Department of Primary Industries, Queenscliff Centre, Victoria, by Lyons (Architects), Gollings Photography
Thermal mass
This technical information sheet is intended to be a
useful and practical guide on the effective use of thermal
mass to assist architects and engineers to specify the
design in buildings.
Introduction
The basic premise for using thermal mass is that it acts as
a heat sink thereby tempering the internal environment by
reducing and delaying the onset of peak temperatures, keeping
the building cooler in summer and warmer in winter. A large
volume of dense material with high specific heat capacity can be
used to absorb excess heat or to store and release heat when
needed. This is known as thermal mass because it is most easily
achieved using denser construction elements such as masonry
walls or concrete slabs.
The use of construction materials with high thermal admittance
in walls, columns and floors improves the capacity to store and
release heat. This capacity is often termed Fabric Energy Storage
(FES) or thermal mass and can be optimised through good
design and construction. This technique has been used in many
building types to create more comfortable working conditions
and reduce energy consumption.
Simply put, thermal mass is used to absorb excess heat inside
buildings during the day, which can then be removed by night
time ventilation. In this way, peak daytime temperatures inside
a building can be reduced by 6ºC to 8ºC depending on heat
load, and their onset delayed by up to six hours, compared to a
building with low thermal mass > Reference 1 .
> Figure 1 on the next page shows the thermal mass as part of
a system of absorbing heat load, > Figure 2 shows the impact
on reducing internal temperatures.
Simply leaving concrete walls, floors or ceilings in contact
with internal air can reduce or even eliminate the need for
mechanical heating and cooling (fresh air ventilation is still
required to comply with Building Codes Australia).
Suitability
Most effective for buildings:
> In areas with high diurnal shifts (difference between the lowest
and highest temperature over one day)
> Where night purging is possible
Not suited:
> In areas where the diurnal shift (range of daytime high and
night times low temperatures) is less than 7°C
> When peak temperatures exceed 25°C for more than 5% and
28°C for 1% of the occupied time > Reference 1
> Where there is no solar access to heat the thermal mass if
there is heating required
> Where it is not possible to cool the thermal mass if there is
cooling required
 Benefits
Piped to phase change Piped from phase
plant for re-cooling at 19ºC change plant at 16ºC
Thermal mass
Passive cooling:
thermal mass in Convective
concrete slab during cooling
daytime absorbs Some
excess heat from convective
the space cooling occurs
Rising warm air over chilled
ceilings
Chilled ceilings Descending cool air
Active cooling:
chilled ceiling panels Low energy
absorb radiated heat equipment
from equipment and Significant
occupants energy savings
by use of
Radiant cooling low energy
descends into equipment
workspace at and lighting
around 18ºC

> Figure 1 Council House (CH2), City of Melbourne. Passive Cooling: Thermal mass
in concrete slab during daytime absorbs excess heat from space.

> Potential to achieve a 50% reduction in Thermal mass systems can either be ‘passive’

Technical description
CO2 emissions due to decreased energy or ‘active’. A ‘passive’ solution is one in which
requirements for heating and cooling the structural mass is exposed to the air allowing
> Reference 1 heat exchange. A naturally ventilated light weight
building can offset heat gains from computers,
> Lower operational and maintenance costs
people, lights, etc. of about 25 W/m2. Adding
> Possible integration of the air delivery system thermal mass can increase this to 40 – 45 W/m2
with the structural elements, thus offering the of passive cooling capacity providing there is a
potential to reduce costs > Figure 1 diurnal shift of 7°C or more > Reference 1 . This
> > Reference 3 refers to reducing the peak level is considered adequate to cater for the heat
internal temperature by 5°C or more and shift loading of a typical commercial building.
the peak loads by up to 6 hours > Figure 2
> Potential to purchase cooling energy on
off-peak tariffs
> Increases comfort levels
> Improve indoor air quality with use of
natural ventilation
> Can be used as an architectural feature
> A naturally ventilated passive thermal mass
building can contribute a cooling effect of
40-45 W/m2 > Reference 1 > Reference 2
> Figure 3
Maths & Sciences Building, University
of Canterbury ©ccanz.

Peak Up to 6–8ºC difference between peak An alternative strategy is to use ‘active’ thermal
temperature external and internal temperatures mass systems. These are suitable for buildings
delayed by up with higher heat loads and more demanding
30ºC
to six hours cooling requirements such as lecture halls,
theatres and offices. In this instance,
enhanced heat transfer and thus extra cooling
(up to 40 W/m2 > Reference 1 ) is achieved by
forced ventilation through a hollow-core precast
concrete floor (such as TermodeckTM) or thermal
mass storage area in a specially designed floor
system. Fans or passive natural means (such as a
solar chimney) draw the air over and through the
15ºC
thermal mass and supply it to the space.

DAY NIGHT DAY

Massive under-floor labyrinths and phase
change storage systems are other approaches
Internal temperatures Internal temperatures External to using heat transfer actively. An excellent
with high thermal mass with low thermal mass temperatures example of the use of a labyrinth is Melbourne’s
Federation Square. The thermal mass or phase
> Figure 2 Stabilising effect of Thermal Mass
change system is ‘charged’ when the air
on Internal Temperature > Reference 1 . temperature is low, which enables the ‘coolth’ to
be drawn out when it is needed.
 Atrium space Work space
> Figure 4 Building T, Deakin University using Termodeck hollow core construction.
The larger the difference between the thermal
mass and the air temperature, the higher the
level of heat transfer. Careful design is therefore
essential for effective use of thermal mass.
Comfort
To understand the increased comfort due to
using thermal mass it is important to know
the difference between air temperature and
resultant temperature. Resultant temperature
takes into account radiant and air temperature
and air movement, providing a more accurate
indication of comfort than air temperature alone.
The thermal mass provides a relatively stable
radiant temperature, so even if the air is quite
warm the concrete surface will make occupants
feel relatively cool. That is, it enables higher air
temperatures to be tolerated than in lighter-weight
buildings, which can be subject to higher radiant
temperatures resulting from warmer internal
surfaces > Reference 1 .
Significant heat absorption does not necessarily
Design considerations
require the use of overly massive structures.
Studies have shown that good performance in
storing and releasing heat can be achieved in a
naturally-ventilated building using only 50–75mm of
concrete in contact with the internal environment
> Reference 2 .
Integration of active
and passive systems
The designer of a high thermal mass building should
address the issue of coordination and integration of
services. Central to using passive techniques such
as thermal mass is comprehensive pre-planning to
ensure construction efficiency and the operational
longevity > Reference 3 . Therefore, as early as the
concept design stage, the servicing strategies for
lighting, electrical, telecommunications, security,
fire and sprinklers, wet services and HVAC need to
be considered. This will allow effective planning for
precasting design to begin.
Outside
Optimise control systems
Optimised control systems are vital for the good
performance of thermal mass. Night cooling
should take maximum advantage of ambient
conditions whilst avoiding overcooling, which will
result in uncomfortable conditions at the start of
the day, and may result in the subsequent need to
reheat the space. Mixed-mode systems (heating
or cooling systems that combine passive and
mechanical systems) should default to natural
ventilation whenever possible so the energy
consumed by running fans is minimised. To
achieve these objectives a number of different
control strategies, which vary in their approach and
complexity, can be used. The published literature
relating to thermal mass systems repeatedly shows
that control issues are one of the key determinants
in their success or failure > Reference 1 .
Key to success – contact between
the thermal mass and internal air
There must be good contact between the building
surface and the internal air to maximise the heat
transfer. The concrete or other thermal mass
elements must be exposed to the internal air of the
building and not covered by suspended ceilings
or other linings. The undersides of concrete floor
slabs (soffits) work well as they are accessible,
cover a large area and are uniformly distributed.
They can be troughed or coffered to provide the
largest possible heat exchange area. Walls and
columns with exposed surfaces will also make a
useful contribution.
Concrete soffits typically have a white or pale
coloured finish, to reflect daylight around the
interior and create a feeling of spaciousness.
Colour can be achieved within the concrete mix or
by painting > Reference 1 .
 There are many examples of modern buildings in Admittance method for comparing
Technology performance

cool European climates employing high thermal

mass construction materials. In Australia, Fabric
FES performance:
Energy Storage (FES) in modern buildings is Admittance (W/m2 K) is the term used to describe
relatively new > Table 1 . Deakin University’s School the ability of materials to exchange heat with
of Architecture and Building is currently developing the environment when temperatures fluctuate
a suitable model that will determine key parameters cyclically. Variables that determine admittance
and control strategies for thermal mass systems for are thermal capacity, conductivity, density and
the various climates of Australia. Deakin University surface resistance; yet as mentioned above this is
Building T, at its Burwood campus, employs an ultimately also dependent on the ability to transfer
active thermal mass system with Hollow Core floor heat from the surface to the thermal mass and
slabs. Kangan Batman TAFE uses an active thermal the adjacent air. According to > Reference 1 this
mass system in the form of pipework embedded in places an upper admittance limit of 8.3 W/m2 K
the concrete floor slabs. The thermal mass of the dependent on natural ventilation; > Table 2 has
structure provides radiant heat exchange to the a useful selection of construction types and their
levels and space directly below. admittances.
Though this can be used a rule of thumb, it is
Ventilation rates: recommended that more accurate modeling be
Using night cooling requires around 2 to 5
undertaken using dynamic thermal simulation
changes of air in a room per hour depending on
software that uses finite difference algorithms and
the type of building. However, cooling rates and
real weather data. A static peak load calculation
air change rates are not directly proportional as
is insufficient.
the cooling rate is also affected by the length
of time the air is in contact with the mass. It is
therefore important to allow enough time for this Admittance
charging of the mass with ‘coolth’. Studies have Wall Constructions W/m2 K
shown that buildings in the UK should not be
occupied for more than 10 hours if they are to be Precast concrete sandwich panel wall:
cooled down effectively at night ( > Reference 1 19 mm render, 80 mm dense concrete,
5.48
50 mm EPS insulation, 100 mm dense
referencing 2004 work by ARUP). If this is not
concrete, 13 mm dense plaster
possible then additional active cooling, such as
water through the slab may be needed. Brick/dense concrete block cavity
walls: 105 mm brick, EPS insulation,
5.75
100 mm dense concrete block, 13 mm
Thermal mass Cooling dense plaster
application capacity Case studies
Brick & block cavity wall: 105 mm
Vodafone HQ brick, 25 mm airspace, 25 mm EPS
Natural Newbery UK 2.95
15–25 insulation, 100 mm lightweight aggregate
ventilation, The Open University concrete block, 13 mm dense plaster
W/m2
exposed Soffit Design Studio Milton
Keys UK
Timber frame wall: 105 mm brick, 50
Underfloor mm airspace, 19 mm plywood sheathing,
20–45 Powergen HQ 0.86
ventilation with 140 mm mineral fibre insulation between
W/m2 Coventry UK
exposed soffits studs, 13 mm plasterboard
Permeable 10–20 Sustainability Victoria,
Ceilings W/m2 Australia Internal Partitions

Building T Block partition: 13 mm lightweight

Deakin University, plaster, 100 mm lightweight concrete 2.09
Hollow Core Melbourne, Australia block, 13 mm lightweght plaster
40–60
and mechanical MFB, Melbourne, Timber studding: 12 mm plasterboard,
W/m2 0.69
ventilation Australia timber studding, 12 mm plasterboard
The Ionica building,
Cambridge, UK Internal Floor/Ceiling Constructions

Barclays Bank Dense cast concrete: 100 mm dense

6.57
Basildon, UK cast concrete, no plaster
British Museum, Cast concrete: 50 mm screed, 150 mm
Water Cooled 60–80 5.09
London, UK cast concrete, 13 mm dense plaster
Slabs W/m2
Kangan Batman
TAFE, Melbourne, > Table 2
Australia
Chilled beams
100– Barclay card HQ, UK
with exposed
160 Council House 2,
or partially
W/m2 Melbourne, Australia
exposed soffits

> Table 1
 Council House 2 in Melbourne uses thermal
Case Study
Costs
mass as an integral strategy to the control of the
indoor environment. The concrete walls, ceilings
and columns contribute to a reduction in energy
of 14% in summer, 21% mid season and 36%
in winter. Not only are these concrete elements
integral to the structure of the building, the thermal
mass strategy was not an additional cost, while
the cost for fit-out elements was reduced (such
as plasterboard, ceiling tiles) while energy savings
total $40 – 95,000 per year.
> Figure 5
Installation of precast soffits Council
House (CH2), City of Melbourne.
Buildings occupied for longer periods or with
Limitations
particularly high heat loads may require assistance
from water cooling of the thermal mass to enable
heat removal at a faster rate. Climates with diurnal
ranges of less than 7°C are unsuited for the use
of thermal mass as the main method of providing
cooling for a building.
By exposing hard concrete surfaces, consideration
of acoustic requirements becomes important,
along with the visual impact of exposed services.
> Figure 6
Maths & Sciences Building, University
of Canterbury ©ccanz.
Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC)
equipment size and associated capital, operating
energy and maintenance costs are generally lower for
a building designed to take advantage of its thermal
mass (in a suitable climate) than for a conventional
building. In addition, the integration of the air delivery
system with structural elements offers the potential
to further reduce costs. Additional costs may come
from exposed concrete surfaces requiring higher
quality finishes and acoustic features. In addition, the
use of a concrete roof may also increase costs.
The UK Concrete Centre > Reference 1 claim
that there is a potential saving of up to 20% on
the construction and fit-out cost of a building by
removing air conditioning. Further, an additional
5% saving can be achieved as suspended ceiling
systems are unnecessary, with the added potential of
reducing building height by 10% to 15%.
Due to the variation in applications and
characteristics of each system the cost will vary
enormously and the above are only illustrative.
“ When used correctly,
thermal mass can
significantly increase
comfort and reduce
energy consumption.”
Chris Reardon
 Rules of thumb
– slab design
Determining factors for slab thickness are generally:
> For naturally ventilated buildings with exposed
concrete soffits and insulated floors (no thermal
linking), a concrete slab approximately 100 mm thick
will provide a sufficient amount of thermal mass for a
24 hour heating and cooling cycle > Reference 1 . This
will not prevent overheating if the temperature stays
high over several days.
> If using both sides of the slab – floor and soffit
– you will need additional thickness. A doubling is
recommended in > Reference 1 .
> Increasing the convective heat transfer, for example
through under-floor ventilation, will increase the rate at
which heat flows in and out of the slab > Reference 1 .
> Profiled slabs (e.g. coffered, troughed, wave form,
etc), provide an increased surface area that enhances
convective heat transfer, improving thermal mass
performance, this can allow up to 20% better heat
transfer > Reference 1 > Reference 2 .
> Taking the above into account, a building with both
the profiled soffits and slab exposed with underfloor
ventilation should be capable of exploiting the
thermal mass available in concrete floor slabs of
250 mm or more.
> Where soffits need to be hidden, a perforated ceiling
may be effective (20% of surface area perforated
gives 85% of the thermal transfer effect of the
thermal mass). See > Reference 2 for guidance.
> An additional cooling effect of 25-35 W/m2 (over the
40W/m2) can be achieved with an active solution
> Reference 3 > Reference 4 such as Termodeck.
> Water can be used in an active concrete system as
an effective cooling (or heating) medium. Embedded
pipes in floor slabs can achieve a cooling capacity
of 60-80 W/m2 > Reference 1 .
> Ventilation for night cooling requires in the order of
2 or more air changes per hour > Reference 5 .
Sustainability Victoria
Level 28, Urban Workshop
50 Lonsdale Street Melbourne 3000
T > 03 8626 8700
E > info@sustainability.vic.gov.au
W > www.sustainability.vic.gov.au
References and Tools
> Reference 1 Thermal Mass: A concrete solutions for
changing climate produced by The Concrete Centre
(28 pages) www.concretecentre.org and webpages
found at www.concretecentre.org/main.asp?page=141
to 143
> Reference 2 Fabric energy storage
www.corusconstruction.com/en/design_and_innovation/
structural_design/slimdek/services_design/advanaced_
energy_efficient_systems/fabric_energy_storage/
> Reference 3 Fabric energy storage with precast
concrete By Dr Jacqueline Glass Oxford Centre for
Sustainable Development, Oxford Brookes University
www.trentconcrete.co.uk/library/Interface6/pracspeak.
pdf
> Reference 4 Fabric Energy Storage – Energy Efficiency
in Commercial Structures By Chris Munn, CCANZ
www.cca.org.nz/ach_des/fes.htm
> Reference 5 Predictive Optimal Control Of Fabric
Thermal Storage Systems, by M J Ren & J A Wright,
Department of Civil and Building Engineering,
Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK www.ibpsa.
org/proceedings/BS1997/BS97_P032.pdf
> Reference 6 The CMU Air-Core Passive Hybrid
Heat Storage System, by Bion Harward, Building
Environmental Science and Technology, Upper Marlboro,
MD www.energybuilder.com/pdf/asme-acs-tn.pdf
> Reference 7 Bringing The Environment Into The
Workplace www.constructiontimes.co.uk/default.
asp?channel_id=1962&editorial_id=6518
> Reference 8 Sweden, 35 years experiences of dynamic
energy design in buildings. Can it be replicated fast
enough? By Falk, Håkan – Isfält, Engelbrekt
http://energy.saving.nu/arw/paper2.shtml
Manufacturers / Suppliers
Passive thermal mass systems are simply materials
such as concrete. Active systems are:
Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd
The TermoDeck
12–14 Maria Street
Laverton North 3026
Victoria Australia
T> 03 9369 4944
F> 03 9369 2025
www.hollowcore.com.au
Rehau Pty Ltd (In-slab heating / cooling)
9–11 Endeavour Way
Braeside Victoria 3195
T> 03 9587 5544
T> 03 9587 5599
www.rehau.com.au