. In rare cases, it is not possible to recycle kiln dust or bypass dust completely in
the process. This residual dust is disposed of on site (or in controlled landfills) or is treated
and sold to other industries, i.e. as binder for waste stabilisation or even as fertiliser.
Heavy metals delivered by either conventional raw materials and fuels or by

alternative raw materials and fuels from industrial sources will be mainly incorporated in
clinker or – to a lesser extent – in kiln dust.
Bypass dust extracted from the kiln system may be highly enriched in alkalis,
sulphates and chlorides and – similarly to filter dust – in some cases cannot be completely
recycled to the process. For both types of dust, conditioning and safe disposal avoiding
contamination of groundwater or soil is a site-specific requirement.
3.2 Gaseous atmospheric emissions
Gaseous emissions from the kiln system released to the atmosphere are the primary
environmental concern in cement manufacture today. Major gaseous emissions are CO2, NOx
and SO2. Other emissions of less significance are VOCs (volatile organic compounds), CO,
ammonia, and heavy metals. CO2 as the main greenhouse gas is released in considerable
quantities.

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Other gaseous emissions such as hydrochloric acid or hydrofluoric acid are nearly
completely captured by the inherent and efficient alkaline scrubber effect of the preheater
cement kiln system.
Natural raw materials used for clinker production may contain volatile components in
small quantities. These components will be volatilised and partly emitted under the
conditions prevailing in the preheater section of a dry process cement kiln or in the
drying/preheating zone of a VSK or before entering the burning zone of the long wet or long
dry rotary kiln.
3.2.1 Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide emissions arise from the calcination of the raw materials and from the
combustion of fossil fuels. CO2 resulting from calcination can be influenced to a very limited
extent only. Emissions of CO2 resulting from fuel combustion have generally been reduced
due to the strong economic incentive for the cement industry to minimise fuel energy
consumption.
CO2 reduction of some 30% in the last 25 years – arising mainly from the adoption of
more fuel efficient kiln processes – leaves little scope for further improvement. Potential is
mainly left to the increased utilisation of renewable alternative fuels or other waste derived
fuels and to the production of blended cements with mineral additions substituting clinker.
3.2.2 Nitrogen oxides
NOx formation is an inevitable consequence of the high temperature combustion

process, with a smaller contribution resulting from the chemical composition of the fuels and
raw materials. Nitrogen oxides are formed by oxidation of molecular nitrogen in the
combustion air (“thermal” NOx is the sum of nitrogen oxides; in cement kiln exhaust gases,
NO and NO2 are dominant, > 90% NO, < 10% NO2). Thermal NOx formation is strongly
dependent on the combustion temperature with a marked increase above 1400 °C. “Hard”

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burning required by certain raw mixes – i.e. at a higher temperature profile – increases NOx
formation.
While thermal NOx is the dominant contribution to total NOx generation, a smaller part
may also result from nitrogen compounds contained in the fuels which are oxidised in the
flame as well (“fuel NOx”). In the main burner flame, the contribution of fuel NOx is much
lower than that of thermal NOx.
In the secondary firing of a preheater/precalciner kiln with a flame temperature of not

more than 1200 °C, the formation of thermal NOx is much lower compared to the main burner
flame. Therefore, in precalciner kilns where up to 60% of the total fuel can be burnt in the
calciner flame, fuel NOx may be a higher proportion of the reduced total NOx emissions.
Natural raw materials such as clays or shale’s may also contain nitrogen compounds.
Part of these compounds may be released and oxidised upon heating in the kiln system and
may thus in certain cases considerably contribute to the total NOx emissions.
NOx formation is reduced if fuel is burnt in a more “reducing” atmosphere with low
oxygen content. Operation under reducing conditions is limited due to process requirements
in order to maintain good clinker quality and undisturbed kiln operation. NOx emissions in
cement kilns (expressed as NO2) typically vary between 500 and 2000 mg/m3.
There is no information available on the formation mechanism and emissions of NOx

in vertical shaft kilns.
3.2.3 Sulfur oxides
Sulfur compounds enter the kiln system either with the fuels or with the raw materials.
Sulfur compounds in raw materials are present mainly as sulphates (for example, calcium
sulphate CaSO4) or as sulphides (i.e. pyrite or marcasite FeS2).

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Sulphates in the raw materials are thermally stable up to temperatures of 1200 °C, and
will thus enter the sintering zone of the rotary kiln where they are decomposed to produce
SO2. Part of the SO2 combines with alkalis and is incorporated into the clinker structure. The
remaining part of SO2 is carried back to the cooler zones of the kiln system where it reacts
either with calcined calcium oxide or with calcium carbonate thus being reintroduced to the
sintering zone again (“chemical SO2 absorption”).
Inorganic and organic sulfur compounds introduced with the fuels will be subject to
the same internal cycle consisting of thermal decomposition, oxidation to SO2 and reaction
with alkalis or with calcium oxide. With this closed internal cycle, all the sulfur which is
introduced via fuels or via raw material sulphates will leave the kiln chemically incorporated
in clinker, and will not give rise to gaseous SO2 emissions.
Sulphides (and also organic sulfur compounds) in raw materials however, are
decomposed and oxidised at moderate temperatures of 400 to 600 °C to produce SO2 when
the raw materials are heated by the exhaust gases. At these temperatures, not enough calcium
oxide is available to react with the SO2. Therefore, in a dry preheater kiln about 30% of the
total sulphide input may leave the preheater section as gaseous SO2. During direct operation
– i.e. with the raw mill off – most of it is emitted to the atmosphere. During compound
operation – i.e. with the raw mill on-line – typically between 30 and 90% of that remaining
SO2 is additionally adsorbed to the freshly ground raw meal particles in the raw mill
(“physico-chemical absorption”).
In grate preheater kilns SO2 absorption is also good because the gas is passing through
the turbulent flow of material from grate to kiln and then passing at low velocities firstly
through the bed of material which is partly calcined and then through the moist calcium
carbonate in the drying chamber.
In long dry and long wet kilns, the chemical absorption capacity for SO2 is generally
less efficient due to the reduced contact between kiln exhaust gas and raw materials. In these
kiln systems, all kinds of sulfur input may partially contribute to SO2 emissions, and the
general emission level may be higher than in dry preheater kilns.

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In VSKs systems, all kinds of sulpur input may partially contribute to SO2 emissions,
and the general emission level may be higher than in dry preheater kilns.
Gaseous emissions such as SO2 or VOC are to a large extent determined by the
chemical characteristics of the raw materials used, and not by the fuel composition.
Emissions are lowest with raw materials low in volatile components.
3.2.4 Organic compounds
Natural raw materials such as limestone’s, marls and shale’s may also contain up to
0.8 % w/w of organic matter (“kerogene”) – depending on the geological conditions of the
deposit. A large part of this organic matter may be volatilised in the kiln system even at
moderate temperatures between 400 and 600 °C.
Kiln tests with raw meals of different origin have demonstrated that approximately 85
to 95% of the organic matters in the raw materials are converted to CO2 in the presence of 3%
excess oxygen in the kiln exhaust gas, and 5 to 15% are oxidised to CO. A small proportion –
usually less than 1% – of the total organic carbon (“TOC”) content may be emitted as volatile
organic compounds (“VOC”) such as hydrocarbons.
The emission level of VOC in the stack gas of cement kilns is usually between 10 and
100 mg/Nm3, with a few excessive cases up to 500 mg/Nm3. The CO concentration in the
clean gas can be as high as 1000 mg/Nm3, even exceeding 2000 mg/Nm3 in some cases.
The carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon contents measured in the stack gas of cement
kiln systems are essentially determined by the content of organic matter in the raw materials,
and are therefore not an indicator of incomplete combustion of conventional or alternative
fuels.
Organic matter introduced to the main burner and to the secondary firing will be
completely destroyed due to the high temperatures and the long retention time of the
combustion gases.

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There is currently no information available on the emissions of VOC in vertical shaft

kilns. VOC release may function as a precursor for the formation of dioxins and furans in the
air pollution control device of a VSK and needs to be investigated further.
3.3 PCDD/F emissions
The Stockholm Convention requires Parties to take measures to reduce or eliminate

releases of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from intentional production and use, from
unintentional production and from stockpiles and wastes. The chemicals intentionally
produced and currently assigned for elimination under the Stockholm Convention are the
pesticides aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), mirex
and toxaphene, as well as the industrial chemical Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs).
The Convention also seeks the continuing minimisation and, where feasible,
elimination of the releases of unintentionally produced POPs such as the by-products from
wet chemical and thermal processes, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/-furans (PCDD/Fs) as
well as HCB and PCBs. Cement kilns co-processing hazardous waste are explicitly
mentioned in the Stockholm Convention as an “industrial source having the potential for
comparatively high formation and release of these chemicals to the environment”.
The World Business Council for Sustainable Development initiated a study where the
objective was to compile data on the status of POPs emissions from the cement industry, to
share state of the art knowledge about PCDD/F formation mechanisms in cement production
processes and to show how it’s possible to control and minimise PCDD/F emissions from
cement kilns utilising integrated process optimisation, so called primary measures. This is the
most comprehensive study available on POPs emission from the cement industry.
(Karstensen, 2006).
Around 2200 PCDD/F measurements, many PCB measurements and a few HCB
measurements made from the 1970s until recently was. The data represents emission levels
from large capacity processing technologies, including wet and dry process cement kilns,

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performed under normal and worst case operating conditions, with and without the co-
processing of a wide range of alternative fuel and raw materials and with wastes and
hazardous wastes fed to the main burner, to the rotary kiln inlet and to the
preheater/precalciner. Vertical shaft kilns was not dealt with due to lack of emission data.
The PCDD/F data evaluated shows that:
• Most cement kilns can meet an emission level of 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3 if primary
measures are applied;
• Co-processing of alternative fuels and raw materials, fed to the main burner, kiln inlet
or the precalciner does not seem to influence or change the emissions of POPs;
• Data evaluated from dry preheater and precalciner cement kilns in developing
countries show very low emission levels, much lower than 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3.
• The emissions from modern dry preheater/precalciner kilns seem generally to be

slightly lower than emissions from wet kilns.
Emission data from US cement kilns in the 1980s and first part of the 1990s indicated
that cement kilns co-processing hazardous waste as a co-fuel had much higher PCDD/F
emissions than kilns co-processing non-hazardous wastes or using conventional fuel only. In
recent documents however, the US EPA has explained the most probable cause for these
findings, namely that cement kilns burning hazardous waste were normally tested under
“worst” scenario trial burn conditions, i.e. typically high waste feeding rates and high
temperatures in the air pollution control device, conditions today known to stimulate PCDD/F
formation. Cement kilns burning non-hazardous waste or conventional fossil fuel only were
however tested under normal conditions, no “worst” scenario conditions, making a
comparison between hazardous waste burning and non-hazardous waste burning kilns
dubious.
Reducing the temperature at the inlet of the air pollution control device is one factor
which has shown to limit dioxin formation and emissions at all types of cement kilns,
independent of waste feeding, as lower temperatures are believed to prevent the post-

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combustion catalytic formation of PCDD/Fs. The US EPA concluded in 1999 in the new
Maximum Achievable Control Technology regulation that hazardous waste burning in cement
kilns does not have an impact on PCDD/F formation because they are formed post-
combustion, i.e. in the air pollution control device.
The study also provides a large number of measurements of PCDD/F in products and
residues from the cement industry. The levels are normally low and in the same magnitude as
found in foods like fish, butter and breast milk as well as soil, sediments and sewage sludge.
For new cement plants and major upgrades the best available techniques for the
production of cement clinker is a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating and
precalcination. A smooth and stable kiln process, operating close to the process parameter set
points is beneficial for all kiln emissions as well as for the energy use.
The most important primary measures to achieve compliance with an emission level of
0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3 is quick cooling of the kiln exhaust gases to lower than 200oC in long wet
and long dry kilns without preheating. Modern preheater and precalciner kilns have this
feature already inherent in the process design. Feeding of alternative raw materials as part of
raw-material-mix should be avoided if it includes organic material and no alternative fuels
should be fed during start-up and shut down.
Since PCDD/F is the only group of POPs commonly being regulated up to now, there
are fewer measurements available for HCB and PCBs. However, the more than 50 PCB
measurements referred to in this report show that all values are below 0.4 µg PCB TEQ/m3,
many at a few nanogram level or below the detection limit. 10 HCB measurements show a
concentration of a few nanograms per cubic meter or concentrations below the detection limit.
3.3.1 Trace elements
During the clinker burning process, all mineral input delivered by the raw materials –
be it natural or alternative raw materials sources – is converted into the clinker phases at the
high temperatures prevailing in the sintering zone of the kiln. Combustion ashes from

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conventional and alternative fuels used in rotary kilns are also completely incorporated into
the clinker minerals. Therefore cement kiln systems do not generate combustion ashes which
require separate disposal.
Consequently, the fuel ashes substitute for part of the (natural) raw materials input. In
order to maintain a good clinker quality, the ash composition of the fuels has to be taken into
account in the raw mix design. Trace elements such as heavy metals are naturally present in
low concentrations in the raw materials and fuels used for the manufacture of cement clinker.
The behaviour of these metals in the burning process depends largely on their volatility.
• Non-volatile metals remain completely within the product and leave the kiln system
fully incorporated in the mineral structure of the clinker – similarly to the main
elements. Most of the common metals are non-volatile.
• Semi-volatile elements such as cadmium or lead may in part be volatilised with the
high temperature conditions in the sintering zone of the kiln system. They condense
on the raw materials in cooler parts of the kiln system and are reintroduced to the hot
zone again. A major part of cadmium and lead will be incorporated in clinker; the
remaining part will precipitate with the kiln dust and will be collected in the filter
systems.
• Volatile metals such as mercury and thallium are more easily volatilised and condense
on raw material particles at lower temperatures in the kiln system (thallium at
approximately 300-350 °C, mercury at 120-150 °C). Whereas thallium is nearly
completely precipitated onto the kiln dust particles, only part of the mercury will be
collected within the filter system. Volatile metals are retained in the clinker minerals
to a very small extent only.
Being the only metal which can be emitted with the clean gas in gaseous form, the
input of mercury with raw materials and fuels has to be carefully controlled.
There is currently no information available on the emissions of volatile metals in

vertical shaft kilns and should to be investigated further.

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3.4 Other emissions
Heavy machinery and large fans used in the cement manufacture may give rise to
emissions of noise and vibrations.
Odour emissions are seldom a problem with a well operated plant, but may be mainly
related to emissions from handling and storage of conventional or alternative fuels. In
exceptional cases, nitrogen compounds in the raw materials may lead to ammonia emissions
which – even at low concentrations – may give rise to odour.
Process water in cement manufacturing will usually be completely evaporated or

recycled in the process. Filtrate water from filter presses used in the semi-wet process is
fairly alkaline and contains suspended solids requiring site-specific treatment and/or disposal
options.
Emergencies such as fire, explosions or spillage/leakage are extremely rare in the

modern cement industry but minor explosions can be experienced in VSKs if the coal/coke in
the black meal contains high concentrations of volatile matters. Potential consequences for
the environment are minimised by adequate prevention and protection measures such as fire
and explosion proof design of machinery and emergency response schemes.
3.5 Normal emission levels from rotary kilns
Average emission data (long term average values) from European rotary cement kilns
in operation are summarised in the table below.
The figures given are representative of the ranges within which kilns normally operate.
Due to the age and design of the plant, the nature of the raw materials, etc., individual kilns
may operate outside these ranges.

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Table 1 Long term average emission values from European cement kilns
(CEMBUREAU, 1999)
Emission mg per standard cubic meter [mg/Nm3]

Dust 20 – 200
NOx 500 – 2000
SO2 10 – 2500
Total organic carbon (TOC) 10 – 100
CO 500 – 2000
Fluorides <5
Chlorides < 25
PCDD/F < 0.1 [ng/Nm3]
Heavy metals:
- class 1 (Hg, Cd, Tl) < 0.1
- class 2 (As, Co, Ni, Se, Te) < 0.1
- class 3 (Sb, Pb, Cr, Cu, Mn, V, Sn) incl. Zn < 0.3
3.6 Air pollution control in cement production
Particulate matter, commonly called dust, is the primary emission in the manufacture
of cement. For the control of dust the cement industry employs mechanical collectors, i.e.
cyclone collectors and to a lesser degree small size gravity settling chambers, further fabric
type dust collectors, gravel bed filters and finally electrostatic precipitators. To meet the
emission standards, sometimes combinations of these collectors are employed, depending on
the intensity and temperature of the effluents. In all modern kiln systems, the exhaust gases
are finally passed through an air pollution control device for separation of the dust before
being released to the atmosphere via stacks. Today, two types of dust separators are most
commonly used in the modern cement industry, electrostatic precipitators and bag filters.

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Gravity settling chambers will always be of importance for pre-cleaning of high dust
laden gases; they work on the principle of removing the dust by reducing the velocity of the
gas or air stream. The gas is directed from the dust generating equipment into the large
volume of settling chambers, where velocity drops low enough to let large dust particles drop
out by gravity. Dust settling chambers are sometimes equipped with deflectors, to change the
direction of gas flow and so to shorten the settling path of the particles, improving collection
efficiency. Because of the simple construction, gravity settling chambers are the lowest in
cost, but at the same time also the least effective dust collection devices. Only relatively
coarse particles are removed. For removing of fine dust particles, e.g. in the range of 20
microns, large size gravity settling chambers would be required, with a length of about 35 m.
Therefore settling chambers are used only to reduce the dust load ahead of more efficient dust
collectors such as bag filters or electric precipitators. The efficiency of gravity settling
chambers is in the range of 30-70% when handling typical dust of a cement plant. The gas
velocity in the settling chambers should not exceed 0.5 m/sec (Duda, 1985).
Cyclones as dust collection devices were in use long before their mode of operation
was theoretically explained and calculable. A cyclone consists essentially of two sections; a
cylindrical and a conical one. At the top of the cylindrical section the gas enters tangentially
and spirals along the walls downward into the conical section (outside vortex); from here it
starts to occupy the center space of the cyclone, and spirals upward (inside vortex) to the
outlet thimble. Centrifugal forces push the dust particles toward the wall where they
accumulate and descend down by gravity as well as under the influence of the outer vortex.
Most of the particles fall down to the bottom into a hopper from where they are removed by
rotary valves or screw conveyors. The ascending gas vortex represents the clean gas, but it
always contains a certain amount of fine particulates. The inside vortex occupies only a small
part of the cyclone’s cross-section, and along its axis there is the so-called neutral sector; if
the size of this sector is taken away with the escaping gases. From this it results that the
longer distance a dust particle has to cover for reaching the boundary gas layer, the less
particles are separated in the cyclone; therefore it can be said that the efficiency of a cyclone
diameters of 225, 400, 600 and 3150 mm, the corresponding efficiencies equal 96.7, 92.6,
88.2, and 57.5% (Duda, 1985).
In the cement industry, cyclones are for application with rotary kilns, great clinker
coolers, crushers, dryers, grinding mills, conveyors, etc. They are low cost dust collectors,

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without moving parts, and can be furnished with refractory linings for high temperatures up to
975°C. Cyclones can be designed for high pressure drop as well as for medium throughput,
and high dust collection efficiency. Cyclones are built with diameters from 300 to 2300 mm
in arrangements of one, two, four or six units combinations. The size of the particular
cyclones depends (besides the required throughput and collection efficiency) also on the dust
load, the particle size as well as on the properties of the dust. Units of cyclones may be
installed in parallel for large gas volumes, and in series for higher efficiencies, or in
combinations of series and parallel for high throughput and high efficiency.
It was learn from practical experience that the diameters of cyclones with the best
efficiency are in the range of 50 to 300 mm. However, the capacity of such cyclones is low
and in the range of about 25 m3/min (Duda, 1985). Therefore for higher gas volumes a
multitude of small diameter cyclones are combined into groups of cyclones, commonly called
multicyclones. Multicyclones are enclosed units and arranged in banks of parallel flow with
feed gas from a plenum chamber and with a common dust discharge hopper; multicyclones
units can contain up to 400 individual cyclones. The efficiency of multicyclone dust
collectors is in the range of 85-94%, collecting dust particles of 15 to 20 micron diameter an
up, with a pressure drop of 130-180 mm of water column. A disadvantage of multicyclones is
occasional plugging of the small tubes.
In country with less stringent air pollution regulations, the multicyclone is in the
cement industry a major component in collection of dust from kiln gases, grate clinker
coolers, dryers, grinding mills, etc. However, in countries with stricter dust control
regulations, the multicyclone serves mostly as a primary dust collector ahead of high
efficiency dust collectors.
Fabric filters used in the cement industry are generally of the bag type, e.g. tubes with
300 mm diameter or less, and up to 10 m high; they consist of woven or felted cloth, made
from natural or synthetic fibers. Fabric filters can handle small particles in the submicron
range at high efficiencies of 99.95%. Depending on the kind of fabric, these filters can be
applied to gas temperatures up to 285°C. The dust laden gas flows through a porous medium
– the filter fabric – and deposits particles in the voids. After filling the voids, a cake starts to
build up on the fabric’s surface, which does most of the filtering. During the precoating
period which lasts only moments, the efficiency may drop. When the dust layer on the fabric

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becomes too thick, an increase in pressure drop results; this requires cleaning of the fabric.
Depending on the characteristic of the dust and the type of the fabric, there are generally four
methods of filter cleaning in use:
• Bag swinging; this is a method which imparts a gentle oscillating motion to the tops of
the filter bags; this helps to dislodge the dust cake.
• Reverse air; this method collapses the filter tube by differential air pressure, thus
releasing the filter cake.
• Pulse pressure; the plenum chamber of the isolated compartment is for about 300
milliseconds supplied with a burst of compressed air of about 7 kg/cm. This pulse of
air expands rapidly and sets up a shock wave which flexes the fabric, thus dislodging
the dust cake. For the pulse air a small separate compressor is required.
• Sonic cleaning; this method employs sound generators which produce a low frequency
sound (<200 Hz/sec., intensity 100-150 dB), causing the filter bags to vibrate. These
vibrations combined with reversed air loosen dust particles from the surface of the
fabric.
Cleaning is accomplished periodically, mostly in response to a timer. Sometimes two

different cleaning methods are applied to one filter for a better cleaning. During cleaning
action there is no airflow through the filer bag in the normal direction; this requires that the
period of cleaning, the particular dust collector compartment most be taken off-stream.
Therefore for continuous automatic dust collection a fabric dust type collector must have one
compartment in excess of the capacity required by the gas volume. Bag filter performance is
not susceptible to process disturbances or “CO peaks”.

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Figure 18 Principle of bag filter (Duda, 1985)
Electrostatic precipitators use electrostatic forces to separate the dust from the exhaust
gas. By means of discharge electrodes, the dust particles are negatively charged and can be
separated on corresponding collecting electrodes. The particles are then discharged from the
collecting electrodes to dust hoppers by electrode rapping. In contrast to bag filters, the
design of electrostatic precipitators allows the separate collection of coarse and fine particles.
ESP's are susceptible to process changes such as CO peaks. The dedusting efficiency can be
increased by making use of more than one electric “field” operating in series.
Dust collectors are evaluated by their efficiencies. The efficiencies of dust collection
equipment are the ratio of the quantity of precipitated dust to the total quantity of dust
introduced into the dust collection device, expressed in percent. Thus, if from an introduced
dust quantity of 100 g, the dust collector retains 95 g, the efficiency of the dust collector is
95%. With a dedusting efficiency of up to 99.99% in modern control devices, it is possible to
achieve a dust emission level from the stack below 20 mg per cubic meter of gas.

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In the dry process, the kiln exhaust gases have relatively high temperature and low
humidity. Therefore, they can be utilised for drying of the raw materials in the raw mill
during “compound operation”, i.e. when the raw mill is in operation. During “direct
operation” (with the raw mill off), the hot exhaust gases have to be cooled down by means of
water injection in a conditioning tower to a temperature suitable to the dust collector. With
this procedure the gas volume is reduced, too, and the precipitation characteristics of the dust
in the filter system are improved.
Figure 19 Principle of electrostatic precipitators
The dust collected in the filter devices can be fed back to the process, either by
reintroducing it to the raw materials preparation system (dry process), by insufflations into the
sintering zone (wet kilns), or by feeding the dust to the cement mill (if allowed in the cement
standards).

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Figure 20 Schematic of an electric precipitator (dust-type) (Duda, 1985)
In certain cases where the level of alkali elements is limited in cement clinker (“low
alkali” clinker), not all the kiln dust can be returned to the system. Whereas an electrostatic
precipitator allows the high alkali part of the dust to be separated and rejected, such a
separation cannot be achieved with a bag filter and all the dust would have to be rejected.
The other main sources of dust in the cement manufacturing process which require
dedusting are the clinker cooler, the raw mill and the cement mills. Due to its low
temperature, exhaust air from cement mills does not require cooling.

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Depending on the process stage where it is extracted, the chemical and mineralogical
composition of the dust corresponds respectively to that of the raw meal, the clinker or the
cement, or their intermediate products.
3.6.1 Inherent "scrubbing" of exit gases in preheater kiln
In all kiln systems, the finely ground raw material moves in counter-current flow to
the hot combustion gases. Thus, it acts perfectly as an integrated multi-stage exhaust gas
cleaning system very similar to the operating principle of a circulating fluidised bed absorber
or "dry scrubber". Components resulting from the combustion of the fuels or from the
transformation of the raw materials remain in the exhaust gas only until they are absorbed by
the fresh raw meal flowing in counter-current.
The raw meal with its large specific surface and its high alkalinity provides an
excellent medium to retain gas components within the kiln system. For instance, calcined or
partly calcined raw meal with its high content of reactive calcium oxide has a high absorption
capacity for acid gases such as sulfur dioxide and hydrochloric or hydrofluoric acid, but also
for other pollutants such as heavy metals.
Wet kilns and long dry kilns provide intimate contact between gas and solid particles
mainly at the kiln inlet with its chain system for heat exchange. Semi-dry and semi- wet kilns
provide this “scrubber effect” mainly in the grate preheater section of the kiln system, and
also in heated crushers or dryers when these are used.
Suspension preheater kilns with 4 to 6 cyclone stages are especially well suited to
achieve a “multi-stage” scrubber effect especially when operating together with the raw mill
(compound operation). At least 5 scrubber stages operate in series at different temperature
levels between 100 and 800 °C consuming roughly 1 kg of absorbent (i.e. raw meal/hot meal)
per Nm3 of exhaust gas.

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Figure 21 Schematic diagrams of preheaters (IPPC, 2001)
No studies have been conducted to evaluate if there is any absorbing effect of the raw
meal layers in a vertical shaft kiln.
3.6.2 Emission control in VSKs
All emissions from a VSK are ducted from the top of the kiln and the main emissions
are dust and CO (due to incomplete combustion/reductive conditions). Emission data from
Chinese VSK is absent but dusts concentrations of 2000 to 4000 mg/Nm3 have been measured
from VSK stack other places (Viacroze, 2005). The dust emissions can be very variable
depending on kiln operations; stable kiln conditions will reduce the emissions.
Air pollution control devices used by vertical shaft kilns is usually cyclones and bag
filters. Dust collected in these devices is easy to recycle back to the process.

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Also common in China is the wet-membrane dust collection equipment. These filter
systems seems to have low efficiency and high moisture content of the exit gas, which makes
it difficult to recover the dust back to the production. Gas cleaning devices which utilize
water as an active element to precipitate dust particles, are no longer employed in the modern
cement industry, since reprocessing of the wet dust is troublesome, and handling the collected
material generates additional dust problems.
Electro static precipitators are not commonly used by vertical shaft kilns due to risks
of explosions (difficult to control CO levels) and due to the humid exit gas.
VOC is mainly related to raw meal and will change from one plant to another.
Picture 22 Bag filters used for exit gas cleaning in VSKs

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Picture 23 Cyclone and filter used for exit gas cleaning in VSK

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4. Resource consumption in cement production
Cement manufacturing is a “high volume process” and correspondingly requires large

quantities of resources, i.e. raw materials, thermal fuels and electrical power. The average
flow of raw materials, fuels and electricity needed for the production of one ton of cement and
the subsequent emissions of CO2 is depicted in the figure below.
Figure 24 Production flow for cement (US Geological Survey, 2004)

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4.1 Consumption of raw materials
A “medium-sized” modern rotary kiln with a clinker production of 3000 tons per day
or 1 million tons per year corresponds to a cement production of 1.23 million tons per year
(based on average figures for the clinker content in cement in Europe).
Table 2 Consumption of raw materials in cement production (IPPC, 2001)
Conservation of natural resources can be achieved through increased substitution of

natural raw materials and fossil fuels by industrial by-products and residues in the
manufacturing process.
4.2 Consumption of energy
Cement manufacturing is an energy intensive process. The specific thermal energy

consumption of a cement kiln varies between 3000 and 7500 MJ per ton of clinker, depending
on the basic process design of the plant.

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The dominant use of energy in cement manufacture is as fuel for the kiln. The main
users of electricity are the mills (raw grinding, finish grinding, cement mills and coal mills)
and the exhaust fans (kiln/raw mill and cement mill) which together account for more than
80% of electrical energy usage. On average, energy costs, in the form of fuel and electricity,
represent 50% of the total production cost involved in producing a tonne of cement.
Electrical energy represents approximately 20% of this overall energy requirement (IPPC,
2001).
The theoretical energy use for the burning process (chemical reactions) is about 1700
to 1800 MJ/tonne clinker (IPPC, 2001). The actual fuel energy use for different kiln systems
is in the following ranges (MJ/tonne clinker):
• about 3000 for dry process, multi-stage cyclone preheater and precalciner kilns;
• 3100-4200 for dry process rotary kilns equipped with cyclone preheaters;
• 3300-4500 for semi-dry/semi-wet processes;
• up to 5000 for dry process long kilns;
• 5000-6000 for wet process long kilns;
• 3100-4200 for vertical shaft kilns.
The actual use of energy for the production of one ton of clinker is from 70 to 250
percent higher than the theoretical energy need. This clearly shows the potential for
improvement of energy use through upgrades and process optimisation.
The specific electrical energy consumption ranges typically between 90 and 130 kWh
per ton of cement.

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4.3 Options for resource reduction
A technique to reduce energy use and emissions from the cement industry, expressed
per unit mass of cement product, is to reduce the clinker content of cement products. This can
be done by adding fillers, for example sand, slag, limestone, fly-ash and pozzolana, in the
grinding step. In Europe the average clinker content in cement is 80-85 %. Many
manufacturers of cement are working on techniques to further lower the clinker content. One
reported technique claims to exchange 50% of the clinker with maintained product
quality/performance and without increased production cost. Cement standards define some
types of cement with less than 20 % clinker, the balance being made of blast furnace slag
(IPPC, 2001).
Table 3 Clinker factor in various cement types (European Standard (EN197))
Cement Designation Notation Clinker GGBFS Silica Pozzolana Fly ashes Burnt Limestone Minor
Type fume Natural Industrial Silic. Calcar. Shale additional
K S D P Q V W T L constit.
I Portland Cement I 95-100 - - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland Slag Cement II/A-S 80-94 6-20 - - - - - - - 0-5

II/B-S 65-79 21-35 - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland Silica Fume

Cement II/A-D 90-94 - 6-10 - - - - - - 0-5
II Portland Pozzolana II/A-P 80-94 - - 6-20 - - - - - 0-5

Cement II/B-P 65-79 - - 21-35 - - - - - 0-5
II/A-Q 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - 0-5
II/B-Q 65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - 0-5
Portland Fly Ash II/A-V 80-94 - - - - 6-20 - - - 0-5

Cement II/B-V 65-79 - - - - 21-35 - - - 0-5
II/A-W 80-94 - - - - - 6-20 - - 0-5
II/B-W 65-79 - - - - - 21-35 - - 0-5
Portland Burnt Shale II/A-T 80-94 - - - - - - 6-20 - 0-5

Cement II/B-T 65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 - 0-5
Portland Limestone II/A-L 80-94 - - - - - - - 6-20 0-5

Cement II/B-L 65-79 - - - - - - - 21-35 0-5
Portland Composite II/A-M 80-94 <- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 - 20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ->

Cement II/B-M 65-79 <- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21 - 35 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ->
Blastfurnace III/A 35-64 35-65 - - - - - - 0-5

III Cement III/B 20-34 66-80 - - - - - - 0-5
III/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - - 0-5
IV Pozzolanic Cement IV/A 65-89 - < - - - - - - - - - - 11 - 35 - - - - - - - - - - -> - - - 0-5

IV/B 45-64 - < - - - - - - - - - - 36 - 55 - - - - - - - - - - -> - - - 0-5
V Composite Cement V/A 40-64 18-30 < - - - - - - - - 18 - 30 - - - - - -> - - - 0-5

V/B 20-39 31-50 < - - - - - - - - 31 - 50 - - - - - -> - - - 0-5

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As can be seen from table 3, ordinary Portland cement is composed of 95-100 % of

Clinker. Portland pozzolana cement II B-P however contains only 65-79 % of clinker, i.e. to
produce 1 ton of II/B-P you need 650 kg of clinker compared to 950 kg of clinker for the
ordinary Portland cement. This is not only saving raw materials but also reduces the CO2
emission which will related to the same ratio, i.e. 950/650 = 1.46 times more CO2 emission
for the production of ordinary Portland cement compared to the II/B-P cement.
Recycling of collected dust to the production processes lowers the total consumption
of raw materials. This recycling may take place directly into the kiln or kiln feed (alkali metal
content being the limiting factor) or by blending with finished cement products.
The use of suitable wastes as raw materials can reduce the input of natural resources,
but should always be done with satisfactory control on the substances introduced to the kiln
process.
4.3.1 Use of energy
Kiln systems with 5 cyclone preheater stages and precalciner are considered standard
technology for ordinary new plants, such a configuration will use 2900-3200 MJ/tonne clinker
(IPPC, 2001). To optimise the input of energy in other kiln systems it is a possibility to
change the configuration of the kiln to a short dry process kiln with multi stage preheating and
precalcination. This is usually not feasible unless done as part of a major upgrade with an
increase in production. The application of the latest generation of clinker coolers and
recovering waste heat as far as possible, utilising it for drying and preheating processes, are
examples of methods which cut primary energy consumption.
Electrical energy use can be minimised through the installation of power management
systems and the utilisation of energy efficient equipment such as high-pressure grinding rolls
for clinker comminution and variable speed drives for fans.

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Energy use will be increased by most type of end-of-pipe abatement. Some reduction
techniques will also have a positive effect on energy use, for example process control
optimisation.
4.4 Utilisation of alternative fuels and raw materials in modern cement production
In the burning of cement clinker it is necessary to maintain material temperatures of up

to 1450 °C in order to ensure the sintering reactions required. This is achieved by applying
peak combustion temperatures of about 2000 °C with the main burner flame. The combustion
gases from the main burner remain at a temperature above 1200 °C for at least 5-10 seconds.
An excess of oxygen – typically 2-3 % – is also required in the combustion gases of the rotary
kiln as the clinker needs to be burned under oxidising conditions. These conditions are
essential for the formation of the clinker phases and the quality of the finished cement.
The retention time of the kiln charge in the rotary kiln is 20-30 and up to 60 minutes
depending on the length of the kiln. The figure below illustrates the temperature profiles for
the combustion gases and the material for a preheater/precalciner rotary kiln system. While
the temperature profiles may be different for the various kiln types, the peak gas and material
temperatures described above have to be maintained in any case. The burning conditions in
kilns with precalciner firing depend on the precalciner design. Gas temperatures from a
precalciner burner are typically around 1100 °C, and the gas retention time in the precalciner
is approximately 3 seconds.
Under the conditions prevailing in a cement kiln – i.e. flame temperatures of up to

2000 °C, material temperatures of up to 1450 °C and gas retention times of up to 10 seconds
at temperatures between 1200 and 2000 °C – all kinds of organic compounds fed to the main
burner with the fuels are reliably destroyed. The combustion process in the main flame of the
rotary kiln is therefore complete. No (hydrocarbon type) products of incomplete combustion
can be identified in the combustion gases of the main burner at steady-state conditions.
The cement manufacturing process is an industrial process where large material

volumes are turned into commercial products, i.e. clinker and cement. Cement kilns operate

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continuously all through the year – 24 hours a day – with only minor interruptions for
maintenance and repair. A smooth kiln operation is necessary in a cement plant in order to
meet production targets and to meet the quality requirements of the products. Consequently,
to achieve these goals, all relevant process parameters are permanently monitored and
recorded including the analytical control of all raw materials, fuels, intermediate and finished
products as well as environmental monitoring.
With these prerequisites – i.e. large material flow, continuous operation and
comprehensive process and product control, the cement manufacturing process seems to be
well suited for co-processing by-products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw
materials and fuels substitutes and as mineral additions. The selection of appropriate feed
points is essential for environmentally sound co- processing of alternative materials, i.e.:
• Raw materials: mineral waste free of organic compounds can be added to the raw meal
or raw slurry preparation system. Mineral wastes containing significantly quantities of
organic components are introduced via the solid fuels handling system, i.e. directly to
the main burner, to the secondary firing or, rarely, to the calcining zone of a long wet
kiln (“mid-kiln”).
• Fuels: alternative fuels are fed to the main burner, to the secondary firing in the
preheater/precalciner section, or to the mid-kiln zone of a long wet kiln.

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Figure 25 Gas and material profiles in cyclone preheater/precalciner system

in compound operation (CEMBUREAU, 1999)
• Mineral additions: mineral additions such as granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash
from thermal power plants or industrial gypsum are fed to the cement mill. In Europe,
the type of mineral additions permitted is regulated by the cement standards.
In addition to regulatory requirements, the cement producers have set up self-

limitations such as
• To prevent potential abuse of the cement kiln system in waste recovery operations
• To assure the required product quality
• To protect the manufacturing process from operational problems
• To avoid negative impacts to the environment, and

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• To ensure workers’ health and safety.
The cement manufacturing process is a large materials throughput process with

continuous operation and comprehensive operational control. Therefore, it has a large
potential for co-processing a variety of materials from industrial sources.
Wastes and hazardous wastes in the environment represent a challenge for many
countries, but cement kiln co-processing can constitute a sound and affordable recovery
option. Cement kilns can destroy organic hazardous wastes in a safe and sound manner when
properly operated and will be mutually beneficial to both industry, which generates such
wastes, and to the society who want to dispose properly of such wastes in a safe and
environmentally acceptable manner. The added benefit of non renewable fossil energy
conservation is important, since large quantities of valuable natural fuel can be saved in the
manufacture of cement when such techniques are employed.
Since the early 70s, and particularly since the mid 80s, alternative – i.e. non-fossil –
raw materials and fuels derived mainly from industrial sources have been beneficially utilised
in the cement industry for economic reasons. Since that time, it has been demonstrated both
in daily operations and in numerous tests that the overall environmental performance of a
cement plant is not impaired by this practice in an appropriately managed plant operation.
Cement kilns make full use of both the calorific and the mineral content of alternative
materials. Fossil fuels such as coal or crude oil are substituted by combustible materials
which otherwise would often be landfilled or incinerated in specialised facilities.
The mineral part of alternative fuels (ashes) as well as non-combustible industrial

residues or by-products can substitute for part of the natural raw materials (limestone’s, clay,
etc.). All components are effectively incorporated into the product, and – with few exceptions
– no residues are left for disposal. The use of mineral additions from industrial sources
substituting clinker saves both raw material resources and energy resources as the energy
intensive clinker production can be reduced.
With the substitution of fossil fuels by (renewable) alternative fuels, the overall output
of thermal CO2 is reduced. A thermal substitution rate of 40% in a cement plant with an

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annual production of 1 million tons of clinker reduces the net CO2 generation by about
100,000 tons. Substitution of clinker by mineral additions may be more important as both
thermal CO2 from fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials is reduced.
Since only moderate investments are needed, cement plants can recover adequate
wastes at lower costs than would be required for landfilling or treatment in specialised
incinerators. In addition, public investment required for the installation of new specialised
incinerators would also be reduced. Substitute materials derived from waste streams usually
reduce the production cost in cement manufacturing, thus strengthening the position of the
industry particularly with regard to imports from countries with less stringent environmental
legislation. It will also facilitate the industry’s development of technologies to further clean
up atmospheric emissions.

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5. Cement production in China - general challenges
The Chinese cement market is the largest in the world, and continuing to grow driven
by strong demand. The industry is highly fragmented, characterized by a large number of
small, vertical shaft-kilns, operated at the village and township level, along with a smaller
number of modern rotary-kiln facilities using modern, dry-process technology. Counterparts
in the US and Europe and Japan rely exclusively on rotary kilns, of large capacities. While
many still use an older, less efficient wet process, new plants use dry processes exclusively.
5.1 Production
Cement production in China has grown steadily the last 20 years and increased by
more than 10 % yearly (Soule et al, 2002). It is estimated that the Chinese cement industry
produced 1,060 billion ton cement in 2005, accounting for 808 kg per capita and
approximately 50 % of the world production (Cui and Wang, 2005). It is estimated that the
cement production will reach its saturation point around year 2010 with an annual cement
output at the upper limit of 1200 million tonnes (Cui and Wang, 2005).
Approximately 60 % of this cement was produced in approximately 4000 Vertical

Shaft Kilns (VSKs). New and modern dry process production lines constituted 508 units by
the end of 2004 and as much as 704 will be in full operation within the near future (Cui and
Wang, 2005).
By the end of 2004, there were 5027 cement producers in China employing 1,422,100
workers (Cui and Wang, 2005). These companies were owned by the state, by townships,
communities, collectives and by private companies. Chinese cement industry is characterized
by its irrational structure, low production efficiency, high energy consumption and heavy
environmental pollution, which will curb its further development (Cui and Wang, 2005).

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While some 3200 of these smaller facilities have been closed under government
orders, many remain in operation, or have restarted operation. Over 300 vertical kilns were
constructed in China in 2000. Zhejiang Provincial officials have recently declined to issue
permits for any cement facility smaller that 2000 tonnes/day (Chinese Enterprise
Confederation, 2003).
Government efforts have turned to building larger cement groups. Considerable

progress has been made in these larger cement groups in improving technology and
efficiency, with concomitant reductions in environmental impacts. Major air pollutants (dust,
SOX and NOX) are nevertheless generally discharged at levels above (sometimes far above)
EU and US facilities. For example, average dust emissions in Chinese plants are more than
five times current European standards (Chinese Enterprise Confederation, 2003).
Figure 26 World and Chinese cement production growth in the period 1950-2003
(US Geological Survey, 2004)
In 1995, the domestic production was 476 million tonnes, were approximately 81 %
was made in Vertical Shaft Kilns (Cui and Wang, 2005). It is anticipated that the Chinese

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cement industry will finish its restructuring target within the next 20 years, which would
involve phasing out the VSKs and replace by modern dry processes. This will reduce the
overall emissions, reduce the fossil fuel consumption and improve the cement quality.
5.2 Geographic location
Most of the cement plants are located in the dense population areas along the east cost
of China, on the middle or down-stream banks of the Yangtze River, and are near large and
medium-size cities. In 2002, cement industries located in ten provinces accounted for about
70% of the total sales. These provinces are (in descending order) Shangdong, Zhejiang,
Guangdong, Jiangsu, Hebei, Henan, Sichuan, Hubei, Anhui and Hunan (Wang, 2005).
It is expected that new dry process kilns will be spread from coast developed areas to
developing areas, such as Northeast, Southwest, Central and Northwest China, and the
outmoded production technology such as mini cement works with shaft kilns will be
expeditiously eliminated or only left a small proportion in mountain areas (Cui and Wang,
2005). The demand for high-quality cement, especially high grade cement and special cement
will be growing further.
5.3 Raw material consumption
1326 limestone quarries are currently known in China containing approximately

56,120 million tonnes of limestone (Cui and Wang, 2005). Taking into account future growth
of cement production this deposits can only maintain the need for manufacturing of cement
for 59 years (other industry exploitation not taken into account). In addition, cement
production usually needs limestone sources of high quality and current quarrying methods are
wasting large amounts of non-spec material (Cui and Wang, 2005).
The raw material sources is neither uniformly distributed around the country and
provinces with high production may not be self-sufficient for a long time. In addition, cement
is a low profit product and the transportation distance is usually limited to a radius of 200

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kilometres. Certain provinces will have limestone sources for a maximum 40 years
production at current level (Cui and Wang, 2005).
Many VSKs plants have virtually no environmental controls in place; and indeed, the
nature of the old technology precludes effective use of modern dust (and other emission)
controls.
5.4 Energy consumption
In 2003, the cement industry consumed about 129 million tons of standard coal, equal
to 148 million tons of common coal. This amounts to approximately 11 % of whole
consumption of coal in that year (Cui and Wang, 2005). This consumption would be
equivalent to approximately 200 million tonnes of common coal for 2005.
The Chinese energy supply is mainly based on the utilization of coal. In 2002, the
geological investigation showed that the storage of coal is about 130,000 million tons and will
meet the domestic requirement for another 54 to 81 years (Cui and Wang, 2005). The quality
and the distribution of coal are uneven along the country and requires long transportation
distances in some situations.
In 2003, the electricity consumption in the Chinese cement industry was 94,930
million kWh, amounting to approximately 5 % of the electric consumption in the whole
country (Cui and Wang, 2005).
There is very little use of alternative fuels in Chinese plants, reflecting both the lack of
infrastructure to collect and recycle these materials and the inability of vertical shaft kilns to
use these materials safely or easily (Chinese Enterprise Confederation, 2003). This is an issue
of growing concern, as China faces increasing waste management and disposal challenges.
Enforcement of environmental regulations appears uneven, with small or no penalties for
violation of environmental standards. Small facilities are frequently excused from
compliance for lack of resources.

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5.5 Emissions
Based on the current technical level in China, the production of 1 ton of cement will
lead to an emission of 20 kg of dust, 1 ton of CO2, 2 kg of SO2 and 4 kg of NOx. It is
estimated that the Chinese cement industry in 2003 emitted more than 13 million tons of dust
(about 27 % of all emissions from the national industry), 660 million tons of CO2 (about 22 %
of all emissions), 1.31 million tons of SO2 (about 4.85% of all emissions) and 2.62 million
tons of NOx (Cui and Wang, 2005).
Figure 27 CO2 emissions 2004 (US Geological Survey, 2004)
far been developed for this industry category (UNEP, 2005).
The facilities employing modern technology often have a smaller average size than
international counterparts, but produce products meeting international standards, and employ
varying degrees of environmental controls.

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5.6 Comparison of performance
The consumption of coal and electricity between the various productions technologies
used in China in 2002 is given in the table below (Cui and Wang, 2005). The number of
VSKs has been reduced since then, but it can be expected that the relative differences in coal
consumption and electricity consumption is unchanged.
Table 3 Performance of various process technology in China in 2002 (Cui and

Wang, 2005).
Electricity
Process Number Capacity Coal consumption
technology (million tonnes) consumption (kWh/ton
(kg/ton clinker) cement)
Rotary kilns 1428 187.5 157 105
precalciner 257 110.0 107-125 105-115
preheater 82 2.5 130-140 115-130
preheater (shaft) 295 10.0 165-170 120-130
wet process 254 30.0 190-210 95-105
other 540 35.0 -200 -115
VSKs 6000 670 160-220 95-125

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Compared with preheater/precalciner kilns, VSKs seems to consume from 14 % to 105

% more coal pr ton of clinker. The difference in electricity consumption seems to be slightly
in favour of VSKs, basically because VSKs are not using much electric equipment like ESP's
and drivers; the electricity consumption is mainly due to mills and fans.
In the table below Cui and Wang (2005) compare what they call "advanced technical
level of foreign and domestic cement industry". The year of comparison is unclear.
Table 4 Comparison of "advanced technical level of foreign and domestic

(Chinese) cement industry" (Cui and Wang, 2005).
Item Foreign advanced level Domestic advanced level
The capacity of large plants up to 98.3% of whole about 32% of whole capacity
with precalcining systems capacity
Availability 95% 85%
Heat consumption 2888 kJ/kg-clinker 3350 kJ/kg-clinker
Coal consumption 100 kg standard coal/ton- 120 kg standard coal/ton-
clinker clinker
Electricity consumption 92 kWh/ton-cement 110 kWh/ton-cement
3
Dust emission 15 mg/Nm 100 mg/Nm3
SO2 emission 300 mg/Nm3 800 mg/Nm3
NOx emission 200 mg/Nm3 400 mg/Nm3
Labour efficiency 150,00 tons/ per person, per 4000 tons/ per person, per
year year

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The comparison by Cui and Wang (2005) seems to be in favour of what is called
foreign advanced level. If compared with average emission data from European cement kilns,
the difference may not be that great (see table 1), especially on the emissions to air.
Vertical shaft kilns generally produce lower quality (#325 grade or less) cement which
is neither suitable for large structures nor for major infrastructure projects such as bridges,
airports, etc. It is also not suitable for export to international markets.
Figure 28 New modern Chinese cement plant with limestone quarry nearby
5.7 Health and Safety
The Chinese cement industry employs nearly one and half million people. It is not
clear if detailed employee accident and incident records are kept, or used to make safety

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improvements. Health and safety performance information is lacking. There is relatively

little use of traditional personal protective equipment, like safety shoes, facemasks (for dust),
and safety glasses in Chinese facilities.
5.8 Efficiency - a summary
It is not clear that benchmarking and operational efficiency assessments are made on a
routine basis. Data developed the Chinese Enterprise Confederation (2003) point to
significantly lower efficiencies for Chinese plants with respect to power use (approximately
25 % less efficient), fuel use (approximately 75 % less efficient), and labour (approximately
six – thirty times more employees per ton of product) and product losses (nearly 2 % product
loss through dust emissions in China). As a general rule, larger facilities have and continue
to invest more in energy and process efficiency programs than smaller ones. Vertical shaft
kilns, which still dominate cement production, are limited to about 300-tonnes/day capacities.

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6. Cement production in China - general opportunities for

improvement
Major opportunities exist to improve overall industry efficiency by closing the least
efficient small facilities and consolidating processing in larger, more efficient units (Chinese
Enterprise Confederation, 2003). Medium sized plants could be offered some time period for
making improvements up to a specified level of environmental and product quality
performance. Failing to reach this level would then ultimately lead to closure. Larger
facilities can gain the economies of scale, use advanced process control technologies, and
environmental control equipment. This could help make a substantial reduction in dust
emissions (and the accompanying long term respiratory health problems) as well as workplace
exposure. Some portions of existing smaller facilities could possibly be retained for use in
grinding, blending, bagging and distribution of cement, allowing some local employment to
be retained as well. Employee health and safety can be quickly improved providing relatively
inexpensive personnel protective equipment, such as dust masks, safety shoes, etc.
6.1 Policy and regulation
The Chinese government has set up a series of policies and regulations to stimulate the
sustainable development of the cement industry, the largest of that sector in the world. It has
continued to grow well, driven by strong demand for construction and new housing in many
urban areas. The industry is highly fragmented, characterized by very large numbers of small,
vertical shaft-kiln type facilities which operate at village and township levels. The Chinese
government has imposed the macro economic control measures for some overheated
industries, and cement manufacturing is one of them. In accordance with the control
measures announced in 2004, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC),
one of the nation’s leading industrial watchdogs, announced that full implementation of
control would be strengthened by restrictions on land use and bank loans to prevent a repeat
of overheated investment in that sector (Wang, 2004).

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NDRC considers that future investment in cement industries should be directed to the
improvement of production facilities to reduce the cost of unit production, to meeting the
challenges of energy efficiency and the shortage of raw materials including coal and
electricity as well as water, and to the implementation of Cleaner Production (CP) and the
Circular Economy (CE) in that industrial sector (Wang, 2004).
Because of the seriousness of the production and environmental problems, industrial

consolidation has become a necessity. By the end of 2000, China had closed down a total of
3,200 small plants with small size cement kilns and decreased production capacity by more
than 80 million tons (Wang, 2004). However, over 300 vertical kilns, with the blessing of
local government policy to boost the economy and employment, were built with this out-of-
date technology, with an annual production of 30 million tons (Wang, 2004).
Since 2003, the central government has issued executive regulations to cool down
several overheated and rapidly expanding industries (including the cement sector) by denying
construction permits for new plants and by restricting bank loans and financing from the stock
market, but still encouraging funding for facility upgrades (Wang, 2004).
6.1.1 Environmental regulation of the Chinese cement industry
The emission standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry in China was issued 29
December 2004 and was effective from 1 January 2005. The regulation GB 4915-2004 was
issued by the State Environmental Protection Administration of China, General
Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection, and Quarantine of China. The standard
was proposed by the Science & Technology Department of State Environmental Protection
Administration and drafted by Environmental Standard Institute of Chinese Research
Academy of Environmental Science, Hefei Cement Research & Design Institute of China
Building Material Group and China National Materials Industry Group.
The Standard is established to carry out the Law of the People’s Republic of China on
Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution, to control the air pollutants emission of the

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cement industry, and to promote structural readjustment of the cement industry. The Standard
is a substitute for Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for Cement plant GB 4915-1996 and is
considerably strengthen compared to the previous standard (see Annex 2).
Figure 29 Humid and dusty VSK emissions
The application of the Standard has been expanded to cover the entire process of
cement industry production, including grinding plant, mine exploitation and field crusher
system. The new Standard gives particulate emission requirements and the emission limits
for rotary kiln and shaft kiln are identical. There is no longer any different emission limits for
different functional regions of ambient air quality or different emission limits for different
existing production lines. However, a transitional period to meet the standard is set but the
mission limits of newly established production lines are stricter. The new Standard also gives

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emission requirement for cement kiln incinerating hazardous wastes, as well as regulations of
environmental conservation and regulations on synchronous running rate and height of
exhaust funnel. The new Standard also requires installing continuous monitoring of the exit
gas emissions.
6.1.2 Enforcement
Wang (2004) recommends the following with regards to regulation and enforcement:
(1) For a new plant, build the necessity for CP implementation into the EIA
(Environmental Impact Assessment) and make it compulsory. Any dust emission
control equipment must be designed, constructed, and operational simultaneously
with the main plant body.
(2) For existing plants which are emitting dust concentrations over the national or
local standards, CP audits are mandatory in accordance with the CP Law. Guide
the plants on means to reduce the emissions to within the limits.
(3) Increasing the pollution taxes for overall dust emissions. At present, the tax rate
is set at 0.28 RMB per kg, and it represents only about 40% of the operational cost
for the dust control process. The result is a lack of initiative and reluctance by
industry to install the control devices. It is suggested that governments should raise
the fee/tax rates higher than the capital and operational costs in order to stimulate
the willingness of enterprise to use such devices,
(4) Managers/administrators of national or local scientific and technical institutions

should include overall planning and on environment and technology research and
development in their yearly programs. For the cement industry, expanding CP areas
and subjects for using waste substances as tires, plastics and other alternative raw
materials for the substitutions of virgin fuel (materials.) To enhance further CP
plans, provide technical support.

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(5) National and local Development and Reform Commissions should negotiate and
consult the finance and taxation departments to formulate financial support for those
plants with noticeable achievements in benefits to the economy and the environment.
For other action plans without any clear economic benefit, the comprehensive
utilization of wastes should be encouraged with defined and favourable financial
policies and support, in order that the CP implementation can be realized in the
cement industry as well as other related enterprises.
(6) The size structure and changes to the sector organization plan (privatization) as
announced by the State Council must be conducted and carried out for the purpose
of improving the environment, economic viability, and for the capability of
competing on the world market by reduced costs.
6.1.3 Emissions of persistent organic pollutants POPs
China is a signatory to the Stockholm Convention, which requires Parties to take

measures to reduce or eliminate releases of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from
intentional production and use, from unintentional production and from stockpiles and wastes.
The chemicals intentionally produced and currently assigned for elimination under the
Stockholm Convention are the pesticides aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor,
hexachlorobenzene (HCB), mirex and toxaphene, as well as the industrial chemical
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs).
The Convention also seeks the continuing minimisation and, where feasible,
elimination of the releases of unintentionally produced POPs such as the by-products from
wet chemical and thermal processes, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/-furans (PCDD/Fs) as
well as HCB and PCBs. Cement kilns co-processing hazardous waste are explicitly
mentioned in the Stockholm Convention as an “industrial source having the potential for
comparatively high formation and release of these chemicals to the environment” (see chapter
3.3).

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The regulation GB 4915-2004 of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry requires that the
"emission concentration of dioxin should not exceed 0.1ng TEQ/m3". See also Annex 2.
6.1.3.1 Regulatory framework to control POPs emissions in the European Union
In all EU Directives the principles of integrated pollution prevention and control

(IPPC), specifically laid down in Directive 96/61/EC, covering all aspects of environmental
performance in an integrated manner, shall be taken into account. Also Best Available
Technique Reference Documents (BREFs) established by the European IPPC Bureau have to
be taken into account by the authorities for issuing permits.
Also the Protocol on persistent organic pollutants signed by the EU within the
framework of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE) Convention
on long-range transboundary air pollutions sets a legally binding PCDD/F emission limit
value of 0.1 ng TEQ/m3 for incinerating more than 3 tonnes per hour of municipal solid waste
and 0.5 ng TEQ/m3 for installations burning more than 1 ton per hour of medical waste, and
0.2 ng TEQ/m3 for installations incinerating more than 1 ton per hour of hazardous waste.
Gaseous emissions from cement kiln using conventional fuels are regulated within the
EU under the so-called Air Framework Directive 84/360/EEC (Eduljee, 1998). A technical
note defining Best Available Techniques (BAT) for the manufacture of cement was published
in 2001 (IPPC) and includes the emission levels achievable when using conventional fuels
within the kiln, but does not identify BAT achievable emission levels using secondary or
substitute fuels. The European cement industry has argued that prescriptive regulations
designed to ensure combustion in dedicated waste incinerators are inappropriate for the
regulation of fuel substitution in industrial furnaces such as cement kilns. The nature of the
thermal processes governing cement manufacture is such that emissions arising from the
combustion of the alternative fuel should be treated separately to emissions arising from the
raw materials feeding the kiln.

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This principle has been accepted by the EU and applied in Directive 2000/76/EC on
the incineration of waste, regulating the use of hazardous waste as a alternative fuel in cement
kilns, by recognising and providing for the practice of ”co-incineration”.
Individual Member States have also accepted the need to take account of emissions
from raw materials in setting emission controls on exhaust gases from cement kilns. For
example, in France emission limits for sulfur dioxide are set according to the sulfur content in
the raw materials. In Germany the national waste incineration regulation 17.BimSchV makes
specific provision for the exemption of carbon monoxide and total organic carbon emissions
from cement plants burning waste supplementary fuels on the grounds that the emission of
these substances is not a function of the fuel used or the amount of waste burnt, and is also not
a relevant parameter for ensuring the safe combustion of secondary fuels in such plants.
In general, the European cement industry has argued that regulatory decisions
concerning the use of secondary fuels in cement plants are best taken at national level, thereby
allowing regulators to take into account specific local conditions in writing permits. This
position has been endorsed by the EU in Directive 96/61/EC on IPPC, in which national
regulatory authorities are requested to base operating permits on BAT, while taking into
account the technical characteristics of processes, their geographic location and local
environmental conditions. As a safeguard, permits must not allow any EU environmental
quality standards to be breached.
Notwithstanding the derogations on emissions of substances such as sulfur dioxide and

carbon monoxide, the cement industry has accepted the emission standard for dioxins of 0.1
ng TEQ/m3 generally applied throughout EU to regulate dioxin emissions from municipal and
hazardous waste incineration. Emission levels shall be corrected to 273 K, 101.3 kPa, 10%
O2 and dry gas.
6.1.3.2 Regulatory framework to control POPs emissions in the US
Under the authority of the Clean Air Act, the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) promulgated national emission standards for new and existing cement kilns burning
non-hazardous waste in May 1999 (Federal Register, 1999a; 2004). The regulations are

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specific to the I-TEQ concentration in the combustion gases leaving the stack. Existing and
new cement kilns either combusting or not combusting hazardous waste as auxiliary fuel
cannot emit more than 0.2 ng I-TEQ/m3 (corrected to 250C, 7% O2 and dry gas). In addition,
the temperature of the combustion gases measured at the inlet to the air pollution control
device cannot exceed 232 °C. The rule requires owners or operators of facilities to test for
PCDD/Fs every 2½ years and the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS)
expects this rule to reduce I-TEQ PCDD/Fs emissions from existing and new facilities by 36
% over the next few years (Federal Register, 1999a, 2004).
6.2 Technology development
Technological advancement of the Chinese cement industry will concentrate on the

further development of new technology, on the utilization of secondary materials and other
supplementary cementitious materials. In recent years, improvement of cement production
lines with precalcining systems includes the new homogenization technology, new preheating
and precalcining systems with the capacity of up to ten thousand tons of cement per day,
various new types of crushing and grinding systems, new operation and management systems,
new environmental protection measures such as the use of new bag dust collector and low
NOx burner (Cui and Wang, 2005).
The utilization of secondary materials and supplementary cementitious materials may

save huge amounts of natural resources. The use of secondary fuels for cement
manufacturing is just starting slowly in China but alternative cementitious materials such as
fly ash has been used for cement manufacturing for a long time. It is estimated that the
production of fly ash and coal gangue is near 300 million tons/year each. If all of these
materials can be used for cement and concrete manufacturing, then the output of clinker can
be reduced by 50% with the need of burning process (Cui and Wang, 2005).
Dry preheater/precalciner kilns are regarded to be the best available techniques (BAT)
and to constitute the Best Environmental Practise (BEP). These technologies are also the
most economically feasible option, which constitutes a competitive advantage and thereby
contributes to gradually phase out older, polluting and less competitive technologies.

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6.2.1 Best available techniques (BAT)
For new plants and major upgrades the best available techniques for the production of
cement clinker is a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating and precalcination. A smooth
and stable kiln process, operating close to the process parameter set points, is beneficial for all
kiln emissions as well as the energy use. This can be obtained by applying:
- Process control optimisation, including computer-based automatic control

systems.
- The use of modern fuel feed systems.
• Minimising fuel energy use by means of:
- Preheating and precalcination to the extent possible, considering the existing

kiln system configuration.
• Careful selection and control of substances entering the kiln can reduce emissions and
when practicable, homogenous raw materials and fuels with low contents of sulfur,
nitrogen, chlorine, metals and volatile organic compounds should be selected.

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Figure 30 New modern Chinese cement plant with preheater and precalciner

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In the Best Available Technique Reference (BREF) document, techniques and

possible emission levels associated with the use of BAT are presented that are considered to
be appropriate to the sector as a whole (IPPC, 2001). In some cases it may be technically
possible to achieve better emission levels but due to the costs involved or cross media
considerations, they are not considered to be appropriate as BAT for the sector as a whole.
The concept of “levels associated with BAT” is to be distinguished from the term
“achievable level”. Where a level is described as “achievable” using a particular technique or
combination of techniques, this should be understood to mean that the level may be expected
to be achieved over a substantial period of time in a well maintained and operated installation
or process using those techniques.
Actual cost of applying a technique will depend strongly on the specific situation
regarding, for example, taxes, fees, and the technical characteristics of the installation
concerned. It is not possible to evaluate such site-specific factors fully.
It is intended that the general BAT could be used to judge the current performance of
an existing installation or to judge a proposal for a new installation and thereby assist in the
determination of appropriate “BAT-based” conditions for that installation. It is foreseen that
new installations could be designed to perform at or even better than the general “BAT”
levels. It is also considered that many existing installations could reasonably be expected,
over time, to move towards the general “BAT” levels or do better. While the BAT and BEP
levels do not set legally binding standards, they are meant to give information for the
guidance of industry, States and the public on achievable emission levels when using
specified techniques.
6.2.2 Best available techniques and best environmental practise for controlling
and minimising PCDD/F emission
The following primary measures are considered to be most critical in avoiding the
formation and emission of PCDD/F from modern cement kilns and seems in most cases to be
sufficient to comply with an emission level of 0.1 ng PCDD/F I-TEQ/Nm3:

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9 Quick cooling of kiln exhaust gases to lower than 200 oC in long wet and long dry
kilns without preheating. In modern preheater and precalciner kilns this feature is
already inherent in the process design.
9 Limit or avoid alternative raw material feed as part of raw-material-mix if it includes

organics.
9 No alternative fuel feed during start-up and shut down.
9 Monitoring and stabilisation of critical process parameters, i.e. homogenous raw mix
and fuel feed, regular dosage and excess oxygen.
6.3 Cleaner production opportunities
It has been long realized that in controlling industrial pollution and lowering
production costs, it is important to have cooperation between enterprises and government, and
to make full use of market influences to stimulate industries to take positive measures for
improving the environment and thus the economy. In cement industrial sector, though it has
made progress recently in these areas, performance is still far from desirable to reach
sustainable development goals (Wang, 2004).
6.3.1 Emission reduction
Major emissions from cement manufacturing plants traditionally are airborne

pollutants and powered dust from the kiln and its emissions. Pollutants are mainly
particulates from a number of solid processing and handling operations, CO2, SO2 and NO2.
Relatively speaking, SO2 and NO2.emissions from cement industries are small, and
they represent less than 2% of the total emitted of these compounds in USA and Europe. In
recent years, as a result of advanced control technology and equipment design, such as electro

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static precipitator and bag filter facilities, significant progress has been reached in reducing air
emissions from the cement industrial sector. For a new plant today, air pollution emissions
are at least 90% less than those from typical facilities built 30-40 years ago (Wang, 2004).
"In developed countries, the cement industry has reduced substantially emissions of SO2,
NO2 and particulates through a combination of improved technology and specific regulatory
standards. This is often not so in China, especially for those old and small size plants.
Particulate emissions from the cement industry accounted for 40% of the total estimated 25
million tons emitted in 1998. In the public’s mind, the industry was and continuous to be the
worst dust emitter" (Wang, 2004).
World wide, the cement industry produces about 5 % of global manmade CO2
(Worrell et al, 2001). Cement is a low value-added product, and the average price has been of
50-60 $ US/ton since 2000 however, in China it skyrocketed to about 200 $ early in 2004
(Wang, 2004). "As the industry produces an equal weight of CO2 and clinker, any cost
imposed on the reduction of CO2 emission to the atmosphere and any management plan can
have a significant impact on the industry’s financial performance. At the present rate of
many CO2 management expenses on the market - in the range of $ 10 to $ 25/ton and
expected to rise as the public demand its treatment - most Chinese cement enterprises will not
be able to foot the bill, unless their production capacities are increased and are big enough to
bear the cost" (Wang, 2004).
Increasing the use of alternative fuels and raw materials can reduce the use of virgin
materials including limestone and petroleum products, and can reduce CO2 emission and
production costs. Alternative and substituted materials as fly ash from power plants, steel
mill slugs, and pozzolanic substances can be used in cement to replace some of the limestone,
and the quality of the product is not affected in applications. In China the governmental
standard-setting organizations have slowly changed the strict composition criteria into that of
cement performance, and as a result a much wider use of blended products can be witnessed
(Wang, 2004).
The following measures are recommended for China with regards to achieve emission
reduction (Wang, 2004):

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(1) A well defined emission inventory and reporting process with emission reduction
cost estimates;
(2) A program for effective communication with the local stakeholders including
regulatory personnel. Reporting to the public on emissions and reduction progress
is important to engagement in the program;
(3) A program to define the emission reduction targets and timetables. This is of
vital importance and of deep concern to the public, and accounts for the economic
forecast of the plant, and current and pending regulatory requirements;
(4) In order to win confidence, the industry needs an effective way of monitoring and
reporting emissions which can address the safety concerns of the public and product
quality concerns of the users.
6.3.2 Water pollution and dust recovery
Water pollution is not generally an important issue for cement production. On the
other hand, close attention must be paid to deal the problems of solid waste, especially cement
kiln dust.
Chinese cement operations produced more than 8 billion tons of dusts in 2000, of
which about 7 billion tons were collected and recycled with an estimated cost saving from
materials of 35 hundred million RMBs (Wang, 2004). Dust collected by control devices can
be recycled internally as raw material to lower the production cost. In China, specific
regulations issued by government for cement industries do exist, but often compromises take
place, especially by the local authorities, between economic benefit and environmental
deterioration (Wang, 2004). Through technical innovation and improvement, and industrial
restructuring, powdered dust has been collected and returned to the process, replacing fresh
raw materials. Such inner recycling within the plant with different types of dust collection
equipment through CP implementation has greatly reduced air pollution and increased
energy/resource savings (Wang, 2004).

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One example from Nan Xin Cement plant in Suzhou, Jiangsu province illustrates this
potential (Wang, 2004). "By using CP order to control dust emission and to implement
recycling as well as production expansion, the Company invested more than 2 million RMBs
to convert wet- membrane collection equipment, the low efficiency type, into a bag house with
high efficiency. From the process, the local emission standard for dust has been reached, and
in addition, it obtained remarkable economic benefits. The dust collected with the membrane
had a high moisture content and was difficult for raw material substitution. With the bag
house technique, dust can be recycled and reused. The estimated annual amount of dust
collected is more than 8,000 tons. If the original material costs about 100 RMB per ton, an
annual saving is of 800,000 RMB, with an addition of 300,000 RMB from the deduction in
discharge/emission fees, a total benefit of one million RMB is realized. Extra operation cost
and labor amounts to about 700,000 RMB, so the net economic benefit is 300,000 BMB and
the amortized capital investment for the equipment can be repaid within eight years. The
provincial authorities have used this example to publicize benefits, and to encourage other
plants in the sector to adopt CP/CE principles to fit their individual needs for dust collectors,
and to include the recycling unit into the production process management with regular
inspection and maintenance to assure its proper operation".
By CP implementation, the waste minimization/recycling/reuse process is not limited

to powdered dust recovery generated by the cement sector. It also extends to wastes from
other industries including slugs from steel mills, powdered coal dust from power plants,
sulfate gypsum from chemical industries and coal residue from industrial boilers (Wang,
2004).
6.3.3 Energy consumption
The average coal used per ton of cement production has been decreased from 190 kg
in 1990 to 166 in 2000 (Wang, 2004). For a production of 5.79 billion tons during this period,
this has saved 139 million tons of coal. Chinese industries however will on average consume
47% more energy and emit 13 times more dust than those in developed countries which have
kilns with much larger production capacities (Wang, 2004). Vertical kilns produce the lowest

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rate of dust compared with other types, the technology is out-of-date since the quality of the
product is poor and unstable, and energy consumption is high (Wang, 2004).
Figure 31 Dusty environment at the top of the VSK
6.3.4 Health and safety
The Chinese cement industry can and must reduce the number of injuries and fatalities
for production, and it should be as good as that of the petroleum and chemical sectors.
Techniques for safety and health performance are well known and established, and have been
applied successfully. The key factors are (Wang, 2004):
(1) Incorporating safety into the working culture of the enterprise through
continuous reinforcement and education about safe working practices and

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conditions; establishing safety awards; and awareness-raising of senior

management;
(2) A systematic program for tracking, reporting, and analyzing all safety related
incidents, including those “near-miss” cases;
(3) Communication and dissemination systems within enterprises or groups to

expedite the distribution and sharing all safety-related information to avoid repeated
instances; and
(4) Ongoing analysis of incidents, responses, and progress to provide information on

continuous improvement.
6.3.5 Impacts on land use
Efforts to exercise and use environmental and social impact assessments of the plant
must be strengthened, including the publication of quarry management plans, its influence on
biodiversity protection, and the handling of plant and quarry closures in a responsible way,
environmentally and socially. In China, the government would like to establish following
factors for best practice (Wang, 2004):
(1) Apply EIA (environmental impact assessment) and social impact assessment for
all new cement projects;
(2) In consultation with local communities, develop land use management plans for
all such plants;
(3) Share the quarry rehabilitation plans provided by the plants in writing with those
communities. Update plans as needed to reflect the current technology and the
changing community’s requirement;

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(4) Develop the necessary advanced planning for plant closures. Dialogues with
community leaders should be held at the regular intervals.
6.3.6 Communication
The Chinese cement industry has had a low profile and a history of limited
engagement with stakeholders outside the area of that industry. "In many cases, this reflects
the tradition of long-established private enterprises that were often owned and dominated by
families" (Wang, 2004).
Learning from developed countries, the Chinese government has encouraged cement
plants in the need for communications to the public, and announced that this represents a key
element for a “license to operate”. In fact, effective ways to communicate must be tailored to
the particular audience at the local level. They include (Wang, 2004):
(1) Identify what needs to be communicated, the background extent of understanding,

biases, and public opinion on these issues;
(2) Identify and work together with the decision makers that affect the local facilities;
(3) Understand the local circumstances, environment, and other critical issues;
(4) Engagement with the community on a regular and on-going basis both from a
business perspective and by personal contacts through interactions of individual
employees.

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7. Vertical Shaft Kilns
VSKs constitute the majority of process technologies and make up about 60% of
current total output of cement in China. Unfortunately, most of the VSKs suffer severe
shortcomings through cement quality fluctuations and heavy pollution (Cui and Wang, 2005).
In recent years, restructure of cement industry has been carried out and numerous VSK plants
with poor operating conditions has been closed, creating sufficient market space for the
development of key cement plants in favourable business environments and accelerating the
advance of modern cement manufacturing technology.
Improved mechanical shaft kilns have a production capacity of 250-350 tons/day and
constituted 1150 and 1240 kilns in 2003 and 2004 respectively. Mechanical shaft kilns have a
production capacity of 100-250 tons/day and constituted 9280 and 9060 kilns in 2003 and
2004 respectively. Ordinary shaft kilns have a production capacity of 50-150 tons/day and
constituted 3150 and 2400 kilns in 2003 and 2004 respectively (Cement Sub Sector Survey,
2004).
Some VSK will own its position to the disparity in the regional economic development
of China still for some years to come, but within the year 2020 it is expected that all ordinary
and all mechanised shaft kilns will have been closed down and that less than 10 % of
improved mechanical shaft kilns will be in operation (Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004).
7.1 Centralised close-down policy
China announced already in 1999 that it would close thousands of small or antiquated
cement operations. There have however been many barriers to closure due to:
• Worker displacement and retraining costs;
• Potential political instability, and

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• Opposition from local leaders who have economic interests in the plants.
The key issue is retaining political stability in the face of greater unemployment. The
problem is exacerbated compared to similar issues in other developing countries because
Chinese cement plants employ up to ten times the labour of plants in developed countries, and
because China has a less robust system of protective social security. Many of the closed
plants will be in rural areas and it is hoped that released workers can fall back on their
agricultural jobs or be absorbed in the rapidly growing private sector. Many provincial and
local governments are not enthusiastically implementing these centrally planned plant
closures.
7.2 Replacement of VSKs by a combination of market forces and regulation
The Chinese government has recently acknowledged that the replacement of VSKs
with modern technology seems to be better off with a combination of economic incentives,
regulation, and enforcement and market mechanisms. The four most important aspects in
replacing the VSKs seem to be the following:
1. Different Ministries, Councils, Bureaus, Commissions, Banks etc. has issued

executive regulations to cool down several overheated and rapidly expanding
industries, including the cement sector, by denying construction permits for new plants
but still encouraging funding for facility upgrades. Since 1984 there has been issued
34 Circulars and Notices from the Chinese government in an effort to regulate and
administer the growth of the cement industry (Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004). The
National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) has announced that full
implementation of control would be strengthened by restrictions on land use and bank
loans to prevent a repeat of overheated investment in the cement sector (Wang, 2004).
Future investment in cement industries should be directed to the improvement of
production facilities to reduce the cost of unit production, to meeting the challenges of
energy efficiency and the shortage of raw materials including coal and electricity as
well as water. No new plant is allowed to be built with a production capacity less than
4000 tons a day, and it must employ the best available technology and required

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equipment for pollution control and prevention. This policy will favour new dry
preheater/precalciner kilns.
2. The new emission standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry in China, GB 4915-
2004, has been effective for one year only. The standard gives identical emission
limits for rotary kiln and shaft kiln for particulate emissions and even if a transitional
period has been given to meet the standard for plants in operation, the mission limits
of new production lines are stricter than previous standards (see Annex 2). When this
standard is effectively enforced it will favour new dry preheater/precalciner kilns; they
will "automatically" comply with the standard without any need for further investment
in air pollution control device.
3. Low quality cement is currently oversupplied and cheap in China, while high quality
cement is rarer and more expensive. Profit margins for most cement producers have
decreased and are near zero. Despite the growth in construction, cement prices have
fallen the last two years, in some provinces with more than 50 %. New dry
preheater/precalciner kilns is more cost-efficient than VSKs, both with regards to
labour and fuel costs, and they produce stable high quality cement.
4. Energy prices and cost for labour has been increasing steadily the last years and is
forecasted to continue to increase; this will favour dry preheater/precalciner kilns.
7.2.1 Key economic indicators for VSKs
In addition to the four important aspects mentioned in the previous chapter, the China
Cement Association has set up a list of key economic indicators which should be fulfilled
when building new or refurbishing older VSKs (Digital Cement, 2005).
These requirements and recommendations aim to improve the economic performance

as well as quality, energy efficiency and emission reductions by requiring that new or
refurbished VSKs need to comply with the following:

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1. The diameter should be 3.8 meter and the height 8.5 meter; each line should produce
25 ton clinker per hour (two lines, 1200 ton clinker per day); i.e. improved mechanical
shaft kilns.
2. The concrete strength should be minimum 30 MPa after 3 days and 55 MPa after 28
days.
3. The energy use should be limited to 800 kcal per kg of clinker.
4. The electricity use should be limited to 60 kWh per ton of clinker.
5. The plant must comply with the SEPA Air Pollution standard for Cement Production
(see Annex 2).
6. The employee efficiency should be equivalent to 2000 ton cement per employee per
year.
If these recommendations are implemented and followed, it would definitely mean a

significant improvement in general cost and energy efficiency, as well as on the emissions and
the cement quality. There is no reason to believe that these recommendations are not
followed if new VSKs are built. It is however doubtful that it will be economic feasible to
refurbished older plants with the current frame- and market conditions; if a market for cement
is present, a new preheater/precalciner kiln may be more economic attractive.
7.3 Demonstration projects for VSK improvement
Even if the number of VSKs seems to diminish dramatically the coming years, a
considerable number will still be in operation for the next fifteen years or so and the potential
in decreasing the emissions and reducing the need for energy is great. A pilot project is
therefore suggested to demonstrate the potential for improvement in energy efficiency and

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emission reduction of VSKs. Such a project is also needed to establish reliable data on
PCDD/F emissions from VSKs.
China is obliged to provide data on PCDD/F emissions to the Stockholm Convention

on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). In the absence of such data, the UNEP Standardized
Toolkit for Identification and Quantification of Dioxin and Furan Releases (UNEP, 2005) has
assigned an emission factor of 5 µg PCDD/F TEQ per ton of cement to vertical shaft kilns.
This is the same emission factor applied for wet kilns with ESP temperature over 300 oC,
whereas an emission factor of 0.05 µg TEQ/t is applied to all dry kilns and wet kilns where
dust collector temperatures are held below 200 oC.
China is also obliged to suggest an action plan with reduction targets for PCDD/F
emissions from the different source categories to the Stockholm Convention. To be able to do
this task properly the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in VSKs should be known. The
understanding of the formation mechanism will enable the environmental authorities to
provide measures and strategies for emission reduction and control.
The available information in English on the performance of VSKs, i.e. the alleged
energy inefficiency, environmental pollution and inferior cement quality, doesn't seem to be
scientifically well document by real measurements or comprehensive studies. The statements
made in different documents vary and is even contradictory in some cases (Sino-US
Workshop on Environmental Management and Technologies in Cement Industry, 2005; Cui
and Wang, 2005; Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004; Wang, 2004; US Geological Survey,
2004; Chinese Enterprise Confederation, 2003; Nordqvist and Somesfalean, 2003; Soule et al,
2002; Nordqvist and Nilsson, 2001; Price et al, 2000).
It is impossible to measure the improvement in energy efficiency or emission

reduction without having a thorough and exact understanding of the baseline or normal
performance. The establishment of basic knowledge has to be done as the first priority
activity in a demonstration project.
Taking into consideration that most VSKs seems to be replaced "naturally" within year
2020 the scope of a demonstration project should give priority to aspects of VSKs operation
which is considered most important from a short term environmental point of view, i.e.

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emissions and energy efficiency of improved and mechanical shaft kilns. Aspects like
consolidation, privatisation, regulation, cement quality, socio-economic considerations etc.
are not considered.
As mentioned several times in the report, cement manufacturing process is generally

well suited for co-processing by-products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw
materials and fuels substitutes and as mineral additions. There is no doubt that the most
effective way of reducing the raw material consumption, energy use and emissions from the
cement industry is to reduce the clinker content of cement products by using secondary raw
materials; then both thermal CO2 from fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw
materials are reduced.
Substitution of fossil fuels by alternative fuels will reduce effectively the overall
output of the thermal fossil origin of CO2. Such substitution is however not feasible for
vertical shaft kilns. VSKs are applying the black-meal process which cannot replace the coal
or coke by waste or alternative fuels (with the exception of petcoke). Other options to reduce
the energy consumption in vertical shaft kilns have to be explored.
The Institute of Technical Information for Building Materials Industry (ITIBMI)

suggested in 2004 the following 17 "technologies" for energy saving in the VSK industry
(Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004):
1. Prehomogenization technology of raw materials and fuel
2. Homoginization techniques of raw mix and cement
3. Improvement and selection technique of feed proportioning scheme of raw mix
4. Feed proportioning in accordance with rate value and heat distribution

technique of block raw mix
5. Pre-grinding technique

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6. Technique of application of grinding aid
7. Energy saving technique in drying
8. New mill application technique
9. High-efficiency separator application technique
10. Pre-watering nodulization and small nodule firing technology
11. Dust disposing technique in shaft kiln enterprise
12. Quality control and management technique in the production process
13. Automatic control technique of the production process of shaft kiln

enterprises
14. Chemical instrument analysis and physical testing technique
15. Frequency converting and speed regulating technique for energy saving
16. Comprehensive utilization technique of resources
17. Energy saving type lining mating technique
It is a complex task to assess the potential of these proposed measures and to assign
priorities among them; the suitability will also clearly depend on the starting conditions. It
seems however reasonable to draw attention to number 7, 11, 16 and 17 above.

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7.3.1 Suggested activities in a VSK demonstration project
It is recommended to focus on mechanical shaft kilns and improved mechanical shaft

kilns in the demonstration project. In 2004 these two categories of shaft kilns had an output
of 38 and 16 percent of the produced cement respectively. Ordinary shaft kilns had an output
of 5 % in 2004 but all these units are expected to be closed own in a few years time (Cement
Sub Sector Survey, 2004).
1. The first activity in a demonstration project will be to establish and document the
energy consumption and the normal emission levels of pollutants from a representative
selection of VSKs. Dust, VOC, HCl and PCDD/F should be the first priority among
the air pollutants; NOx, SO2 and CO the second priority and heavy metals, PCBs and
PAHs the third priority. It is important that these studies are designed in a way that
uncovers optimal knowledge of factors of influence and possibilities for reduction and
control.
2. The second activity will be to uncover the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in
VSKs, to understand the factors of influence and subsequent measures for emission
reduction and control, and to provide reliable emissions factors. This activity will
systematically evaluate all parameters known to induce formation of PCDD/Fs, i.e.
sources and levels of hydrocarbons, organics and chloride; temperature window post
combustion (in the air pollution control device); particulate surfaces which can
catalyse the formation and residence time.
3. The third activity will be to investigate the cost-benefit of replacing wet-membrane

dust collection equipment with dry bag-house filter. Wet-membrane filter systems
seem to have low efficiency and the humid dust makes it difficult to recover the dust
back to the production. It is not known how widespread and common this system is
among the VSKs and this need to be investigated before initiating this activity. It is
anticipated that replacement of wet systems with a dry system will have a good effect
on reducing the dust emissions as well as on saving raw materials by recovery of dust.
4. The fourth activity will be to investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using
waste heat from the VSK for drying purpose. Drying of raw materials and fuel is very

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important in achieving a homogenous raw mix, which again will be important in

achieving an optimal fuel to raw material ratio, stable "burning" and sintering
conditions and subsequent even and low emissions and lastly, a predictable and high
quality product. Drying of raw materials and fuel are currently done as a separate
preparation step using auxiliary fuel for heating. There is a considerable potential for
fuel savings and emission reductions by utilising waste heat gas from the VSK but the
challenge is closely connected to being able to recover heat from the low temperature
exit gas, approximately 200 0C.
5. The fifth activity will be to investigate the potential of replacing high volatile
coal/coke with low volatile coal. Fuel with a high concentration of volatiles will be
quickly consumed high up in the kiln, cause quality problems with the clinker and
may also represent a security problem as small explosion of material can be
experienced. A VSK in Madagascar used a charcoal with 27 % volatiles and
consumed 5800-5900 J/kg clinker. The charcoal was replaced by a coal with 13 %
volatiles and the kiln reduced it's consumption to 3300 to 3400 J/Kg clinker (810
kcal/kg) (Viacroze, 2005). Such energy saving can be achieved by a combination of
switching to low volatile coal, by improving the raw meal homogeneity, by decreasing
the coal ratio in the black meal, and by optimise the air flow through the kiln. Coal
used in the cement industry usually has a lower heating value of 6500–7000 kcal/kg,
an ash content of 12–15 %, a volatile matter of 18–22 % and moisture content up to 12
%. The carbon content of mineral coal is 60-92 % and 80-90 % in coke. The
combustible components are carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur; when burning, these
constituents combine with oxygen from air and generate heat. When drying coal it
should be noted that completely dry coal is difficult to ignite. As is known, carbon
does not react directly with atmospheric oxygen; the combustion to CO and CO 2
proceeds by way of chain reactions where carbon reacts first with the more active OH-
radical. The presence of small quantities of water vapour is required for the ignition
of fuel. Thus, the drying process of coal should not go too far. A moisture content of
approximately 1–1.5 % in the pulverized coal promotes combustion. The content of
volatile matter is important for the rating of coals. The loss in weight as the result of
carbonization of coal under exclusion of air represents the total of volatile matter.
Coal from younger geological formations contains more parts of oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen than coals from older geological formations. During combustion, these

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elements and their compounds generate more volatile matter than coals from older
geological formations. The standard content of volatile matter for coals used in the
combustion of pulverized coal is about 18 – 22 %. However, when applying proper
grinding, it is now possible to utilize also low gaseous coals in rotary kilns. To insure
economic kiln operation, the heating value of the coal should be about 7000 kcal/kg.
Coal with lower heating value increases the specific heat consumption for clinker
burning, decreasing simultaneously the specific kiln throughput.
6. The sixth activity will be to investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using
better thermal isolation linings of the kiln. Better lining material will reduce heat
consumption and save energy, lower the surface temperature of kiln body, increase the
clinker output, improve the quality of the clinker and extend the life of the VSK
(Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004). "The difference in the investment between energy
saving type lining and ordinary lining is small. If the reduction of heat consumption
of clinker is 150 kcal/kg, a mechanical shaft kiln of φ3×10m (output 12 t/d) can save
1851 tons of standard coals annually, corresponding to 2356 tons of substantial coals
(calorific power 5500 kcal/kg) worth 0.353 mil. Yuan (the price of coal 150 Yuan/t); a
cement factory that manufactures 0.2 million ton of clinker per year can annually save
4294 ton of standard coal valued at 0.818 million Yuan. In addition, if the kiln can
increase production with 1 ton of clinker every hour and increase the production with
7200 t clinker annually and 8470 tons of ground ordinary Portland cement more
which are valued at 1.69 million Yuan". (Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004)
7. The seventh activity will be to demonstrate the potential for reducing the raw material
consumption, energy use and emissions by reducing the clinker content of the cement
by using secondary raw materials. This will reduce both thermal CO2 from fossil fuels
and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials. The utilisation of secondary
materials and supplementary cementitious materials has been practised in China for
some years already (Cui and Wang, 2005) and the purpose of this activity is to
document the potential by carrying out a practical demonstration project where
secondary raw materials from a nearby industry is used in a VSK plant. The activity
will carry out the necessary quality testing and establish the specifications,
documentation and limitations for future practise.

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Figure 32 Dusty emissions from a VSK
7.3.2 Exit gas sampling and chemical analysis
According to the conclusions of the Regional Workshop and Capacity Building Needs
to Analyse POPs in Developing Countries held in Beijing 13-16 December 2006 there should
be currently 11 laboratories in China which are equipped to carry out PCDD/F and PCB
analysis with High Resolution Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometer (HR GC-MS). The
workshop was organised by UNEP, the Basel Convention, Tsinghua University and the Office
for Stockholm Convention Implementation at the State Environmental Protection
Administration.
The activity 1 and 2 mentioned above will need to be carried out in accordance with
international standards for flue gas sampling and analysis. The sampling for PCDD/F should

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be in accordance with one of the three methods established in EN 1948 (1996) or US Method
23 (1995). Analysis of all stack and residue samples for PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCBs
should be in accordance with EN 1948, US Method 23(A) or l613.

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8. Conclusion
The Chinese cement industry produced 1,060 billion ton cement in 2005, accounting
for 808 kg per capita and approximately 50 % of the world production. Approximately 60 %
of the cement was produced in approximately 4000 Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSKs). This part of
the cement industry is characterized by its irrational structure, low production efficiency, high
energy consumption and heavy environmental pollution. Compared with preheater/
precalciner kilns, VSKs seems to consume from 14 % to 105 % more coal pr ton of clinker.
Vertical shaft kilns generally produce lower quality (#325 grade or less) cement which is
neither suitable for large structures nor for major infrastructure projects such as bridges,
airports, etc.
VSKs seem to be replaced naturally with modern and more efficient technology with a
combination of economic incentives, regulation, and enforcement and market mechanisms.
The new emission standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry in China, GB 4915-2004,
has been effective for one year only. The standard gives identical emission limits for rotary
kiln and shaft kiln for particulate emissions. Low quality cement is currently oversupplied
and cheap in China, while high quality cement is rarer and more expensive. Profit margins
for most cement producers have decreased and are near zero. Despite the growth in
construction, cement prices have fallen the last two years, in some provinces with more than
50 %. New dry preheater/precalciner kilns is more cost-efficient than VSKs, both with
regards to the number of labours and fuel costs, and they produce stable high quality cement.
Energy prices and cost for labour has been increasing steadily the last years and is forecasted
to continue to increase; this will favour dry preheater/precalciner kilns.
New and modern dry process production lines with preheater and precalciner is
considered to constitute the best available techniques with regards general cost-efficiency, to
energy consumption, emissions and product quality and new is built every year.
The cement industry consumed about 129 million tons of standard coal, equal to 148
million tons of common coal in 2003. The electricity consumption in the Chinese cement
industry was 94,930 million kWh, amounting to approximately 5 % of the electric

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consumption in the whole country in 2003. It is estimated that the Chinese cement industry
emitted more than 13 million tons of dust, about 27 % of all emissions from the national
industry, about 22 % of all CO2 emissions, and about 4.85% of all SO2 emissions in 2003.
The cement manufacturing process is generally well suited for co-processing by-
products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw materials and fuels substitutes and
as mineral additions. There is no doubt that the most effective way of reducing raw material
consumption, energy use and emissions from the cement industry is to reduce the clinker
content of cement products by using secondary raw materials; then both thermal CO2 from
fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials are reduced. With the
substitution of fossil fuels by alternative fuels, the overall output of thermal CO2 is reduced.
Fuel substitution is however not feasible for vertical shaft kilns. VSKs are applying the
black-meal process which cannot replace the coal or coke by waste or alternative energy
containing materials.
The available information in English on the general performance of VSKs doesn't

seem to be scientifically well document by real measurements or studies, i.e. there is a need to
document the normal baseline conditions. A well documented and thorough knowledge of the
normal energy consumption and the normal emission levels from VSKs is a prerequisite for
issuing stricter regulation, for reporting statistics, for implementing measures and for
measuring improvement. A pilot project is therefore suggested to demonstrate the potential
for improvement in energy efficiency and emission reduction of VSKs.
far been developed for this industry category. China is obliged to provide data on PCDD/F
emissions to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and to
suggest an action plan with reduction targets for PCDD/F emissions from the different source
categories. To be able to do this task properly the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in
VSKs should be known. The understanding of the formation mechanism will enable the
environmental authorities to provide measures and strategies for emission reduction and
control.

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Annex 1 Demonstration project - Improvement of environmental

performance and energy efficiency in Vertical Shaft Kilns
Project Identification
1. Project Title: Improvement of environmental performance

and energy efficiency in Vertical Shaft Kilns
2. Country: China
3. Sector: Cement production in Vertical Shaft Kilns
4. Estimated total cost (USD) 1,100,000
5. Requesting/implementing agency SEPA - State Environmental Protection

Administration, Beijing.
Project Objectives and Activities
6. Goal
To document the energy use and the normal baseline emissions of selected pollutants like
dust and PCDD/Fs for selected VSKs and to demonstrate the potential for improvement in
energy efficiency and emission reduction, as well as associated costs.
7. Project context

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7.1 Background
Chinese cement industry produced 1,060 billion ton cement in 2005, accounting for
approximately 50 % of the world production. 60 % of this cement was produced in 4000
Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSKs). In 2003, the cement industry consumed about 129 million tons
of standard coal, equal to 148 million tons of common coal. This amounts to approximately
11 % of whole consumption of coal in that year. This consumption would be equivalent to
approximately 200 million tonnes of common coal for 2005. In 2003, the electricity
consumption in the Chinese cement industry was 94,930 million kWh, amounting to
approximately 5 % of the electric consumption in the whole country.
Based on the current technical level in China, the production of 1 ton of cement will
lead to an emission of 20 kg of dust, 1 ton of CO2, 2 kg of SO2 and 4 kg of NOx. It is
estimated that the Chinese cement industry in 2003 emitted more than 13 million tons of dust
(about 27 % of all emissions from the national industry), 660 million tons of CO2 (about 22 %
of all emissions), 1.31 million tons of SO2 (about 4.85% of all emissions) and 2.62 million
tons of NOx. No VSKs has been monitored for dioxins and furans and no emission factors
have so far been developed for this industry category (UNEP, 2005).
7.2 Significance
With these consumption and emission volumes, even small improvements can contribute
significantly to reduce consumption of raw materials and energy, to reduce emission of
pollutants and to improve the quality of the product.
8. Project objectives
The main objectives of the project are:

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• To document the normal energy consumption and the normal emission levels of
pollutants from a representative selection of VSKs.
• To uncover the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in VSKs and to provide

reliable emissions factors for quantification of annual release from the sector..
• To investigate the cost-benefit and feasibility of replacing wet-membrane dust

collection equipment with dry bag-house filter. .
• To investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using waste heat from the VSK
for drying of the raw material and fuel.
• To investigate the effect of replacing high volatile coal/coke with low volatile coal.
• To investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using better thermal isolation
linings of the kiln.
• To carry out a practical demonstration project where secondary raw materials from a
nearby industry is used in a VSK plant.
9. Expected outputs
The outputs will be:
• A well documented and thorough knowledge of the normal energy consumption and
the normal emission levels from VSKs. This is a prerequisite for issuing stricter
regulation, for reporting statistics, for implementing improvement strategies and for
measuring improvement.

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• Understanding of the dominating factors influencing the formation of PCDD/Fs in

VSKs. This is a prerequisite for issuing reliable emissions factors, for quantification
of annual release and for implementing measures for reduction and control.
• A feasibility study documenting the potential for emission reduction and for the
recovery of dust by replacing wet-membrane dust collection equipment with dry bag-
house filter. .
• A feasibility study documenting the potential for fuel and cost savings using waste
heat from the VSK for drying of the raw material and fuel.
• A feasibility study documenting the effect of fuel saving and improved product
quality by replacing high volatile coal/coke with low volatile coal.
• A feasibility study documenting the potential for fuel savings and improved product
quality by using better thermal isolation linings of the kiln.
• A feasibility study documenting the potential for fuel and raw material savings, for
emission reduction and for solving a waste problem by using secondary raw materials
from other industry to reduce the clinker content.
10. Activities
It is recommended to focus on mechanical shaft kilns and improved mechanical shaft kilns in
the demonstration project. See also chapter 7.3.1.
1. The first activity will be to establish and document the energy consumption and the
normal emission levels of pollutants from a representative selection of VSKs. Dust,
VOC, HCl and PCDD/F should be the first priority among the air pollutants; NOx, SO2
and CO the second priority and heavy metals, PCBs and PAHs the third priority.

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2. The second activity will be to uncover the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in
VSKs, to understand the factors of influence and subsequent measures for emission
reduction and control and to provide reliable emissions factors for quantification of
annual release from the sector.
3. The third activity will be to investigate the cost-benefit of replacing wet-membrane

dust collection equipment with dry bag-house filter. .
4. The fourth activity will be to investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using
waste heat from the VSK for drying of the raw material and fuel.
5. The fifth activity will be to investigate the effect of replacing high volatile coal/coke
with low volatile coal.
6. The sixth activity will be to investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using
better thermal isolation linings of the kiln.
7. The seventh activity will be to carry out a practical demonstration project where
secondary raw materials from a nearby industry are used in a VSK plant. The activity
will carry out the necessary quality testing and establish the specifications,
documentation and limitations for future practise.
11. Activity and time schedule
To ensure ample time for capacity building, awareness raising and information
dissemination, as well as enough time for demonstration tests, the project should be executed
over a period of minimum two and a half year. The first year will be allocated to start up and
information gathering on baseline conditions and previous experiences; the second year will
mainly focus on pilot tests and local training; the last half year will be used for preparation of
documentation, information material and the final report with all finding, recommendations
and results from the project.

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Table 1 Activity distribution and time schedule
Activity Duration Completed

(months) (months after start)
Inception, planning, contracting, mobilisation etc. 3 3
Compilation of previous experiences and data/ visits 6 8
Selection of VSKs and Provinces. Contracting Test house 2 9
Baseline study (energy use and emissions) 4 13
Supplementary investigations PCDD/F formation 3 15
Replacing wet-membrane dust collection equipment 4 17
Waste heat for drying of the raw material and fuel 4 20
Replacing high volatile coal/coke with low volatile coal 4 20
Thermal isolation linings of the kiln 6 24
Secondary raw materials from a nearby industry 6 24
Training and information dissemination 5 29
Evaluation, reporting and termination of project 1 30
Total 48 30
12. Project inputs
Table 2 Cost and budget estimates

No. Subject m/m Budget
in USD
1 1 International expert with technical cement kiln experience (CTA) 15 300,000

2 1 International expert on cement kiln emissions 10 200,000
3 1 National expert in VSKs (Project Manager) 30 60,000
4 3 National experts experienced in VSK and emissions 3 x 20 120,000
5 Administrative support, interpretation, translation 30,000
6 Sampling, analysis and equipment 200,000
7 Local travel 30,000
8 Computers and office equipment 25,000
Contingencies 135,000
Total 1,100,000

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13. Budget distribution & financing
Financial contribution should be sought among organisations like the Office for Stockholm
Convention Implementation at the State Environmental Protection Administration, by GEF
and UNIDO.
14. Involved organisations
The Office for Stockholm Convention Implementation and the Solid Waste & Toxic
Chemicals Management Division under the State Environmental Protection Administration
(SEPA) in Beijing, China Building Materials Industry Association, Institute of Technical
Information for Building Materials Industry of China, China Building Materials Academy,
China Cement Association, Tsinghua University, the Chinese Research Academy of
Environmental Sciences and other relevant research institutions.

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Annex 2 Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for the
Cement Industry in China
Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry
GB4915-2004 as substitute for GB4915-1996
State Environmental Protection Administration of China
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection, and Quarantine of China
Issued on Dec.29th, 2004 Effective from Jan.1st, 2005
Previous versions substituted for by this Standard are: GB4915-85, GB4915-1996.
This standard is proposed by the Science & Technology Department of State Environmental
Protection Administration.
Units committed to draft this standard are: Environmental Standard Institute of Chinese
Research Academy of Environmental Science, Hefei Cement Research & Design Institute of
China Building Material Group and China National Materials Industry Group.
This standard was approved by State Environmental Protection Administration on Dec.29th,

2004. This standard comes into effect on Jan.1st, 2005.

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This standard is to be interpreted by State Environmental Protection Administration.
1. Range
This Standard prescribes emission limits of air pollutants for various production equipments,
unorganized emission limits of particulates in the workplace, and relevant administrative
regulations on environmental protection of the cement industry. This standard also sets
particulates emission requirement of cement products production.
This standard applies to: air pollutants emission administration of existing cement producers
and cement products manufacturers; environmental impact assessment, design, completion,
examination and acceptance of newly-constructed, expanded and rebuilt cement mines,
cement and its products production lines, as well as their pollutants emission administration
after their construction is finished.
2. Cited Normative Documents
Cited by this standard, clauses of the following documents became clauses of this standard.
For the cited documents without date indicated, their latest edition applies to this standard.
• Integrated Emission Standard of Air Pollutants, GB16297-1996;
• Pollution Control Standard for Hazardous Wastes Incineration, GB 18484;

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• Methods of Determination of Particulates and Sampling of Gaseous Pollutants

Emitted from Exhaust Gas of Stationary Source, GB/T16157;
• Ambient Air - Determination of Total Suspended Particulates - Gravimetric Method,

GB/T15432;
• Determination of Nitrogen Oxides from Exhausted Gas of Stationary Source -

Ultraviolet Spectrophotometric Method, HJ/T 42;
• Determination of Nitrogen Oxides - N (1-naphtye from Exhausted Gas of Stationary

Source) - Ethylenediamine Dihydrochloride Spectrophotometric Method, HJ/T 43;
• Technical Guidelines for Unorganized Emission Monitoring of Air Pollutants,

HJ/T55;
• Determination of Sulfur Dioxide from Exhausted Gas of Stationary Source - Iodine

Titration Method, HJ/T56;
• Determination of Sulfur Dioxide from Exhausted Gas of Stationary Source Potential

Electrolysis Method, HJ/T 57;
• Determination of Fluoride of Stationary Ambient Pollution Source Ion-Selective

Electrode Analysis, HJ/T 67;

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• Technical Requirement and Test Method of Continuous Emissions Monitoring System

of Exhausted Gas of Stationary Source, HJ/T 76;
• Determination of Poly-o-Chlorinated Dibenzo Dioxin and Poly-o-chlorinated Dibenzo

Furan -- Isotope Dilution High Resolution Capillary Gas Chromatography/ High
Resolution Mass Spetrometry, HJ/T77.
The new Standard refers to normal conditions, which for temperature is 370C and air
pressure 101 325 Pa. The emission concentration of air pollutants prescribed in this standard
means value of dry flue gas under normal conditions.
3.2 Maximum acceptable emission concentration
It means maximum limits of any 1-hour average concentration of pollutants from exhaust
funnel of treatment facilities; or in places where there are no treatment facilities, maximum
limits of any 1-hour average concentration of pollutants from exhaust funnel.
3.3 Unit product emission quantity
It indicates the quantity of noxious substance emitted by various equipment for the production
of 1 ton of product, with the unit of kg/t product. Output is calculated based on the actual
hourly output of equipment during pollutants monitoring time. For example, output of cement

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kiln and cooler is calculated based on output of clinker; output of raw mill based on raw meal;
cement mill on cement; coal mill on coal powder, and dryer as well as drying mill on dry
material. For in-line kiln/raw mill, when kiln and mill are running jointly, output should be
calculated based on material quantity produced by the mill, and when cement kiln is running
alone, it should be calculated based on clinker quantity produced by the cement kiln.
3.4 Unorganized emission
It indicates irregular emission of air pollutants without exhaust funnel, mainly including
material pile in the operational field, dust of open transport, and dusty gas leakage from the
pipe and equipment.
Emission through low exhaust funnels belongs to controlled emission, but it can bring about
the same outcome as the unorganized emission. Therefore, when the Concentration Limits of
Unorganized Emission Monitoring Spot is carried out, the increase of pollutants concentration
at the monitoring spot resulted from low exhaust funnels should not be deducted.
3.5 Concentration Limit of Unorganized Emission Monitoring Spot
It indicates maximum limits of any 1-hour average concentration of pollutants at the

monitoring spot.

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3.6 Height of Exhaust Funnel
Height from the ground level where the exhaust funnel (or its main structure) lays to outlet of
the exhaust funnel.
3.7 Cement Kiln
The equipment calcining clinkers, often including rotary kiln and shaft kiln.
3.8 In-Line Kiln/Raw Mill
The system where the kiln and mill run jointly. It leads the exhaust gas to material milling
system, to dry the material by its residual heat, and treats exhaust gas from the kiln and mill
by one dust collector.
3.9 Dryer, Drying Mill, Coal Mill and Cooler.
The dryer means various types of material drying equipments; the drying mill refers to
material drying and milling equipment; the coal mill indicates various types of coal powder

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manufacture equipments; and the cooler indicates various types (cylinder, grate and so on) of
clinker cooling equipments.
3.10 Crusher, Mill, Packing Machine and other Ventilated Production Equipments.
The crusher indicates various types of equipment crushing bulk materials; the mill indicates
various equipment systems of material milling (drying mill and coal mill exclusive); the
packing machine indicates various equipment packing cement (including cement silo); other
ventilated production equipment indicates production equipment besides the main production
equipments mentioned above, which requires ventilation, including material transport
equipment, material silo and various types of storage, etc.
3.11 Cement Product Production
It indicates production of ready-mixed concrete and precast concrete, excluding the process of
concrete mixing on construction sites.
3.12 Existing production line, Newly-established Production Line
The existing production line indicates production line of cement mine, cement manufacture
and cement products which had been founded and operated or whose environmental impact
report had been approved before the date of enforcement of this standard (Jan.1st 2005).

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The newly-established production line indicates newly built, revamped and expanded
production line of cement mine, cement manufacture and cement products whose
environmental impact report is approved on or after the date of enforcement of this standard
(Jan.1st 2005).
4. Emission Limits
4.1 Limits of Air Pollutants Emission From Exhaust Funnel of Production

Equipments
4.1.1 Before July 1st 2006, air pollutants emission from exhaust funnels of production
equipment (facilities) of existing cement plants(pulverizing mill inclusive) should still be
regulated by GB 4915-1996; and existing cement mines and cement products plants should
execute GB 16297-1996.
From Jul.1st 2006 to Dec.31st 2009, the maximum acceptable emission concentration and unit
product emission quantity of particulates and gaseous pollutants from the exhaust funnels of
production equipments (facilities) of existing production line should not exceed the limits set
in table 1.
From Jan.1st 2010, the maximum acceptable emission concentration and unit product
emission quantity of particulates and gaseous pollutants from the exhaust funnels of
production equipments (facilities) of existing production line should not exceed limits set in
table 2.

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4.1.2 From Jan. 1st 2005, the maximum acceptable emission concentration and unit product
emission quantity of particulates and gaseous pollutants from the exhaust funnels of
production equipments (facilities) of newly-established production line should not exceed
limits set in table 2.
4.1.3 When hazardous wastes are incinerated in the cement kiln, particulates, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxide and fluoride in exhaust gas are respectively subject to the emission limits set in
table 1 and table 2 based on construction date of the cement kiln; other pollutants to the
emission limits set in Pollution Control Standard for Hazardous Wastes Incineration GB
18484, but the emission concentration of dioxin should not exceed 0.1ng TEQ/m3.
4.2 Unorganized Emission Limit of Particulates in Operational field
The unorganized particulate emission of existing cement plant (pulverizing mill inclusive)
should be regulated by GB4915-1996 before Jul.1st 2006, while that of existing cement
products plant should be regulated by GB 16297-1996.
Limits set in Table 3 should not be exceeded by unorganized particulate emission in

operational field of existing production line from Jul.1st 2006, and by newly-established
production line from Jan.1st 2005.
5. Other Administration Regulations

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5.1 Control Requirement of Unorganized Particulate Emission
5.1.1 Effective measures should be adopted to control unorganized particulate emission

from cement mine, cement manufacture and cement products production process.
5.1.2 Newly-established production lines should be close in the process of material disposal,
transport, loading and unloading, and storage, and effective dust suppression measures should
also be adopted for block stone, humid material, paste, and loading and unloading process of
vehicle and cargo.
5.1.3 Existing production line should be close in material disposal, transport, loading and
unloading, and storage of dry mix, and effective measures against dust and rain erosion
should be adopted in open storage; and effective dust suppression measures should be taken
during loading and unloading process of vehicle and cargo.
5.2 Control Requirements of Abnormal Emission and Accident Emission.
5.2.1 The dust collector should run synchronically with corresponding manufacturing
equipments. The annual running time of manufacturing equipments and dust collector should
be calculated respectively. The synchronic running rate should be assessed by the ratio of
annual running time of dust collector to that of manufacturing equipments.
5.2.2 Newly-established cement kiln should guarantee that dust collector run normally even
under the fluctuation of production process, and prevent abnormal emission. The synchronic

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running rate of the dust collector used in existing cement kiln, relative to the cement kiln
ventilator, should not be less than 99%.
5.2.3 When failure of the dust collector results in accident emission, urgent measures should
be taken to stop the running of the main unit, which should not be restarted until the
examination and reparation of the dust collector finishes.
5.3 Requirement for Exhaust Funnel Height
5.3.1 Except for the dust collector of elevating and conveying equipment and that of the silo
below the storage, the exhaust funnel height of production equipments (including exhaust
funnel of workshop) should not be less than 15m.
5.3.2 Exhaust funnel height of following production equipments should comply with
regulation in Table 4.
5.3.3 If the exhaust funnel height of equipments in an existing cement production line
cannot come up to the height regulated in Table 4, its air pollutants emission should be strictly
controlled. The emission limit is calculated according to the following formulation:
C = C0· h2/h02
Where: C—Actual acceptable emission concentration, mg/Nm3

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C0— Acceptable emission concentration prescribed in Table1 or 2; mg/Nm3
h —Actual exhaust funnel height; m.
h0—Exhaust funnel height prescribed in Table 4; m.
5.4 Other Regulations
5.4.1 Such outdated techniques and equipments polluting ambient environment seriously, as
defined in Article 19 of Law of the People’s Republic of China on Prevention and Control of
Atmospheric Pollution, are forbidden to be adopted and used.
5.4.2 Mine exploitation, cement and its products production are forbidden in Class ambient
air quality region.
5.4.3 The cement kiln should not be used for incinerating hazardous wastes containing
heavy metal.
Incineration of medical wastes in cement kilns should comply with Technical Codes for
Centralized Disposal of Medical Wastes
Gas disposal of the cement kiln or in-line kiln/raw mill incinerating hazardous wastes should
adopt high-efficient cloth-bag deduster.

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6. Monitoring
6.1 Monitoring of Air Pollutants in Exhaust Funnel
6.1.1 The exhaust funnel of production equipment should be equipped with permanent
sampling aperture, and come up to the sampling conditions prescribed in GB/T16157.
6.1.2 Monitoring sampling of particulates or gaseous pollutants in the exhaust funnel should
be carried out in accordance with GB/T 16157.
6.1.3 For daily supervisory monitoring, the working condition during sampling should be
the same as normal working condition of that time. Workers of the units discharging
pollutants and workers carrying out monitoring should not alter the running condition of that
time. The average value should be obtained from continuous sampling in any 1 hour, or from
more than 3 samples got at equal interval within any 1 hour.
The working condition requirement and sampling time and frequency for the examination and
monitoring of final completion of environmental protection facilities of constructed project
should comply with Rules on the Examination, Acceptatance and Monitoring of Final
Completion of Environmental Protection Facilities of Constructed Projects.
6.1.4 Method of Air Pollutant Analysis of Cement Industry refers to Table 5.
6.1.5 The exhaust funnel (kiln outlet) of newly-constructed, expanded and rebuilt cement
mine, cement and its products production line should be equipped with continuous monitor of
gaseous particulates, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide; the exhaust funnel of cooler (kiln

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head) should be equipped with continuous monitor of gaseous particulates; and existing
cement production lines should be equipped with continuous monitors according to the
requirement of local executive administration of environmental protection.
The continuous monitor should come up to the requirement of Technical Requirement and
Test Method of Continuous Emissions Monitoring System of Exhausted Gas of Stationary
Sources HJ/T 76. Data of gas emission obtained from the continuous monitor, which has been
examined and approved by executive administration of environmental protection of People’s
Government above county level, are considered valid, as long as the monitor is used within its
period of validity. The hourly average is the basis of assessment up to standard.
6.2 Monitoring of unorganized emission of particulates out of plant boundary.
6.2.1 Samples should be collected from spots 20m away out of plant boundary (if there is
not obvious plant boundary, 20m away from the workshop), both up the wind and down the
wind. The data obtained up the wind should serve as reference value.
6.2.2 Monitoring should be carried out according to regulations in Technical Guidelines for
Unorganized Emission Monitoring of Air Pollutants, HJ/T55.
6.2.3 The analysis of particulates should adopt Ambient Air-Determination of Total

Suspended Particulates-Gravimetric Method, GB/T15432
7. Enforcement of Standard

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7.1 This standard should be implemented under supervision of executive administration of

environmental protection of People’s Government above county level.
7.2 Considering structural readjustment of cement industry and conditions of enterprises

up to standard, the local executive administration of environmental protection should,
according to environmental administration requirements, constitute and proclaim the
installation plan of continuous monitor of gas for existing cement production lines.
7.3 According to demand of local environmental administration, the environmental

protection department of People’s Government of each province, autonomous region, and
municipality under direct administration of the central government can advance the
inforcement of the limits prescribed in Table1 or Table 2 after the proposal has been approved
by province-level government, and reported to state executive administration of
environmental protection for record.

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Table 1
Production Production Particulates Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Oxide Fluoride (Based on

Process Equipment (Based on Nitrogen Total Fluorin)
Dioxide)
Emission Unit Emission Unit Emission Unit Emission Unit
Concentr Product Concentr Product Concentr Product Concentra Product
-ation Emission -ation Emission -ation Emission -tion Emission
3 3 3 3
mg/m Quantity mg/m Quantity mg/m Quantity mg/m Quantity
kg/t kg/t kg/t kg/t
Mine Crusher and 50 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Exploitation other
ventilated
production
equipments
Cement kiln 100 0.30 400 1.20 800 2.40 10 0.03
and in-line
kiln/raw mill*
Cement Dryer, drying 100 0.30 -- -- -- -- -- --
Manufacture mill, coal mill
and cooler
Crusher, mill, 50 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --
packing
machine and
other
ventilated
production
equipments
Cement Cement silo 50 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Products and other
Production ventilated
production
equipments
Note: * indicates the emission concentration and unit product emission quantity when content
of O2 in gas is 10%.

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Table 2
Production Production Particulates Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Oxide Fluoride

Process Equipment
Emission Unit Emission Unit Emission Unit Emission Unit
Concentr Product Concentr Product Concentr- Product Concentr- Product
-ation Emission -ation Emission ation Emission ation Emission
3 3 3 3
mg/m Quantity mg/m Quantity mg/m Quantity mg/m Quantity
kg/t kg/t kg/t kg/t
Mine Crusher and 30 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Exploitation other
ventilated
production
equipments
Cement kiln 50 0.15 200 0.60 800 2.40 5 0.015
and in-line
kiln/raw mill*
Cement Dryer, drying 50 0.15 -- -- -- -- -- --
Manufacture mill, coal mill
and cooler
Crusher, mill, 30 0.024 -- -- -- -- -- --
packing
machine and
other
ventilated
production
equipments
Cement Cement silo 30 - -- -- -- -- -- --
Products and other
Production ventilated
production
equipments
Note: * indicates the emission concentration and unit product emission quantity when content
of O2 in gas is 10%.

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Table 3
Operational field Monitoring spot of unorganized Concentration limit*1mg/m3

particulate emission
Cement plant (including pulverizing 20m away out of plant boundary 1.0 (reference value*2deducted)
mill), Cement products plant
Notes: *1 indicates 1-hour concentration of total suspended particulates (TSP) at monitoring

spot. *2 See 6.2.1 for definition of reference value.
Table 4
Name of Cement kiln and in-line kiln/raw mill Dryer, drying mill, coal mill and Crusher, mill, packing
Equipment cooler machine and other ventilated
production equipments
Single Line ≤240 >240 >700~ >1200 ≤500 >500~ >1000 At least 3m higher than the
(Machine) ~700 1200 1000 building
Production
Capability
Minimum 30 45* 60 80 20 25 30
Acceptable
Height
Note: * The exhaust funnel of existing shaft kiln should still be 35m or higher.
Table 5
No. Item Manual Analysis Automatic Analysis

1 Particulates Gravimetric Method, GB/T16157 Technical Requirement and Test
2 Sulfur Dioxide Iodine Titration Method, HJ/T56 Method of Continuous Emissions
Potential Electrolysis Method, HJ/T 57 Monitoring System of Exhausted Gas
3 Nitrogen Oxide Ultraviolet Spectrophotometric Method, HJ/T 42 of Stationary Source, HJ/T 76
Ethylenediamine Dihydrochloride
Spectrophotometric Method HJ/T 43
4 Fluoride Ion-Selective Electrode Analysis, HJ/T 67 --
5 Dioxin Joint Usage of Chromatography and Mass --
Spetrometry, HJ/T77

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Annex 3 Chinese companies providing equipment to the cement industry

provided in their Cement Sub Sector Survey (2004) a list of Chinese companies providing
equipment and technical services to the cement industry. A copy of this information is
provided below.
***************************************************************************
3-2. The leading cement equipment manufacturers in China and their techniques
3-2.1 CITIC Heavy Machinery Company Ltd (CITIC HMC,Original, Luoyang Mining
Machinery Plant)
CITIC Heavy Machinery Company Ltd (CITIC HMC) is a group company and founded on
the basis of the former Luoyang Mining Machinery Plant after it enters into China
International Trust and Investment Corporation (CITIC).The company is located in Luoyang
,Henan, a city always called"Ancient Capitals of Nine Dynasties". And it is one of 156
important engineering of the “First Five-ear Plan” in China. It has become the largest heavy
machinery manufacturing enterprise in China after expanding and reforming during these 40
years. The company possesses the property of 25 bil. yuan with the coverage of 2.16 mil. m2
.It yields about 30,000t product a year and the output values at 0.8 bil. yuan. Currently
20,000-odd staff and workers are working for CITIC HMC, among whom some 2,500 are
technologists and 400-odd senior engineers, 12 experts under authority of Henan provincial
government and 9 experts under authority of central government. Luoyang Mining Machinery
Engineering Academy, which is subordinate to CITIC HMC, is the state-class enterprise
technical center and the designing academy A level. Both subordinate companies, CITIC
Heavy Machinery Imp. & Exp. Company and CITIC Project Contracting Company are
formed by skillful technical people of great strength. The company is one of the eight large
heavy-duty machinery manufacturers in the trade. And it is also the casting, forging and heat-
treating center in central southern area and a large processing base of heavy-load gear. CITIC
HMC is the enterprise with the right for independent foreign trade appointed by the state.

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CITIC HMC has exported machines and casting and forging parts to dozens of countries and
regions in the world, e.g. America, Australia, southeast Asia, western Europe etc. and
imported technology and manufacturing equipment from USA, Japan, Germany, Sweden,
Demark, France etc. CITIC HMC operates a tourist company with hotel, restaurant,
limousines which are able to provide best services to the guests from home and abroad.
CITIC Heavy Machinery Company LTD. has a long-standing record in making the complete
equipment for the cement and activated lime plant and the aluminum refineries. The whole set
of equipment for 700-2000t/d cement plant can be provided. The company co-operates with
the foreign partners to make the complete set of equipment for the cement plant of 4000t
clinker.
Main Product: CITIC Heavy Machinery Company LTD. can supply large complete
mechanical equipment for the basic industries, e.g mine, coal mining, metallurgical, chemical,
cement, transportation, environment protection, water conservancy and power generation.
Meanwhile the project engineering and equipment integration are also undertaken.The
products and equipment are distributed worldwide to 17 countries and regions, in Asia,
Africa,Europe, America, Australia etc. It covers many of the markets at home and abroad.
Add：No. 206 Jianshe Rd., Luoyang City, 471039, Henan, China
Tel：0379-4086586 Fax：0379 4222192
http://www.citichmc.com E-mail:guojianwei3003@sohu.com
3-2.2 Tangshan Cement Machine Works
Tangshan Cement Machinery Works, TCMW, is the leading manufacturer of cement

machinery in People’s Republic of China.
Its main products are rotary kilns, mechanized shaft kilns, various tube mills, gear boxes,
roller presses, roller mills, coolers, dryer, separators, dish type nodulizers, mixers, washer
mills, crushers. Various wear-resistance materials, such as high-Cr cast steel balls, medium
alloy liners, super high- Mn hammers are also supplied by TCMW.

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These products produced by TCMW, enjoying a high reputation both at home and abroad,
have been exported to the USA, Japan, Germany, Indonesia, Philippine, Pakistan, Thailand,
Vietnam, Singapore, S. Korea, Iraq, Namibia and many other countries and regions in the
world.
E-mail: tcmwied@public.tsptt.he.cn
3-2.3 Shanghai Jianshe Luqiao Machinery Co., Limited.
The enterprise was founded in 1946. The joint state-private ownership began in 1956. In
1989, the assets was combined with the Road & Bridge Limited Company (Hong Kong) and
Shanghai mechanical equipment limited company of road & bridge construction was founded.
In 1998, the company annexed the property of Shanghai Hujiang machinery plant in the lease
form.
Shanghai mechanical equipment limited company of road & bridge construction:
Registered capital: 10 million US dollars

Classification of the enterprise: joint venture (capital from Hong Kong)
Shanghai Hujiang machinery plant:
Registered capital: 1124.6 thousand yuan

Classification of the enterprise: state enterprise
The developed , manufactured and sold products:
The main machine and the complete sets of equipment can be put to use in such aspects as
mine, metallurgy, building materials, traffic, energy, city public utilities, environmental
protection engineering and light textile industry etc.

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Quality system recognition:
Passed the recognition of examine and verification center of Shanghai quality system in Feb.
1999.
Shanbao brand crusher
Evaluated as the state quality silver medal, top quality prize, the high quality product of the
Ministry of Mechanical Industry and the high quality product of Shanghai before 1994, it has
also been appraised the famous product of Shanghai and mechanical industry of China and the
satisfactory product for the nationwide customers since 1994.
Hammer Crusher
The Single –Stage Hammer Crusher are suitable used to crushing ordinary fragile ores of the
compressive strength no more than 200Mpa, such as limestone, gypsum, coal, marl, sand-
shale etc. This series product features of high crushing ratio, even product graininess, simple
construction, reliable operation, easily maintenance, economical running cost etc., so are
widely used in cement industry.
PE-1 Series Impact Crusher
This crusher have features of greater reducing ratio, Created product with cubical shape, be
suitable for crushing material with edge length up to 100~500mm, compression strength up to
350 Mpa.
Production and management:
Actively studying and importing the domestic and foreign advanced standard and technology,
the company has made strenuous efforts to develop new products . The company is also

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determined as the “ double intensive enterprise” of technology and knowledge by the foreign
trade committee and foreign capital committee of Shanghai. The amount of sale is up to 750
million yuan in 2000. Thus, the company has been occupied in the rank of 500 biggest foreign
enterprises in China and 500 biggest sals of industry enterprises in Shanghai. Consequently,
the company has been the production and export base of kibbler in China and has been
appraised the “double excellent” trinity joint venture for its foreign exchange and profit
earnings by China and Shanghai foreign tradesman investment enterprise association in
successive 8 years.
Address: No.480 Banshongyuan Road, Shanghai
P.C.：200011
Tel：021－63139054
Fax：021－63133936
http://jslq.chinasec.com
E-mail：webmaster@shanbao-china.com
3-2.4 Shengyang Cement Machinery Co., Ltd.
Shenyang Cement Machinery Co., Ltd is a large-sized limited company in China’s building
materials industry, based on Shenyang Cement Machinery Factory as a main body and
specializing mainly in the design and manufacture of cement machinery, and is a
comprehensive economic entity integrating the design and development of cement equipment,
import and export of electro-mechanical equipment, equipment set complement, installation
and commissioning of equipment and handling and transportation as a whole. It can supply
cement enterprises at home and abroad advanced, excellent, high-efficient technological
equipment set for 200t/d, 1000t/d, 2000t/d and 4000t/d cement clinker production lines.
Shenyang Cement Machinery Factory has more than half a century development history and
has a capacity of manufacturing the main equipment for new dry process cement production
lines with a capacity of and under 4000t/d. It is a state-level A class enterprise.

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Shenyang Cement Machinery Co., Ltd is a large-sized backbone enterprise in China’s

building materials industry, the products of which represent the most advanced technique in
China’s building materials industry, enjoying a good reputation at home and abroad. The
enterprise was awarded one of the “key enterprises of Machine-building Industry for Building
Materials” approved by the State Machinery Commission of China in 1987. It is approved as
a “State-owned large-sized A Class Enterprise” by State Commission of Economy and Trade
of China in 1993 and one of “The Ten Most Powerful Enterprises of Building Materials
Machinery Industry in China” in 2000. The company is the leading enterprise of China’s
Cement machinery industry, having a most powerful cement machinery complement capacity.
The company is located in the High-and New-Tec Development Zone of Shenyang City,
occupying an area of 0.23 mil. sq.m and having 200 pieces (sets) advanced heavy-duty, CNC
processing equipment and is capable to provide equipment set complement, installation and
commissioning for the 4000t/d cement clinker production lines.
The major products of the company are the complete set of cement machinery, and it has a
capacity and qualification of designing, manufacturing, erecting and commissioning of the
first and the second category of compressed containers. The company stands at a international
leading position in new generation aerated beam-type grate cooler and the products of the
type have already installed in hundreds of new dry process cement production lines at home
and abroad replacing imported ones. The large-sized main machines, such as cement kilns,
ball mills, crushers, etc, produced by the company have also high technical content and
quality advantages. The products of the company not only equips the Chinese cement
enterprises but also exported to Australia, Japan, USA, Brazil and the countries and regions in
Southeast Asia, enjoying trust of broad circle of customers at home and abroad. The company
has passed in the first group ISO9001 Quality System Attestation in building materials
industry of China in 1997.
In the past years the company has trained a contingent of technical personnel with rich
experience and has advanced cement machinery manufacturing technique and processing
technology and has formed an independently creative design and development institution
using modern information technology.

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In the sixty years’ development process, the company has achieved dozens of “the first” in the
domestic building materials industry.
It produced the first grate cooler in the country in 1965;
It introduced firstly the grate cooler technology of 1980’s international advanced standard
from Fuller Co. of USA;
It independently and initially designed, developed and manufactured the first in the country
3000t/d grade cooler in 1993 and exported it to Philippine;
It successfully manufactured the first in the country 4000t/d grate cooler in 1995;
It successfully produced the first in the country 2200t/d aerated beam-type grate cooler in
1998.
3-2.5 Chaoyang Heavy Machinery Co., Ltd. (CHM)
Chaoyang Heavy Machinery Co., Ltd. (former Chaoyang Heavy Machinery Factory) is one of
500 largest enterprises of machinery industry in China and a large-sized backbone enterprise
of Chinese building materials machinery industry. It accupies the first place in equipment
strength, product sales volume, foreign currency earning capability and economic benefits in
the Chinese building materials industry. It is a certificated enterprise passed ISO9001 Quality
System attestation and enjoys independent import and export right. It has been successively
awarded the honored titles and prizes, such as National First-class Measurement Qualified
Unit”, “National Quality Control Prize”, “National Energy-saving silver Prize”, “The first
Place among the 100 Best Industrial Enterprises for Environmental Protection in China”,
“AAA Grade Unit of the Best Prestigious Chinese Enterprises and the Best Image Chinese
Enterprises”, etc.
The enterprise is situated in the ancient city of Chaoyang in the west Liaoning Province,
China and was founded in 1959. It develops and produces “Chaozhong” Brand machinery for
building materials production with an annual production capacity of more than 40,000 t, with

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being about 1 eighth of market demand for the building materials machinery at home in
China. The enterprise occupies an area of 80617 m2. The fixed assets are 0.113 bil. yuan. It
employs 1100 people, of which 165 engineers and technicians and 61 of them have high-
degree technical titles. It has more than 1500 pieces (sets) of equipment, of which more than
200 are large-sized, precise and rare ones. The production technology is advanced and the
testing means are sophisticated. The ISO 9001 Quality Standard is fully implemented in the
production. The CHM is fully capable in providing large- and medium-sized complete set of
equipment with a daily capacity of 300 t to 4000 t from engineering development, production,
testing, quality guarantee system, hoisting and delivering to after-sales service.
Since the mid 1980’s, CHM has successively introduced from Japan, Germany, USA and
other developed countries and developed the engineering and manufacturing technique for the
key equipment for the 2000t/d, 1000t/d and 800t/d cement clinker production lines of
precalcing kilns, double-spout stationary and six-spout rotary cement packing machines, high-
efficient bucket elevator, bag dust collector series, vertical mills, plate-chain bucket elevator
and so on, which are up to international advanced level of 1990’s.
The main products of the enterprise are 789 specifications in 181 assortments, 29 series and 9
categories of complete sets of cement plants with an annual capacities between 0.88 and 1.20
mil.t. The production capacity of those products is 40000 t. In the recent years CHM has
developed 215 specifications new products at its own selection, obtaining 12 national patents,
winning 10 technical achievement prizes at ministerial or provincial level, among which 7 are
the firstly developed in China.
Address: 22 Third section, Huanghe Road, Chaoyang City, Liaoning Province

P.C.:122000
Tel: (86-421) 2814979
Fax: ((86-421) 2813151
3-2.6 Wuxi Jianyi Instrument & Machinery Co., Ltd.
Situated at the lakeside of scenic spot of Taihu lake, Wuxi Jianyi Instrument & Machinery
Co.,Ltd., founded in 1958, is one of the key and large scale enterprises under former the State

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Administration of Building Material Industry specialized in manufacturing apparatus for

physical test of building materials, machinery for building materials and new decoration
materials. With its long history, complete set of products, high technology content and
workmanship, the company enjoys the high reputation and has been authorized the right of
operating I/E business. Its products sell well both at home and abroad.
The company, covering an area of 102,000 sq. m, is equipped with fine working facilities and
equipment, complete measuring and inspection means and powerful backing of technical
personnel. It has 1000 staff members and workers including 200 engineers and technicians.
Under the company there are foundry, metal working, cold work and welding, heat treatment
and assembly plants, a product developing and research center and a Sino-Holland joint
venture enterprise WuxiProfil Metal Ceiling Co., Ltd.
The company has established a quality system for the whole process of raw material and
auxiliary parts procurement, production, assembling, inspection, packing and servicing and
has been granted the Quality System Certificate in conformity with ISO9001:2000 standard.
The company’s products meet the requirements of national GB standards and JC standards for
building materials industry. Part of its products conforms to relevant stipulations of ASTM of
the USA.
Adhering to the principles of quality first and clients first, we are ready to design and
manufacture the products with the requirements of our clients and supply the best after –sale
service.
Address: No.8 Fangqianchunyangdong Road, Wuxi City, Jiangshu Province

Tel: 0510-8275668
Fax： 0510-8275118
E-mail：wxjianyi@public1.wx.js.cn
3-2.7 Zhuzhou Cement Machinery Factory

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Zhuzhou Cement Machinery Factory is a key enterprise under the State Administration for
Building Materials Industry of China. It has more than 40 years’ production history,
possessing a strong technical power and good product development capability and complete
testing means. It is capable to supply the complete set of equipment and all-round technical
service for the 0.3 mil. t/a rotary kiln and shaft kiln cement production lines. It is also able to
provide part of equipment for 0.6 mil. t/a rotary kiln cement production lines.
The company can provide complete set of cement manufacturing equipment and accessories
for the 1000t/d rotary kiln cement plant and shaft kiln cement plant. The major products of the
company are ball mills, rotary kilns, mechanical shaft kilns, the equipment for drying,
pelleatizing and cooling and the main equipment complementary machines for elevating,
handling, feeding and dust-collecting. It supplies constantly the accessories. The most of main
equipment produced by the company are the superior quality products of Hunan Province.
3-2.8 Pingdingshan Electrostatic Precipitator Factory (PEPF)
Established in 1972, Construction Corporation for Pingdingshan Electrostatic Precipitator

Factory (CBMCC PEPF) under China National Building Material Industry is one of the
leading enterprises subordinated to the China Noumetallic Minerals Industry Group
Corporation. Now the factory is one of the largest and earliest enterprises in China engaged in
research, development, manufacturing and installation of environmental protection
equipment. During more than 20 years, the factory has produced and supplied more than 2000
Eps, bag filters and cement industry conditioning towers of different sizes and specifications
to such industrial sectors both at home and abroad, as building material industry, metallurgical
industry, electric power industry and chemical industry, and has got unanimous praise from
all clients and successively won many honorable titles, such as National Second-class
Enterprise, one of China’s 100 Top Enterprises for Environment Protection, China’s
Advanced Enterprise for Science and Technology of Environmental Protection, Enterprise of
Henan Province of Advanced and New Technology, Civilized Unit of Henan Province and so
on. PEPF is entitled to operate import and export business by itself. In 1996, PEPF got the
ISO9002 Quality System Certification of China, France, USA, Germany, Netherlands,
Australia and New Zealand.

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EP lies in Pingdingshan, the “Famous City in the Central Plain of China”. The occupied area
of PEPF is 155 thousand square meters. PEPF has fixed assets of 35 million yuan, 6 main
workshop (Riverting & Welding shop, Metal Processing shop, Casting shop, Forging shop,
Rolling shop) and 7 specialized parts production lines. PEPF has more than 200 sets of
advanced different equipment, such as rolling machines for electrode plates, CO2 automatic
housing welder, numerical control plasma cutter and so on. It has an ability to manufacture
dedusting equipment in amount of 20 thousand tons per annum. In 1984, 1987, and 1996,
PEPF successively imported the designing, manufacturing, installation and commissioning
technology of the BS780 EP of Lurgi GmbH, Germany, the Baf Filter of Fuller Inc, of USA
and BS930 E of Lurgi GmbH, Germany. The factory has done a lot of digesting, assimilation
and improvement works of the imported technology, so as to upgrade all the technical and
economic targets of the factory’s leading products – “aflyng” EP and Bag FILTER –up to the
advanced world level, and to make the products sell well both at home and abroad such as in
USA, Germany, Australia, Philippines, Pakistan, Malaysia, Iran, Brunei, Vietnam, Rwanda
and others.
Add：35 West Nanhuan Rd., Pingdingshan, 467001 Henan, China
Tel：0375-4944054 Fax：0375-4945874
3-2.9 China National Building Material Equipment Corporation (CBMEC)
Established in 1981, China National Building Material Equipment Corporation (CBMEC) is

now subordinated to China National Non-metallic Minerals Industry Corporation (Group)
(www.cnmc.com). Through the development and innovation in more than 20 years, CBMEC
has become into a leading company in the field of building material equipment of China as a
supplier of complete set of equipment and machinery, contractor of turn-key project at home
and abroad, chartered tender agency for national technical renovation project and construction
project, agency of foreign partners, trader of materials and products and importer of advanced
foreign technique and equipment, etc.
With “major business with multiple operation as her development strategy, and with excellent
service for the building material industry of China and other developing countries in Asia,

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Africa and Latin America as her mission, CBMEC provides domestic and foreign customers
with fine quality, low energy consumption and high efficiency complete specialized
equipment and machinery and auxiliary facilities, repairing and spare parts, and other building
materials and products. Periodical, “China Cement", published and distributed by CBMEC, is
a state-level professional technical monthly in the Cement Industry of China. China Building
Material Machinery Association (CBMMA) and the Technical Standardization Committee of
China Building Material Machinery (SCCBMM), standing in CBMEC, execute the
managerial functions including reasonable adjustment and control on the building material
industrial structure, working-out technical and quality standard in the field of building
material equipment and machinery.
CBMEC owns her own research and design institute of cement industry, research and design
institute of automatic control and manufacturing factories. Since 1984, CBMEC has organized
local manufacturers importing from abroad and developing more than 40 advanced technique
and equipment with the world advanced level of late 1980’s and early 1990’s, And all these
help the production technologies and equipment of cement and flat glass reach the world
advanced level. Up to now, CBMEC has successfully provided more than 40 domestic cement
plants with over 50 complete sets of cement production lines, 20 of which have a capacity of
from 2000t to 4000t clinker per day, and provided about 10 glass plants with complete sets of
float glass production lines. Based on the advanced technique, fine quality equipment and rich
experiences on engineering construction, CBMEC exported many cement production lines
with a capacity of from 400t to 2000t clinker per day to about 10 countries including
Malaysia, Pakistan, Myanmar and Bangladesh, etc..
At present, CBMEC has powerful abilities of providing complete set of cement equipment
and machinery with a capacity of 350t, 700t, 1000t, 2000t, 4000t clinker per day, complete set
of float glass equipment and machinery with a melting capacity of 300t, 400t and 500t per
day. complete set of equipment and machinery for producing refractory, ceramic and mining
or processing machinery producing marble, granite, terrazzo slabs. In order to further adopt
the developing requirements of market economy, CBMEC pays a close attention to multiple
operations, and has expanded its businesses to all the fields related to equipment
manufacturing or building material products, including providing of repairing and spare parts,
development and production of special cement and wall materials, distribution of building
material, platinum-rhodium alloy, nonferrous metals, timber, pig iron and copper. In addition,

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CBMEC becomes the sole agencies of some famous world companies including Johnson
Window Films Inc. and PEWAG, etc..
With providing domestic and foreign customers with satisfactory services as her tenet,
CBMEC strengthens and expands foreign economic and technical co-operation based on the
faith of “Quality First, Service First and Reputation first" for the mutual benefit and common
development, CBMEC warmly welcomes all clients and partners to cooperate in building
material industry and other related fields. CBMEC has the following certificates of
qualification:
The First Class Certificate ff General Contractor For Supplying Complete Plant Of
Mechanical & Electrical Equipment authorized by the State Administration of Building
Materials Industry and Ministry of Machinery and Electric Industry of P.R.C.
The First Class Certificate of Tender Agency For Equipment In Construction Project
authorized by the National Planning Council and the State Administration of Technical
Supervision;
Certificate of First Class Chartered Tender Agency For National Technical Renovation
Project authorized by State Economic and Trade Commission of People’s Republic of China
(SETC);
Certificate of Approval for Export Credit for undertaking turnkey projects and export of
complete set of equipment authorized by Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic
Cooperation P.R.C. and People’s Bank of China;
Certificate of Approval for Enterprises with Foreign Trade Rights in the People’s Republic of
China issued by Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation, P.R.C.
Add：No.12 Floor, Canjiakou Plaza, No.21 Sanlihe Rd., 100037,Beijing, China
Tel：（010）88372171 Fax：（010）68311354
http://www.cbmec.com E-mail:cbmec@public3,bta.net.cn

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3-2.10 Shannxi Yanhe Cement Machinery Factory
Shannxi Yanhe Cement Machinery Factory is an appointed specialized factory for producing
cement machinery and equipment and wear-resistant castings in national building materials
industry. It is also considerably large and well equipped cement machinery and equipment
manufacturing enterprise in Northwest China, responsible for supplying cement machinery
and equipment and wear-resistant castings to large- and medium-sized cement producing
enterprises. It is listed as a state level large enterprise, having an authorized independent
import and export right.
The factory was initially founded in 1966, having a over 30 years experience in producing
cement machinery and equipment. Its products are in 200 specifications, 16 categories, main
ones of which are rotary kilns, mechanical shaft kilns, ball mills, dryers, coolers, crushers,
electric fans, dust collectors, high-quality wear-resistant castings and other industrial and
mining accessories. It is capable to provide complete sets of 0.6 mil. t/a cement production
lines and can also supply key and non-standard equipment for chemical, metallurgical and
building materials industries.
The factory has a strong technical contingent, excellent technological equipment and
advanced testing means with over 800 pieces (sets) of main production equipment including
automatic high-pressure caseless vertical separately modeling lines from DISA Co. of
Denmark, VRH-CO2 technological modeling lines from Japan and other large-sized
specialized equipment from Sweden and other countries. The casting and processing capacity
is strong.
Registered fund: 38.25 mil. yuan
Address: Fangnan Road, Textile city, Xian City, Shannxi Province

P.C.: 710038
Tel: (86-29)3523423
Fax: (86-29)3524911

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3-2.11 Ningguo City Wear-resistant Materials General Factory of Anhui Province
Ningguo City Wear-resistant Materials General Factory of Anhui Province has a more than
thirty years’ history of professional production and sale of “Fengxing” brand wear-resistant
materials. Its products include various kinds of balls, wear-resistant and heat-resistant cast
steel segments, as well as abrasive aides for cement and mining industries. It passed ISO 9002
Quality System Attestation and International Standardization Attestation in July 1998 and ISO
9001 (2000 version) conversion Attestation in March 2001. The “Fengxing” brand trade mark
was approved as “Chinese Famous Trade Mark by State Bureau of Industry and Commerce”
in 1999.
The “Fengxing” brand wear-resistant materials are widely applied in powder preparation and
superfine grinding for the cement and building materials industry, metallic or mining industry,
power generation with coal slurry, chemical engineering, ceramic coating, light industry and
paper-making, magnetic materials manufacturing and so on. There are at present more than
100 varieties and specifications of products in 7 series. The products are well sold to more
than 2000 enterprises in 31 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions in the country
and exported to Japan, Korea, USA, Australia and different countries in Southeast Asia and
Africa.
Ningguo City Wear-resistant Materials General Factory of Anhui Province is a State-level

Large-scale Enterprise, State Second-class Enterprise, one of the 50 Most Powerful Industrial
Enterprises of Anhui Province. It has formed a production capacity of producing 0.1 mil.t/a of
cast ball and cast sticks and 20,000 t/a of cast steel segments. The scale of the factory stands
in the lead of the same trade in Asia.
3-2.12 Luoyang Refractory (Group) Co., LTD,
Luoyang Refractory (Group) Co., LTD., established in 1958 during the state "First Five-year
Plan" period, is the largest refractory commercial enterprise at present, and only one of 520
state key enterprises dealing with refractory in China. It has 8 production branches, 3
auxiliary shops, one technology center, one limited company and one joint-venture company.

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There are 5758 employees including 507 managerial personnel, 1018 technicians. The
corporation occupies an area of 1,114,900 square meters.
The corporation is equipped with 3,910 production devices, including 9 tunnel kilns, such as
98.4m, 59.4m ultra-high temperature tunnel kilns, 202.5m tunnel kilns which is the longest in
China, two 30m3 one 20m3 full-auto shuttle kilns imported from Germany, 750t compound-
friction press imported from Japan, 1,250t automatic hydraulic press imported from Germany,
2,500t full-auto hydraulic press imported from Italy,1,000t hydraulic automatic press made in
China, computer-assistance design systems for moulds, computer-control batching systems
and advanced testing systems for both physical and chemical properties, and necessary
installations for packing and special railway line.
Various refractories (acid, basic and neutral )are now produced in a large scale according to
the requirements of the strict quality guarantee system of ISO-9002. The main products are
silica, magnesia, high-alumina, magnesia-chrome, middle-and high-grade sintered product
and alumina-carbon, alumina-magnesia-carbon, alumina-zirconia-carbon products for
continuous casting, sinalon composites, electrofused magnesia-chrome, alumina-silica-
zirconia products, insulating products, unburned products, ceramic kiln furnitures and
necessary monolithic refractories. The corporation has a production capacity of 160,000t and
600,000 ceramic rollers. The products have been sold all over China, 20% of the products
have been exported to more than 20 countries and regions, such as Japan, USA, Brazil, Italy,
South Africa countries and Southeast Asia.
Add：Xiyuan Rd., Luoyiang City, 471039, Henan, China
Tel：（0379）4226148 4208809 4209546
Fax：（0379）4210864
http://www.lyrg.com E-mail: Inyxgs@sina.com

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Annex 4 Chinese research institutes providing service to the cement

industry

provided in their Cement Sub Sector Survey (2004) a list of Chinese research institutes and
professional organisations providing research and technical services to the cement industry.
A copy of this information is provided below.
***************************************************************************
4－1 Brief introduction of main research institutes in cement industry in China
4－1.1 Tianjin Cement Industry Design and Research Institute (TCDRI)
Tianjin Cement Industry Design and Research Institute (TCDRI) is one of the prospecting and
designing institutes under the management of Central Enterprises Operating Committee
(former under SABMI). As one of the earliest founded design institutes in China, TCDRI now
became a first-class design institute with the strongest design capability in building materials
industry in China since it was set up in 1953. Through years of development and expanding,
TCDRI now has turned into a large comprehensive designing enterprise incorporated
scientific research, engineering design, construction supervision, turnkey contract
construction, consultative engineering technical service and machinery & electrical equipment
manufacture. In 1992, TCDRI was granted "the Direct Business Right with Foreigners" by the
Ministry of Economy and Trade, and in 2000 TCDRI was granted "Self-run Import
Enterprise" by Tianjin Foreign Economic Relations and Trade Committee. In 1995, TCDRI
was entitled by the Development and Research Center of the State Council as "the first
institute for design and research on new dry process cement production line in China", and
was enlisted in the book "Honor Records of the Most in China" (1949~1995). In 1993 TCDRI
was honored as one of "the Hundred Strongest Institutes" (the sole design institute gained this
title in building materials industry) and afterwards, was successively chosen as one of "the
Hundred Strongest Prospecting and Designing Institutes in Overall Strength in China ". In

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1996, TCDRI was the first one passing the conformity of quality system certification
ISO9000.
China Cement Development Center (CCDC) under the TCDRI created by Chinese
government and UNIDO is a sole international institution in Asian and Pacific region. From
the founding of CCDC in 1983, entrusted by UNIDO, TCDRI successfully organized and
sponsored three international mini-cement meetings and trained more than 100 cement
professional staffs for Asian and pacific region. TCDRI played an important role in training
professionals, providing technical assistance and international technical exchange in Asian
and Pacific region.
At the present, TCDRI has obtained several qualifications on engineering and consultation
including non-metallic minerals, construction engineering, environmental pollution protection
and control. The certificates which TCDRI commanded involve "Export Licence of
Engineering Design", "Grade A Certificate on Cement and Waste-heat Generation
Engineering Design", "Grade A Certificate on Turnkey Contract Construction", "Grade A
Certificate on Engineering Consultation" and "Special Qualification on Intelligent System of
Construction Engineering" as well as the "Conformity of Quality System Certification ISO
9000".
The major business and services include: Cement engineering design, cement raw materials
quarry engineering design, new process / technology and new materials development and
application, raw materials testing and evaluation, pressure vessels design, environmental
impact assessment and prevention, turnkey contract construction, construction supervision
and operation management, construction costs and consultation service, equipment
manufacture and complete installation supply, cement technical information and consultation
service etc.
There are about 800 staffs and 300 other employees in TCDRI. Among 800 staffs, 700 are
professionals in different sectors including 2 design masters, 2 experts at national level and 4
experts at provincial and ministerial level, 220 professors and senior engineers, 300 engineers
and 160 assistant engineers.

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In order to respond to meet market competition, TCDRI has established several sections of
multiple economic structure comprising 24 divisions, 2 wholly-owned subsidiaries, 11
holding subsidiaries and 1 collectively-owned company.
There are varieties of advanced facilities for scientific research in TCDRI. 16 labs including
laboratory test center, cold and hot model pilot plants, machinery and electric plants, cement
technical training center and computer center etc. In TCDRI it is possible to carry out
simulating test, research experiments, semi-industrial scale tests and auto-control
development for cement manufacturing, industrial wastes utilization, raw materials
grindability and burnability testing, as well as training programs for technicians. The results
of these activities provide reliable technical guarantee for first-rate engineering design and
scientific research in China’s cement industry.
The completion of the state "Torch Plan" project - new energy conservation cement
installation manufacture base is a beneficial practice for industrial development of TCDRI
technical achievements, this plant has a stronger ability on equipment manufacturing and sales
and has become a new economic growth point of TCDRI.
As one of the demonstration units of CAD, various intelligent computer soft-wares are
widely-applied in scientific research and engineering design in TCDRI, now, the level for
applying computer-integrated circuit makes progressing, computer network and shared
engineering database, as well as office automation realized. This makes TCDRI being in a
leading position among design institutes in China.
Over 50 years, TCDRI has accomplished more than 400 cement plants and other engineering
designs, over 200 projects of turnkey contract construction, construction supervision and
engineering consultation, has developed and designed more than 6000 sets cement equipment
and fulfilled scientific research on 140 subjects. With these achievements, TCDRI has made
great contributions to the products adjustment and technical progress in China building
materials industry and created notable social and economic returns both for state and clients.
Add: Beichen District, 300400, Tianjin, China
Tel: 022-26391311 Fax: 022-26390071

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http://www.tcdri.com.cn E-mail: TCDRI@public.tpt.tj.cn
4-1.2 China Building Materials Academy (CBMA)
CBMA, founded in the early 1950s, is the largest comprehensive research and development
organization in China in the fields of building materials and advanced inorganic non-metallic
materials. Since 1999, CBMA has become one of the high-tech enterprises under the central
government.
CBMA’s R&D covers cement and concrete, ceramics, refractory, glass fiber, housing
materials, engineering design, test technology, quality supervision, environment engineering
and technology information etc. Over the past 50 years, CBMA has completed about 2300
research projects. The contributions made by CBMA to the Chinese building materials and
advanced material industries are well demonstrated by more than 430 government awards,
including 100 national prizes. CBMA has close academic and trade relations with
organizations of more than 50 countries and regions all over the world. Its technologies and
products are widely acknowledged both at home and abroad, and have been exported to more
than 30 countries and regions.
Add：No. 1 Guanzhuang Dongli, Chaoyiang District, 100024, Beijing,China
Tel：010-65761787 Fax：010-65762976
http://www.cbma.com.cn E-mail:cbma@public.bta.net.cn
4-1.3 Nanjing Cement Design and Research Institute
Nanjing Cement Design and Research Institute (NCDRI) was founded in 1953 and is one of
the earliest design and research institutes of its kind in China. In the past 50 years or so,
NCDRI has been developed into a distinguished and strong class A design and research
institute in China’s building materials industry.

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NCDRI has incorporated the process, mechanical and control technologies in the development
of a large variety of cement production lines, process control systems and special cement
manufacturing equipment of national or world advanced level. It is capable to undertake the
engineering project of technical services and technical transformation of 1000-8000tpd plus
NSP/SP kiln, pre-heater kiln, cogeneration kiln, wet process kiln, anthracite burning kiln and
cement production with wastes and low-grade raw materials for cement plants. Since its
establishment, NCDRI has accomplished design of more than 200 cement production lines of
various scales for clients both at home and abroad and has been awarded over 60 prizes of
national and provincial levels. It was awarded with certificate of ISO-9001 in 1997.
NCDRI’s major business scope is: engineering design for cement plant and quarry; Turn-key
project contract for building material engineering, power engineering and environmental
engineering; development, manufacture and sales of specialized equipment for cement plants
and transfer of related technology, technical services and supply of complete set of
equipment; construction supervision for ordinary civil and industrial construction and
installation projects of Grade , and of building materials industry, engineering survey,
consultation, design and supervision for overseas funded projects at home and abroad; export
of equipment, materials and spare parts; export of labor and technical services in the building
materials industry etc.
Add：No. 209 Hanzhong Rd, Nanjing, 210029, Jiangsu, China
Tel：025-6611333 Fax：025-6611234
http://www.NCDRI.COM E-mail:NCDRI@JLONLINE.COM
4-1.4 Chengdu Design & Research Institute of Building Materials Industry (CDI)
Initially founded in 1953, Chengdu Design & Research Institute of Building Materials
Industry (hereafter referred to as CDI) is one of the prestigious design and research institutes
among China’s building materials industry and also the first one being granted the premier

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design certificate regarding cement plant and non-metallic quarry. Entitled to deal with direct
foreign trade, domestic and international engineering design, engineering general contracting,
and premier design qualification of civil engineering, and taking research, design, engineering
consulting, technical service, general contracting and engineering supervision of building
materials and non-metallic quarry works and promotion of new technology as the major
businesses, CDI through 50-year hard working has developed into one of the top design and
research institutes in China. In June 1998, CDI passed the ISO 9001 qualify system
qualification.
Since its foundation 50 years ago, CDI has undertaken design, consulting, supervision, and
general contracting of hundreds of cement plants at home and abroad, non-metallic quarries
and civil buildings, and fulfilled dozens of new technology development and raw materials
researches as well, among which about 50 designs and new technologies have been
respectively awarded national, ministerial, provincial excellent design or technology
improvement awards. Scores of new dry process cement production lines with capacity
ranged from 600t/d to 4000t/d designed by the CDI have finished construction and reached
their expected output, gaining substantial economic and social benefits. Moreover, in recent
years CDI has finished successively 5 large projects by general contracting both at home and
overseas: 1.5 million limestone quarry of Lafarge-Dujiangyan Cement Co., Ltd., quarry and
plant of 3000t/d clinker production line of Shandong Yantai Dongyuan Cement Co.,
technology upgrading of 2000t/d clinker production line of Gansu Wushan Cement Plant,
3000t/d clinker production line of Iran Fars Nov Group, and 2000t/d clinker production line in
Xinjiang, that makes CDI among domestic design institutes of building materials industry the
first one in undertaking independently the large-scale general contracting projects.
Concerning deploitation of international operation, besides technical communication and

contact with companies in Iraq, Laos, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Thailand and Burma, CDI has
offered engineering design and technical service to cement plants and non-metallic quarries in
various countries such as Pakistan, Vietnam, Iran and Albania, and established technical
cooperation with many renowned companies from Germany, United States of America,
Canada, Denmark, Japan and etc., which lays a solid foundation for a broader reach of CDI’s
operation all over the world.

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Add：No. 331 Xinhong Rd, Chengdu City, 610051, Sichuan, China
Tel：028-4333584 Fax：028-4333545
http://www.cdi-china.com.cn E-mail:ybgs@cdi-china.com.cn
4-1.5 Hefei Design & Research Institute of Building Materials Industry
Hefei Cement Research and Design Institute (HCRDI)used to be a key research institution
and a state Class-A qualification holder under the State Administration of Building Materials
Industry. Its predecessor is The Research Institute of Ministry of Building Materials Industry
and Beijing Cement Design Institute. After the system reform in 1997, it has been integrated
into China New Building Materials (Group) Company. The institute takes up 25 hectares of
land. It owns 895000 square meters of covered area. It has more than 680 employees, with
about 500 technical staff, of whom there are more than 200 senior technical professionals and
more than 200 are middle level technical professionals.
HCRDI has 12 departments (centers and companies): Design Department, Powder

Engineering Company, Jinshan Industrial Company of Science and Technology. Environment
Protection Engineering Company, Equipment and Metal Materials Engineering Company,
New Building Materials Company, Machinery and Motor Engineering Company and
Information Center and etc. It is mainly engaged in the design, technical service, construction
supervision, complete set of equipment supply, construction project contracting and
environment evaluation related to cement production lines of all types of kilns. Supply of new
process, new equipment, new materials, new technology and new products is supported by
running enterprises that produce high-tech products.
Since its establishment, the institute has undertaken 300 research projects including 16
scientific projects of the state government, 50 such projects of the state ministry. The total
investment of these projects amounts to 16,000,000 yuan. 180 research projects have been
evaluated and accepted. 78 of them have reached up to world’s or national advanced level,
and found wide application both at home and abroad. There are quite a few technological

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achievements that have been listed in the state scientific achievements promotion plan. It has
made great contributions to the technological progress of cement industry. Today, HCRDI has
formed a competitive advantage in such technical fields as thermal process, powder
engineering, production automation, environment protection, metal materials, optimized
exploitation of cement materials and comprehensive utilization of resources. It has brought up
large numbers of experts in various specialized areas.
In the field of design, during the eighth five-year plan period, the institute further developed
pre-calciner kiln with capacities ranging from 1000 – 6000 tons clinker per day. It has been
applied in the design of cement plants of various scales achieving good results. Up till now,
the institute has designed more than 100 cement production lines of various types with
capacities ranging from 1000 to 6000 tons. In addition, many projects of various production
capacities have been awarded the titles of excellent design.
In the field of scientific and technological industries, the manufacturing entities of the
institute are growing steadily. The institute’s manufactured products are based on either
imported or self-developed technology. Product quality is increasingly improving, gaining
good reputation both at home and abroad. The manufacturing facilities of the institute are able
to supply equipment for the cement production lines with capacities ranging from 1000 to
5000 tons per day. The institute has established an industrial park where Zhongya Cement
Machinery Works, Feixi Energy Saving Equipment Works, Environment Protection
Equipment Works, Wear and Heat Resistant Materials Works, Building Materials Machinery
Works, Zhongya Steel Structure Factory are located. The total output value of these entities
has amounted to 600, 000, 0000 yuan.
Add：No. 60 Wangjiang Rd, Hefei City, 230051, Anhui, China
Tel：0551-3439196 Fax：0551-3424995
4-1.6 Institute of Technical Information for Building Materials Industry (ITIBMI)

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ITIBMIC was established in 1958. Through more than 40 years construction and
development, the institute has become the scientific, technological, economic and trade
information research, consultation services and documentation center for building materials
industry on China. ITIBMIC has accomplished about 1000 reports on special subjects and
more than 100 research projects of soft science. Meanwhile, having a function of building
materials documentation resources center of China, ITIBMI has a collection of more than
180.000 special books in Chinese and foreign languages, about 500 domestic and foreign
special periodicals subscribed and the databases on building materials literatures in Chinese
language, Chinese building materials patents and scientific & technological achievements of
Chinese building materials industry established.
ITIBMIC undertakes fundamental research projects assigned by the Ministry of Science

&Technology and edits and publishs more than 10 periodicals, including “Cement” which has
the largest circulation in Chinese building materials industry, “Building Materials Industry
Information” and so on. A line within the Institute and a web site of China Building Materials
Industry Information Network on Internet have been set up. ITIBMC is capable to offer all
kinds of web services for the domestic and foreign clients on web site.
Add：No.2 Guanzhuang Dongli, Chaoyang District, 100024,Beijing, China
Tel：010-51164601 Fax：010-6575-61207
http://chinabmi.com E-mail:cys@sohu.com
4-2 Industrial associations and other administrative institutions in China
4-2.1 China Building Material Industry Association (CBMIA)
China Building Material Industry Association (CBMIA) is a nation wide, non-profitable and
self disciplined social organization that is voluntarily formed by the building material
industrial enterprises, social organizations and individual members and serves as a bridge

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between the government and enterprises, offering them services in the meantime. Its major
tasks are as follows:
(1) Conduct studies on key and important topics related to the building material industry as a
whole and its development, submit economic and legal suggestions to the central government.
(2) Voice out the interests of its members and enterprises, coordinate relations among its
members, organize and formulate the industrial regulations, coordinate disputes on products’
prices, normalize the enterprises behaviors, establish the industrial discipline mechanism and
protect the legal rights and interests of enterprises.
(3) Provide timely and accurate information and various services on technology, management
consultant and talent development, promote contacts with foreign colleagues, develop
international economic and technical cooperation, participate in coordination of economic
disputes, and assist its member enterprises to develop international market.
(4) Authorized or entrusted by the central government or departments concerned to participate

in working out the industrial planning, making of revising national standards and industrial
standards and other industrial management.
(5) Exercise supervision over the trade associations, i.e. to guide them in activities according
to their constitutions, oversee their disciplines, observe legal regulations and the state policies;
provide the final approval of reformation, adjustment and development suggestions and their
structural alterations etc. of its subordinated associations; be responsible for the personnel
management, party construction and ideological and political work. Assist the government to
check in –discipline behaviors.
Add: No. 11 Sanlihe Rd., Haidian District, 100831, Beijing, China
Tel: 010-68311144-2215 68314360 Fax: 01068332658
http://www.bm.cei.gov.cn E-mail: msc@cbminfo.com, msc@bm.cei.gov.cn

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4-2.2 China Cement Association
China Cement Association (CCA), established in February 5, 1987 is a mass social

organization of cement enterprises and other institutions related to cement industry under the
principle of voluntary participation.
Ever since its establishment, the CCA possesses a great attraction to the entire industry. The
organization and various businesses have been rapidly developed and strengthened. Up to
date, there are 3200 members among which 900 are direct members and 50 collective
members of provincial and municipal sub-associations and trade committees etc. that forms
the nation wide network of cement industry, which possesses highly extensiveness,
representation and authority.
Add: No. 11 Sanlihe Rd., Haidian District, 100831, Beijing, China
Tel: 010-68332654 Fax: 010-68332654
http://www.cncement.com.cn E-mail:zjx@c-bm.com, Zgsn@sina100.com
4-2-3 Chinese Ceramic Society
The Chinese Ceramic Society is voluntarily formed by the silicate non-organic non-metallic
materials Science and technology after registration according to law. It is a social organization
of learned and public characters having independent legal representative and is a component
part of the Chinese Society of Science and Technology. The aim of the society is to unite the
broad mass of workers of ceramic science and technology for the promotion of prosperity and
development of science and technology, the facilitation of popularization and spreading of
Science and technology, the promotion of growth and upgrade of scientific and technical
talents and the promotion of the integration of science and technology with economy.
The former body of Chinese Ceramic Society is the Chinese Ceramics Society. It was initially
established in 1945 and its name was changed to Chinese Kiln Engineering Society in January
1951 and ceased action for some reasons in October the same year. In December 1956, the

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Preparation Commission of Chinese Ceramic Society was formed. In November 1959 the
First National Congress was held in Shanghai, and it is decided on the congress that the name
of the society was Chinese Ceramic Society.
The members of the society include personal members, senior members, organization
members and foreign members. The member of personal members is 33.000 at present and
that of organization members is 40. There are 18 professional branch societies and 3 working
commissions. There are 124 local societies at present. The administrative body of the society
consists of 5 departments (sections).
The main tasks of the society are to carry out academic and science and technological
exchanges between domestic and foreign learners and implement international science and
technological co-operation among peoples, to edit and publish scientific and technical books
and magazines, to undertake continuous education and popularization work of science and
technology; to undertake consultation for decision-making, technical consultation and
technical service; to carry out citation and reward for outstanding persons and works, to
organize scientific and technical exhibitions and demonstrations at home or abroad.
4-2.4 Beijing Building Materials Association (BBMA)
Beijing Building Materials Association (BBMA) is a mass organization consisting of building

materials trade associations in Beijing area, units of production, management, scientific
research and design and information etc. BBMA is the building materials industrial
organization administered by Beijing Municipality, sponsored by Beijing Jinyu Group, a non-
profit legal organization approved and registered by Beijing Social Organization Register
Administration Office.

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Cement Production in Vertical Shaft

Report to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization

UNIDO Contract RB-308-D40-8213110-2005

Table of content ........................................................................................................................... 2

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3.6.2 Emission control in VSKs............................................................................... 73

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Acronyms and abbreviations

AFR Alternative fuel and raw material

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ESP Electro static precipitator

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QA/QC Quality assurance/quality control

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VOC Volatile organic compounds

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Cementitious Materials behaving like cement, i.e. reactive in the presence of

Co-processing Utilisation of alternative fuel and raw materials in the purpose

Dioxins Together with PCDD/Fs used as term/abbreviation for

DRE/DE Destruction and Removal Efficiency/Destruction Efficiency.

Pozzolana Pozzolanas are materials that, though not cementitious in themselves,

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are mainly materials of volcanic origin but include some diatomaceous

Siliceous limestone Limestone that contains silicon dioxide (SiO2)

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Approximately 60 % of the cement was produced in approximately 4000 Vertical

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1326 limestone quarries are currently known in China containing approximately

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Data developed the Chinese Enterprise Confederation point to significantly lower

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The available information in English on the general performance of VSKs doesn't

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A shrinking number of cement companies remain state-owned, while a growing

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• Produce #325 and lower grades (by 2005);

• Have wet process kilns (either to be closed or converted to dry processes).

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Growth in Chinese cement production is due to the construction boom accompanying

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Cement production is also associated with a number of other environmental problems

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It is difficult to obtain domestic financing for investment projects within China.

Even with sometimes vicious competition and difficulties in operating in an opaque

• Bulk cement transport and storage infrastructure,

• Environmental control equipment,

• Precalcinator and dry rotary cement kilns, and

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1.1 Objective of this study

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2.1 Main processes

• Raw materials preparation;

• Mineral additions preparation;

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Figure 1 Processes identification and system boundaries of cement production using

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To a limited extent, “secondary” (or “alternative”) raw materials originating from

2.1.2 Raw materials preparation

2.1.3 Fuels preparation

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Tri-calcium silicate 3 CaO x SiO2 C3S Alite

Di-calcium silicate 2 CaO x SiO2 C2S Belite

Calcium aluminate 3 CaO x Al2O3 C3A Aluminate

Calcium ferrite 4 CaO x Al2O3 x Fe2O3 C4AF Ferrite