AP US History Outline – Chapter 14

THE TERRITORIAL EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES

Tejanos – Spanish speaking people born in Texas – joined with the American settlers in fighting for
Texas independence

Vaqueros were cowboys who settled on the prairies of South Texas along with the peones, poor tenant
farmers.

Empresarios were rich land agents such as Stephen F. Austin. Stephen F. Austin was the son of
Moses Austin. After the death of the elder Austin, Stephen F. Austin inherited his land and became the
first empresario, or land agent. He agreed to become a Mexican citizen and adopt Catholicism. His
community was occupied with handpicked settlers who each received a huge amount of land.

Juan Seguin was a wealthy ranchero and one of the leaders of the San Antonio community. He joined
the Americans and was a pivotal player in the defense of the Alamo. He then led a regiment of Tejanos in
the battle of San Jacinto that won independence for Texas.

Lewis and Clark were the two government chartered explorers who were sent by Jefferson out West to
learn more about the land and Native Americans that occupied that land.

John C. Fremont was the military explorer, who, in 1843 and 1844, mapped the overland trails to
Oregon and California, spurring on the Westward movement.

John O'Sullivan was the newspaperman who first argued for the Manifest Destiny, claiming that
Americans had a God-given right to bring American democracy to other people, and, if necessary, by
force. The Manifest Destiny was the combination of missionary zeal, pride in America’s achievements, and
racist attitudes towards other types of people.

The Overlands Trail to Oregon was the 2,000 mile trip from Independence, Missouri to Oregon
territory. Pioneers, usually families, faced the prospect of being “strangers in a strange land” and, despite
the dangerous and exhausting trail, many of them went West nevertheless. They went for the economic
opportunities but were also motivated by a sense of adventure or search for home. Although the pioneers
feared Indian attack, there were few of them. The pioneers traveled by wagon train that often had
constitutions and pre-defined roles. By 1860, almost 300,000 people had traveled to Oregon or
California.

"Fifty-four Forty or Fight" was the slogan coined by President James K. Polk that suggested that the
United States would fight if it was not able to control the territory south of the 54 40 latitude. This was the
border between Russian Alaska and British Canada. Polk was willing to compromise and in 1846, Britain
and the United States agreed to establish the 49th parallel as the US-Canada border.

The Santa Fe Trade was the extremely lucrative trade between Americans and Mexicans in Santa Fe,
New Mexico. Much of it was located in Mexican territory but Congress voted for federal protection
anyway. It was extremely dangerous because of the high risk of Indian attack but it soon became an
extremely profitable operation for those who made it. Many trading posts sprang up along the trail to
become multiethnic communities.

Santa Anna was a very important figure in Mexican-American history. He was a Mexican general and
president who led the Mexican counterattack against the Americans. His forces overwhelmed the
Americans at the Alamo as the Americans refused to surrender. From there, he divided his army and led
them in pursuit of the American/Tejano army. Santa Anna surrounded Sam Houston at San Jacinto and
thought victory was in his hands. However, the next morning, Sam Houston, shouting “Remember
the Alamo!”, overwhelmed the Mexicans and won. As a result, the Republic of Texas’s southern
boundary was established at the Rio Grande river. Mexico refused to recognize Texan independence and
rejected President Jackson’s offer of purchase.
Davey Crockett and Jim Bowie were two American volunteers who died defending the Alamo against
Santa Anna’s forces. They were forever remembered in history and Davy Crockett became a huge pop
culture sensation in the 50s.

The Election of 1844 pitted Henry Clay, a Whig, and James K. Polk, a Democrat, against each other,
after the presidency of John Tyler. The Whig Party was already deeply divided. Issues such as annexation
and slavery further added to the turmoil. John Tyler initially ran against Polk and brought up the issue,
hoping to ensure his reelection, but this backfired after Secretary of State Calhoun brought up the issue by
connecting Texas with the extension of slavery. Tyler was ejected from the party and replaced by Henry
Clay, taking a noncommittal stance on Texas. On the other hand, the Democrats nominated dark horse
Polk of Tennessee, taking an expansionist stance which called for a re-occupation of Oregon and a re-
annexation of Tennessee. Polk went on to win the election. A huge issue of this election was the
Annexation of Texas. Congressman JQ Adams led the opposition. Less than 24 hours before then-
president Tyler left office, he extended recognition to the Republic of Texas.

Polk's War was coined because of President Polk’s involvement in the war. He became the first
president to actively direct war. As the war continued, casualties and costs rose and Polk was increasingly
accused of misleading Congress and going into unnecessary war.

The Bear Flag Revolt took place in California in the winter of 1845-46. A handful of Californians
announced California’s independence from Mexico.

The Liberty Party was an early advocate of abolition and nominated James G. Birney for the 1844
election. He drew about 60,000 votes, which actually potentially impeded a Whig victory. This was the
foreshadowing of the breakup of the deeply divided Whig party.

Viewpoints on the Mexican-American War:

Henry David Thoreau went to jail rather than pay his taxes, which he believed would support the war
effort. After being bailed out of jail after just one night, he retreated to Walden Pond, where he wrote his
essay Civil Disobedience that inspired many people, such as Ghandi and Martin Luther King Jr.
Abe Lincoln was the young Illinois Congressman who did not support the Mexican American War. As
we all know, he would go on to become our nation’s 16th president.

John Calhoun was the leading sectional leader of the South. Hailing from South Carolina, he was the
Secretary of State and argued for states’ rights and the extension of slavery. Needless to say, he supported
expansion and the war.

General Zachary Taylor was a Mexican American War hero who secured a victory at Buena Vista.
General Winfield Scott launched an attack on the coastal city of Veracruz and captured it. Then, he took
Mexico City and the Mexican resistance ended.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo marked the end of the Mexican American war. It was signed on
February 2, 1848. Mexico ceded its Northern provinces, which included California, Nevada, and a lot of
other states. The Rio Grande was established as the Southern border of Texas and the United States paid
Mexico $15 million. In 1853, the Gadsden purchase added more land to the Southwest.

The Press and the War: For the first time, the Press had a large influence on the war and popular
opinion. It was the first war with regular reporting by journalists. Newspapers, such as the “penny press”,
spread news around. The war reports united Americans.

San Francisco/Chinese Immigrants and the Gold Rush – San Francisco was the entry point for
many Chinese immigrants who came to the United States to find gold. They were heavily discriminated
against in the mining camps. The Gold rush brought hundreds of thousands of people over to California,
most of whom did not become very rich. There was little effort put into building communities and as a
result, violence was present. Most of the mining communities were only temporary communities.
The Young America Movement was made up of expansionist Democrats. It advocated free trade,
social reform, and expansion Southwards.

The Wilmot Proviso was the start of sectional conflict over expansion. It was proposed by David
Wilmot of Pennsylvania that slavery be banned in all the territories acquired by Mexico. Southern Whigs
and Southern Democrats voted against it, while both Northern Whigs and Northern Democrats supported
it. It was the first breakdown of the national party system. There was no immediate action taken because
neither party could get both the Northern and Southern sides to agree.

The Liberty Party was the abolitionist party that was uncompromising and quite extreme in its views.
They favored abolishing the interstate slave trade, denying office to all slaveholders, and forbidding the
use of slave labor on construction projects. It was too uncompromising for most Northern voters and
eventually merged into the Free-Soil Party.

The Election of 1848 was surrounded by many issues: expansionism, sectionalism, abolition, and free-
soil sentiment. Vast amounts of land had just been incorporated but the Wilmot Proviso was still
unsolved. Lewis Cass was the Democratic nominee for President and he proposed the doctrine of
popular sovereignty. He would leave the decision to the citizens of each territory. Although it seemed
like a good idea, it was actually the nation’s failure to take any real action. The notion of popular
sovereignty was deliberately vague and would not solve any problems.

Zachary Taylor was the Whig nominee for President. He was a war hero and refused to take a position
on the Wilmot Proviso. He privately opposed the expansion of slavery but publicly emphasized being a
war hero and national leader over a participant in sectional politics. This deliberate vagueness
disappointed many Northern voters. Instead, they turned to the Free-Soil party candidate, Martin Van
Buren. Van Buren ran to divide the Democrats and cost Cass the electoral votes of New York and
Pennsylvania.