153

COAGULATION
9
A unit process in which settling is improved by the agglomeration of small particles into larger
particles.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Coagulation is employed to remove small particles that would otherwise not settle within the time frame of
interest. Coagulation alters the settling velocity distribution of the particulate suspension through the ag-
glomeration of small particles into large particles with greater settling velocities. Of particular interest are
the fine suspended solids. The process improves the removal efficiency within the original design settling
time or allows for a smaller facility to achieve the original removal goal.

Presented in Figure 9.1 is the conceptual framework for coagulation. The effectiveness of the coagulation
process is defined by the fine colloidal suspension, the water chemistry, the type of coagulant that is used,
and the energy imparted to the mixing process. Coagulation occurs naturally in several treatment systems,
a product of the flocculent nature of stormwater and biological activity.

FIGURE 9.1
Unit process – Coagulation
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As illustrated in Figure 9.1, chemical coagulation is a
two step process: destabilization and flocculation.47,352,1209
Suspensions of small particles are stable; i.e., they resist
aggregation into larger particles. A coagulant destabi-
lizes the suspension. Flocculation is the aggregation of
the destabilized suspension into larger particles. Una-
nimity does not exist on the terminology of coagulation.
Some consider coagulation to be the destabilization step,
with flocculation as a separate process.1209 Here, co-
agulation is inclusive of both steps.
Coagulation is achieved either with the aid of chemicals
called coagulants or solely by mixing, although the latter
is less effective. Coagulation occurs naturally in water
bodies such as wetlands and lakes. Coagulation may or
may not involve precipitation.
Aluminum and ferric salts precipitate dissolved phos-
phorus and metals, while forming hydroxide flocs that
remove the suspended solids. In some cases, the intent
of the chemicals is to remove dissolved pollutants with
coagulation as the means to settle the precipitate. Or,
conversely, the objective is removal of suspended solids
with precipitation as a less important secondary benefit.
Zinc, copper and other dissolved metals sorb to ferric-
hydroxide flocs. Fresh flocs formed in coagulation sys-
tems are particularly effective.1631,1683 Coagulation also
removes bacteria and viruses as they are colloids. Bac-
teria and viruses sorb to inorganic colloids which are
also removed.
9.2 DESTABILIZATION
The objective of the first step in the coagulation process
is to destabilize the suspension. Fine particles are di-
vided into two classes: colloids and small silt (clay), rang-
ing from 0.01 to about 25 microns (Figure 3.3). Larger
particles settle quickly without the aid of coagulants. It
is possible to flocculate silts, relying solely on mechani-
cal mixing.
The feasibility of mixing without chemicals is discussed
in this chapter. However, colloids strongly resist aggre-
gating without coagulants and stirring. Without these aids
Chapter 9.
it is very difficult to bring together particles smaller than
5 microns. Chemical enhancement also benefits the ag-
glomeration of particles 5 to 25 microns. Inasmuch as
colloids have diameters as small as 0.01 micron, coagu-
lation has the potential to remove dissolved pollutants
(Figure 3.3) without the intermediate step of precipita-
tion.
Stable suspensions
An electrical charge, almost always negative, is present
on colloids in water: clays and silts, bacteria, algae, and
fine organic material. The suspension is stable because
the charge is sufficient to prevent aggregation of par-
ticles with the same charge without considerable time or
assistance. The classic description of the surface charge
is illustrated in Figure 3.9 in Chapter 3. The charge cre-
ates a layer with electrostatic potential, illustrated in Fig-
ure 9.2. As two particles come closer, their respective
diffuse layers of electrical potential interact, creating a
repulsive force, Fr. The repulsive force increases as the
distance decreases between the two particles.
FIGURE 9.2
Forces on interacting colloids
Attractive forces, Fa, known collectively as London van
der Waals Forces are also present. These physical forces
are related to the interaction of electron clouds surround-
ing atoms. The summation of these two forces defines
the net repulsive force, Fr, and the relative stability of
the suspension. The negative repulsion force is overcome
by a combination of coagulants, mixing, and time.