.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGYLymphatic System

The lymphatic system consists of organs, ducts, and nodes. It transports a watery clear fluid
called lymph. This fluid distributes immune cells and other factors throughout the body. It
also interacts with the blood circulatory system to drain fluid from cells and tissues. The
lymphatic system contains immune cells called lymphocytes, which protect the body against
antigens (viruses, bacteria, etc.) that invade the body. See more on lymphocytes below.
Main Functions of Lymphatic System

To collect and return interstitial fluid, including plasma protein to the blood,and thus help
maintain fluid balance,
To defend the body against disease by producing lymphocytes,
To absorb lipids from the intestine and transport them to the blood.
Lymph organs include the bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. Precursor cells in
the bone marrow produce lymphocytes. B-lymphocytes (B-cells) mature in the bone marrow.
T-lymphocytes (T-cells) mature in the thymus gland.
Lymph Nodes - A lymph node is an organized collection of lymphoid tissue, through which
the lymph passes on its way to returning to the blood. Lymph nodes are located at intervals
along the lymphatic system. Several afferent lymph vessels bring in lymph, which percolates
through the substance of the lymph node, and is drained out by an efferent lymph vessel.
The Cardiovascular System

The heart and circulatory system make up the cardiovascular system. The heart

works as a pump that pushes blood to the organs, tissues, and cells of the body. Blood

delivers oxygen and nutrients to every cell and removes the carbon dioxide and waste

products made by those cells. Blood is carried from the heart to the rest of the body through

a complex network of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. Blood is returned to the heart

through venules and veins.

The one-way circulatory system carries blood to all parts of the body. This process

of blood flow within the body is called circulation. Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away

from the heart, and veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. In pulmonary

circulation, though, the roles are switched. It is the pulmonary artery that brings oxygen-

poor blood into the lungs and the pulmonary vein that brings oxygen-rich blood back to the

heart. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill

Int. NY 10020 2005)

Twenty major arteries make a path through the tissues, where they branch into smaller

vessels called arterioles. Arterioles further branch into capillaries, the true deliverers of

oxygen and nutrients to the cells. Most capillaries are thinner than a hair. In fact, many are

so tiny, only one blood cell can move through them at a time. Once the capillaries deliver

oxygen and nutrients and pick up carbon dioxide and other waste, they move the blood back

through wider vessels called venules. Venules eventually join to form veins, which deliver

the blood back to the heart to pick up oxygen. Vasoconstriction or the spasm of smooth

muscles around the blood vessels causes and decrease in blood flow but an increase in

pressure. In vasodilation, the lumen of the blood vessel increase in diameter thereby

allowing increase in blood flow. There is no tension on the walls of the vessels therefore,

there is lower pressure. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th

edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Various external factors also cause changes in blood pressure and pulse rate. An

elevation or decline may be detrimental to health. Changes may also be caused or

aggravated by other disease conditions existing in other parts of the body.

The blood is part of the circulatory system. Whole blood contains three types of
blood cells, including: red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

These three types of blood cells are mostly manufactured in the bone marrow of the

vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, skull, and sternum. These cells travel through the circulatory system

suspended in a yellowish fluid called plasma. Plasma is 90% water and contains nutrients,

proteins, hormones, and waste products. Whole blood is a mixture of blood cells and plasma.

Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes) are shaped like slightly indented, flattened

disks. Red blood cells contain an iron-rich protein called hemoglobin. Blood gets its bright

red color when hemoglobin in red blood cells picks up oxygen in the lungs. As the blood

travels through the body, the hemoglobin releases oxygen to the tissues. The body contains

more red blood cells than any other type of cell, and each red blood cell has a life span of
about 4 months. Each day, the body produces new red blood cells to replace those that die

or are lost from the body.

White blood cells (also called leukocytes) are a key part of the body's system for

defending itself against infection. They can move in and out of the bloodstream to reach

affected tissues. The blood contains far fewer white blood cells than red cells, although the

body can increase production of white blood cells to fight infection. There are several types

of white blood cells, and their life spans vary from a few days to months. New cells are

constantly being formed in the bone marrow.

Several different parts of blood are involved in fighting infection. White blood cells called
granulocytes and lymphocytes travel along the walls of blood vessels. They fight bacteria
and viruses and may also attempt to destroy cells that have become infected or have
changed into cancer cells. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and

Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Certain types of white blood cells produce antibodies, special proteins that

recognize foreign materials and help the body destroy or neutralize them. When a person

has an infection, his or her white cell count often is higher than when he or she is well

because more white blood cells are being produced or are entering the bloodstream to

battle the infection. After the body has been challenged by some infections, lymphocytes

remember how to make the specific antibodies that will quickly attack the same germ if it

enters the body again.

Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are tiny oval-shaped cells made in the bone

marrow. They help in the clotting process. When a blood vessel breaks, platelets gather in

the area and help seal off the leak. Platelets survive only about 9 days in the bloodstream

and are constantly being replaced by new cells.

Blood also contains important proteins called clotting factors, which are critical to

the clotting process. Although platelets alone can plug small blood vessel leaks and
temporarily stop or slow bleeding, the action of clotting factors is needed to produce a

strong, stable clot.

Platelets and clotting factors work together to form solid lumps to seal leaks,

wounds, cuts, and scratches and to prevent bleeding inside and on the surfaces of our

bodies. The process of clotting is like a puzzle with interlocking parts. When the last part is

in place, the clot is formed.

When large blood vessels are cut the body may not be able to repair itself through

clotting alone. In these cases, dressings or stitches are used to help control bleeding.

In addition to the cells and clotting factors, blood contains other important

substances, such as nutrients from the food that has been processed by the digestive

system. Blood also carries hormones released by the endocrine glands and carries them to

the body parts that need them. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology

5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Blood is essential for good health because the body depends on a steady supply of

fuel and oxygen to reach its billions of cells. Even the heart couldn't survive without blood

flowing through the vessels that bring nourishment to its muscular walls. Blood also carries

carbon dioxide and other waste materials to the lungs, kidneys, and digestive system, from

where they are removed from the body. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and

Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

IMMUNE SYSTEM

An immune system is a collection of biological processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying

and killing pathogens and tumour cells. It detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and needs to

distinguish them from the organism's own healthy cells and tissues in order to function properly. Detection is complicated

as pathogens can evolve rapidly; producing adaptations that avoid the immune system

and allow the pathogens to successfully infect their hosts.

To survive this challenge, multiple mechanisms evolved that recognize and neutralize pathogens. Even simple unicellular

organisms such as bacteria possess enzyme systems that protect against viral infections. Other basic immune mechanisms

evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their modern descendants, such as plants, fish, reptiles, and insects. These

mechanisms include antimicrobial peptides called defensins, phagocytosis, and the complement system. Vertebrates such

as humans have even more sophisticated defense

mechanisms. The immune systems of vertebrates consist of many types of proteins, cells, organs, and tissues, which
interact in an elaborate and dynamic network. As part of this more complex immune response, the human immune system
adapts over time to recognise specific pathogens more efficiently. This adaptation process is referred to as "adaptive
immunity" or "acquired immunity" and creates immunological memory.

Immunological memory created from a primary response to a specific pathogen, provides an enhanced response to

secondary encounters with that same, specific pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination.

Disorders in the immune system can result in

disease. Immunodeficiency diseases occur when

the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. Immunodeficiency can

either be the result of a genetic disease, such as severe combined immunodeficiency, or be produced by pharmaceuticals or

an infection, such as the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) that is caused by the retrovirus HIV. In contrast,

autoimmune diseases result from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms.

Common autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1 and lupus erythematosus.

Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system which has significant relevance to human health and

diseases. Further investigation in this field is expected to play a serious role in promotion of health and treatment of

diseases.