Overview of ACAS II / TCAS II

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Version 1.4 – 7 January 2009

Maastricht ATC 2006

 ACAS

z ACAS: Airborne Collision Avoidance System

z ACAS is a set of standards defined by ICAO:

z an ACAS I issues Traffic Advisories (TAs)
z an ACAS II issues Resolution Advisories (RAs), in addition to TAs, in the
vertical plane only
z an ACAS III issues Resolution Advisories (RAs), in addition to TAs, in both the
vertical and in the horizontal plane

z Only ACAS II standards have been defined and approved

z ACAS equipage automatically implies Mode S equipage

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 TCAS

z TCAS: Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System

z TCAS II v7.0 is the current in-use system for Europe

z An upgrade to TCAS II v7.1 is planned – the implementation schedule is not
known yet

z TCAS II v6.04a is still in-use in some countries, notably USA

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 ACAS II principles

z Intended as a last resort protection against risk of collision

z Designed for collision avoidance only
z Independent of ground-based systems and the auto-pilot and of
NAV systems
z ACAS algorithms and parameters as far as possible chosen to be
compatible with separation standards - but:
z Does not warn of loss of separation
z Sometime generate unnecessary (nuisance) alerts
z Sense of RAs coordinated between ACAS equipped aircraft
z Complying with RAs can result in deviation from clearance

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 Situation in the world

z Europe:
z The carriage of ACAS II has been mandatory from 1-1-2005 for all civilian
turbine-engined aircraft carrying more than 19 passengers or with the maximum
take-off mass more than 5700 kg

z USA:
z TCAS II has been mandatory in US airspace since 1994, for all civilian turbine-
engined aircraft carrying more than 30 passengers
z Three manufacturers (Rockwell-Collins, ACSS, Honeywell)

z ICAO has recommended world-wide mandatory ACAS II carriage

(1-1-2003)

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 Equipment description

MODE S
TCAS DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
ANTENNA

AURAL
ANNUNCIATION

COORDINATION
& INHIBITION
EFIS or TCAS DISPLAY

TCAS II MODE S
UNIT XPDR

RADAR ALTIMETER AIR DATA TCAS + SSR

GEARS & CONTROL
COMPUTER
FLAPS PANEL
(ADC)

RADAR ALTIMETER
ANTENNA LOWER TCAS MODE S
ANTENNA ANTENNA

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 Functions

z Surveillance of adjacent transponders (range = 14 NM)

z Maximum number of aircraft processed = 30

z Determination of the alerts: TA and RA

z Co-ordination between two TCAS units (through the mode S data-link)

z Aural annunciations

z Display of information on Vertical Speed Indicators (VSI) or on EFIS (ND

+ PFD)

z Processing cycle = 1 second

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 Example of IVSI-type TCAS display
(classic instrumentation)
Intruder target
Other traffic

Proximate traffic
Relative altitude (ft x 100)
Intruding traffic

Threat
Vertical trend arrow

TCAS display centre Vertical speed needle

2-NM radius circle

Resolution advisory

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 Example of EFIS with RAs displayed on
the vertical speed scale
MACH ALT HDG AP1

A/THR
FL 310
360
315

340

320 310 40
20

300

305
280
2
.818 STD

The pilot must manoeuvre the aircraft to comply with the specified vertical
speed (here: -1500 fpm)
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 Example of EFIS with RAs displayed on
the artificial horizon
SPD L-NAV ALT
M 0.82 31000

380 31400

360

340 31200

5 40
32 310 20
6
320
30800
300

280
30600
240
260 CRS 110
10 11 12
0.818 09 13 STD
08 14

The pilot acts on the aircraft attitude

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 Initiation of alerts

z Horizontal test: time to reach the Closest Point of Approach (CPA)

(or "DMOD" distance if the closing speed is low)

z Vertical test: time to reach co-altitude (or "ZTHR" if the aircraft are
steady)

z The TA/RA threshold values increase with the altitude

z The bearing is not taken into account (only used for the display)

z RA sense selection: objective of safe vertical distance "ALIM",

co-ordination

z If the intruder does not transmit its altitude, there will be no RA

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 Threshold values (TCAS II v7)

Sensitivity-level dependent Layer dependent

Above Altitude Hysteresis Sensitivity VTT TAU DMOD TAU_TA Layer ZTHR ALIM ZTHR_TA
(ft) (ft) level (s) (s) (nm) (s) (ft) (ft) (ft)

42,000 MSL +- 500 7 25 35 1.1 48 6 800 700 1200

20,000 MSL +- 500 7 25 35 1.1 48 5 700 600 850
10,000 MSL +- 500 6 22 30 0.8 45 4 600 400 850
5,000 MSL +- 500 5 20 25 0.55 40 3 600 350 850
2350 AGL +- 200 4 18 20 0.35 30 2 600 300 850
1000 AGL +- 100 3 15 15 0.2 25 1 600 300 850
-6000 AGL 2 20 1 600 300 850

TAU Time to CPA 1550’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits INCREASE DESCEND RAs
CPA Closest Point of Approach 1100’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits DESCEND RAs
DMOD Distance Modifier 1000’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all RAs
Layer Altitude Layer 500’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all Aural Alerts
ZTHR Fixed Threshold (RA)
ZTHR TA Fixed Threshold (TA)
ALIM Miss Distance
VTT Variable Threshold Test
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 Illustration of the horizontal test

TCAS
Intruder
35 seconds

The collision avoidance criterion is a generally a time parameter

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 RA sense selection

Threat

CPA
ALIM
TCAS
'upward'

ALIM
'downward'

The 'downward' sense will achieve ALIM, the 'upward' sense will not.
The 'downward' option is therefore selected.

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 RA without altitude crossing

TCAS

‘Climb’ RA
issued CPA

Threat
ALIM
ALIM

Both 'downward' and 'upward' senses will achieve ALIM. The 'upward'
sense is selected because it prevents the TCAS aircraft from
crossing through the intruder's altitude
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 Target on-the-ground determination

1,700 feet above ground level

(Threshold below which TCAS checks for targets on the ground)

Barometric Declared
altimeter airborne
Radar
altimeter
value

Declared
on ground 380-foot allowance
Declared
on ground
Ground level
Standard altimeter setting Estimated elevation of ground

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 Miss Distance Filtering

TCAS

Intruder
35 se
cond
s
TCAS A/C
ground speed
HMD Intruder
ground speed

TCAS computes the Horizontal

Miss Distance (HMD).
If the HMD is "sufficient", no RA

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 Alerts: "Traffic Advisory"

z Thresholds:
z horizontal: 20 to 48 s (or DMOD = 0.3 to 1.3 NM)
z vertical: 20 to 48 s (or ZTHR = 850 or 1,200 ft)

z Aural annunciation: "Traffic, traffic”

z Intruder: solid amber circle
z Helps to the visual acquisition of the intruder
z Prepares the crew for a possible RA
z No manoeuvres shall be made in response to TA
z TA shall not be reported to ATC
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 Alerts: "Resolution Advisory"

z Thresholds:
z horizontal: 15 to 35 s (or DMOD = 0.2 to 1.1 NM)
z vertical: 15 to 35 s (or ZTHR = 600 to 800 ft)

z Aural annunciations: "climb", "descend", "increase climb", "increase

descent", "monitor vertical speed", etc.
z Display of a range of vertical speeds or attitudes to avoid
z Objective: a safe vertical distance ALIM varying from 300 to 700 ft
z An RA takes into account all existing threats
z The RA intensity is checked and revised, if necessary, every second

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 Alerts: “Resolution Advisory”

z The pilot must react within 5 seconds

z A vertical speed of +/-1,500 fpm (acceleration = 0.25 g) is generally
required, but may vary according to the event
z Pilots shall never manoeuvre in the opposite sense to the TCAS RA
(RAs are coordinated with other suitably equipped aircraft)
z The pilot must inform ATC as soon as possible
z The "Clear of Conflict" message is issued when the aircraft diverge
horizontally
z The pilot must then resume the ATC clearance

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 TCAS Advantages

z Independent system, which acts as a last resort safety barrier

z Highly accurate distance measurements, with a one-second refresh

rate

z All threats taken into account

z TCAS-TCAS co-ordination

z Detection of all transponding aircraft, including those which are not

displayed on the controller’s screen

z TCAS II reduced the risk of mid-air collision

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 Limitations: General

z No detection of aircraft without or not operating transponders (e.g.

VFRs, military flights)

z No knowledge of the pilot’s intentions and of the ATC separation

minima

z Basic display: no identification, no past positions, no speed vector

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 Limitations: Unnecessary Alerts

z Some alerts seen by the pilots and controllers as unnecessary

(nuisance) alerts, especially 1000-ft level offs

z The alerts are unnecessary only in hindsight

z Limited horizontal tracking – unless ground tracks of both aircraft

remain very straight, an RA can be generated even if the aircraft are
3 NM apart

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 Operational impact: Pilots

z An RA is usually stressful experience: surprise, very rapid

development (around 30 s)

z Consequences:
z frequently excessive deviations (observed average: 650 ft)
z slow returns to the ATC clearance (brief loss of confidence)
z discussions on the frequency and correct phraseology not always used

z Crews often use the TCAS display as a surveillance tool: high risk of
misinterpretation

z Air crew training is essential

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 Operational impact: Controllers

z Consequences of an RA:
z Disturbance to the tactical control plan
z Possibility of an induced conflict, although TCAS has a multiple threat
processing
z Frequency overload, initial lack of understanding

z In practice:
z Controller will not know about the RA until notified by the pilot
z If the RA event is known, the controller must cease issuing any
instructions, but should provide traffic information
z The controller must not consider the TCAS equipment of the aircraft to
establish and maintain spacing (ICAO)

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 Doc. 8168 (1/3)

Airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) indications shall be used by pilots in the
avoidance of potential collisions, the enhancement of situational awareness, and the active
search for, and visual acquisition of, conflicting traffic.
Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.1.1

Pilots should use appropriate procedures by which an aeroplane climbing or descending to

an assigned altitude or flight level, especially with an autopilot engaged, may do so at a rate
less than 8 m/s (or 1 500 ft/min) throughout the last 300 m (or 1 000 ft) of climb or descent to
the assigned altitude or flight level when the pilot is made aware of another aircraft at or
approaching an adjacent altitude or flight level, unless otherwise instructed by ATC. These
procedures are intended to avoid unnecessary airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS II)
resolution advisories in aircraft at or approaching adjacent altitudes or flight levels. For
commercial operations, these procedures should be specified by the operator.

Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.3

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 Doc. 8168 (2/3)

Nothing in the procedures specified in 3.2 hereunder shall prevent pilots-in-command from exercising
their best judgement and full authority in the choice of the best course of action to resolve a traffic
conflict or avert a potential collision.

Note 1.— The ability of ACAS to fulfil its role of assisting pilots in the avoidance of potential collisions is
dependent on the correct and timely response by pilots to ACAS indications. Operational experience
has shown that the correct response by pilots is dependent on the effectiveness of initial and recurrent
training in ACAS procedures.
Note 2.— ACAS II Training Guidelines for Pilots are provided in Attachment A to Part VIII.

Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.1.2

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 Doc. 8168 (3/3)

In the event of an RA, pilots shall:

1) respond immediately by following the RA as indicated, unless doing so would jeopardize the safety of the aeroplane;
Note 1. —Stall warning, wind shear, and ground proximity warning system alerts have precedence over ACAS
Note 2.— Visually acquired traffic may not be the same traffic causing an RA. Visual perception of an encounter may be misleading, particularly
at night.
2) follow the RA even if there is a conflict between the RA and an air traffic control (ATC) instruction to manoeuvre;
3) not manoeuvre in the opposite sense to an RA;
Note.— In the case of an ACAS-ACAS coordinated encounter, the RAs complement each other in order to reduce the potential for collision.
Manoeuvres, or lack of manoeuvres, that result in vertical rates opposite to the sense of an RA could result in a collision with the threat aircraft.
4) as soon as possible, as permitted by aircrew workload, notify the appropriate ATC unit of any RA which requires a deviation
from the current air traffic control instruction or clearance;
Note.— Unless informed by the pilot, ATC does not know when ACAS issues RAs. It is possible for ATC to issue instructions that are
unknowingly contrary to ACAS RA indications. Therefore, it is important that ATC be notified when an ATC instruction or clearance is not being
followed because it conflicts with an RA.
5) promptly comply with any modified RAs;
6) limit the alterations of the flight path to the minimum extent necessary to comply with the RAs;
7) promptly return to the terms of the ATC instruction or clearance when the conflict is resolved; and
8) notify ATC when returning to the current clearance.
Note.— Procedures in regard to ACAS-equipped aircraft and the phraseology to be used for the notification of manoeuvres in response to a
resolution advisory are contained in the PANS-ATM (Doc 4444), Chapters 15 and 12, respectively.

Doc. 8168, part VIII para. 3.2.c

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 Doc. 4444 (1/2)

When a pilot reports an ACAS resolution advisory (RA), the controller shall not attempt
to modify the aircraft flight path until the pilot reports “Clear of Conflict”.

Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.2

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 Doc. 4444 (2/2)

Once an aircraft departs from its ATC clearance or instruction in compliance with an RA, or a
pilot reports an RA, the controller ceases to be responsible for providing separation between
that aircraft and any other aircraft affected as a direct consequence of the manoeuvre induced
by the RA. The controller shall resume responsibility for providing separation for all the affected
aircraft when:
a) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft has
resumed the current clearance; or
b) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft is resuming
the current clearance and issues an alternative clearance which is acknowledged by the flight
crew.

Note.— Pilots are required to report RAs which require a deviation from the current ATC
clearance or instruction (see PANS-OPS, Volume I, Part III, Section 3, Chapter 3, 3.2 c) 4)).
This report informs the controller that a deviation from clearance or instruction is taking place
in response to an ACAS RA.
Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.3

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 RA Phraseology (Doc. 4444)
... after a flight crew starts to deviate from any ATC clearance or instruction to comply with an ACAS resolution advisory (RA)
(Pilot and controller interchange):

PILOT: [callsign] TCAS RA;

ATC: [callsign] ROGER;
... after the response to an ACAS RA is completed and a return to the ATC clearance or instruction is initiated (Pilot and
controller interchange):

PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT, RETURNING TO (assigned clearance);

ATC: [callsign] ROGER (or alternative instructions);
… after the response to an ACAS RA is completed and the assigned ATC clearance or instruction has been resumed (Pilot and
controller interchange):

PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT, RETURNING TO (assigned clearance);

ATC: [callsign] ROGER (or alternative instructions);
… after an ATC clearance or instruction contradictory to the ACAS RA is received, the flight crew will follow the RA and inform
ATC directly (Pilot and controller interchange):

PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT (assigned clearance) RESUMED;

ATC: [callsign] ROGER;
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 RA & Aural Alerts (TCAS II version 7.0)
Upward sense Downward sense

Required vertical Required vertical

RA Aural RA Aural
rate (fpm) rate (fpm)

Climb 1500 Climb, climb Descend – 1500 Descend, descend

Climb, crossing climb; Climb, Descend, crossing descend;

Crossing climb 1500 Crossing descend – 1500
crossing climb Descend, crossing descend
Maintain vertical speed,
Maintain climb 1500 to 4400 Maintain descend – 1500 to – 4400 Maintain vertical speed, maintain
maintain
Maintain crossing Maintain vertical speed, Maintain crossing Maintain vertical speed, crossing
1500 to 4400 – 1500 to – 4400
climb crossing maintain descend maintain
>0 <0
> – 500 < +500
Reduce climb Adjust vertical speed, adjust Reduce descent Adjust vertical speed, adjust
> – 1000 < +1000
> – 2000 < +2000
Climb, climb NOW; Climb, climb Descend, descend NOW;
Reversal climb 1500 Reversal descent – 1500
NOW Descend, descend NOW

Increase descent, increase

Increase climb 2500 Increase climb, increase climb Increase descent 2500
descent

Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed

RA Removed — Clear of conflict RA Removed — Clear of conflict

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