Automatic control principles and algorithms

Automatic control 16 - 1
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
It should never be forgotten that the rate of

advance of science depends a great deal on
advances in techniques of measurement.
- Isaac Asimov
Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

16 - 2 Automatic Control
Synopsis
The essential elements of Control philosophy and terminology are outlined. Lag and
Inherent Regulation are explained.
Control algorithms are examined using Open/Closed Loop behaviour: on/off, multi-
step, proportional, integral, Derivative, PD, PI. These are presented with reference to
Offset and Tuning Rules.
Multivariable Control, involving cascade, ratio, selective, feed forward, adaptive and
computed schemes are overviewed.
Fail-safe action and the historical development of Centralised and Distributed control,
Expert Systems and Fuzzy Logic fill out the basic list of concepts.
❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖
Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Introduction
As the complexity of industrial processes has increased, there has been a consequent increase in the
number of process variables (such as temperature, pressure, flow, pH) to be controlled, and it has
become increasingly evident that further development would be difficult or even impossible without
the aid of devices which would automatically measure and control at least some of these process
variables. Automatic control does not replace the human operators but rather supplements them.
The first essential in a control system is consistent measurement. An automatic controller makes
much greater demands upon the measuring element than does a simple indicator or recorder, and all
precautions which are necessary to obtain a consistent reproducible indication of a variable become
even more important when the measuring element is used with a controller.
Fig. 16.1
Control Principles
The essence of simple automatic control is:
i) The state of the process is measured.
ii) This measurement is compared to the desired value or state in the controller.
iii) The controller responds in a pre-defined way to reduce any discrepancy between (i) &
(ii).
iv) The output of the controller is translated by a correcting unit to alter the state of the
process.
Definitions that follow from the above are:
Process Variable (PV) - the actual measurement of the state of the process.
Set Point (SP) - the desired state of the process variable.

Control Algorithm - the pre-defined response of the controller to PV-SP

Controller Output (O/P) - a signal (pneumatic, hydraulic, electric) determined by the
control algorithm.
Offset - the value of PV - SP when the system is in equilibrium.
Other Useful Definitions

Mode - A selected method of Controller Operation (eg) Automatic,
Manual, Remote.
Open loop - Where there is no self-correcting action when the actual
controlled variable misses the desired value.
Closed Loop - Pertains to a system with feedback such that the output is
modified by the input. The block diagram of the simplified
Control Loop above is an example.
Gain (K) - The ratio of a controllers
Output (O) to Input (I)
O
K = Gain = 
I
Proportional Band (P.B.) - The variation in Controller input corresponding to 0-100%

output shift from the controller.
1 100 I
 % =  % =  x 100%
K GAIN O
Direct Acting Controllers - As the value of the measured variable increases, the output of
the controller increases.
Reverse Acting Controllers - As the value of the measured variable increases, the output of
the controller decreases.
Lags - A lag is a relative measure of the time delay between 2 events.

a. Measurement Lags
The measuring unit may take time to respond to new state of the process. An example would
be a temperature element which needs to reach thermal equilibrium with the new state of the
process.
Typically, such lags are characterised by a time-constant.
Fig. 16.2
The time constant is designated by T (tau).
T = (1 - e-1) %
The time constant corresponds to 63.2% of output. The heat flow through a thermowell
might involve joule losses through conductance to the atmosphere. This will attenuate the
effects of the process change.

b. Dead Time
Dead time is sometimes called delay time or transportation delay and is the interval of time
between initiation of an input change or stimulus and the start of the resulting observable
response. Dead time results from such effects as the time it takes for a material to move from
one point to another, or for mixing to occur, e.g., fluid through a pipe or material on a conveyor
belt.
Fig. 16.3
Inherent Regulation
A plant possesses inherent regulation when, in the absence of a controller, equilibrium is re-
established after a disturbance.
For example, a tank with constant inflow is in equilibrium. The outflow valve is then opened a little
more. The outflow pressure decreases as the tank level falls until inflow again equals outflow.
Manipulation of the outflow valve result in different, unique equilibrium states.
Control Algorithms
a. On-Off Control.
This is merely a switch arranged to be off (or on as required) when the error is positive and on
(or off) when the error is negative.
It is normal practice to design the on-off controller so that the switch changes over once the
error signal reaches a certain positive or negative value (as the case may be) rather than
change over when the error signal is exactly zero - otherwise the switch could open and close
at such a fast rate that the contacts and/or the final control element could fail prematurely.
This range over which the measured variable must move to change control from one state to
the other is called the differential of the controller. The differential may be fixed or adjustable.

A plot of measured variable versus time for a system using an on-off controller is shown in
the diagram below:
Fig. 16.4
On-off control is normally used where this cycling can be tolerated. On-off control is the
cheapest type of controller available and it works best where the system is such that the rates
of change of the measured variable with changes of manipulated variable are slow. It is used
in nearly every domestic appliance requiring automatic control, e.g. refrigerators, irons, hot
water services, space and central heating systems.
b. Multi-Step Action
If the operator has the choice of more than two positions of the control valve, and moves the
valve into these positions at predetermined input values, then the controller action which is
simulated is described as multi-step action.
Fig. 16.5
An example of multiposition control is the control of a multicylinder compressor. From a

measurement of suction or delivery pressure, the multi-position controller engages or
disengages the compressor cylinders sequentially until the number of cylinders required to
handle the load are in use. If the compressor load then remains steady, the controller cycles
the number of cylinders in use between one below and one above load requirements.

c. Proportional (P)
In this type of control, the controller output (O/P) is proportional to the difference between
Process Variable (PV) and the Set Point (SP)
The Algorithm is:
- (PV - SP) + Constant

O/P = 
Proportional
Band
(Constant is normally 50%)
Fig. 16.6
100
Tan Θ = Gain = 
Proportional
Band
Fig. 16.7
Proportional action is used where the cycling action (hunting) of two-position control is undesirable.

d. Offset
When a disturbance alters the process away from the set-point, the controller acts to restore initial
conditions.
Let’s assume that the input flow is increased to a tank being maintained at a constant temperature.
Once equilibrium is restored, it is noticed that the tank returns to a stable but slightly lower temperature
than before. If this difference in initial and final temperatures (offset) didn’t exist, the controller
output would be the same as it was prior to the disturbance but the greater quantity of inflow would
again cause a temperature drop and an endless cycling would be generated.
Fig. 16.8
Many controllers have a ‘manual reset’. This enables the operator to manipulate the ‘constant’ term
of the algorithm to eliminate offset.
e. Integral (I)
In this case the output of the controller changes at a rate proportional to the offset.
d (O/P) = constant x - (PV-SP)

dt
- Ts ⌠
or O/P = constant x  (PV - SP) dt
Ti ⌡
The controller output is the progressive summation of the individual (SP-PV) differences
each time the system is sampled (Ts). This sampling/output cycle gives rise to a common
alternative name for the algorithm - “repeats per minute”.
Ti is the ‘integral time’. It is the time taken for integral action to produce a change in controller
output equal to that of proportional action.
As such, it is the time taken for integral action to counter the ‘offset’ induced by Proportional
Action alone.

This diagram shows the response of an Integral controller in the “Open-Loop” condition
Fig. 16.9
In the situation above, the controller output continues to increase (wind-up) in an attempt to
bring the PV back to the set-point.
If we consider the tank situation used before, the controller’s attempts to re-heat the contents
under the increased flow conditions are shown below.
Fig. 16.10

f. Derivative (D)
In this algorithm, the controllers output is proportional to the rate at which the difference
between the measured and desirable value changes.
-TD d(PV - SP)

O/P = constant x  
TS dt
TD is the Derivative Time. It is the time taken for Derivative Action to produce a change in
controller output equal to that of proportional action.
As such, it shortens the time taken to reach offset.
Fig. 16.11
Again, the heating of the tank example illustrates the effects.

Fig. 16.12
g. PD CONTROL
Derivative Control is seldom used in isolation as it tends to introduce instability. Often
Proportional and Derivative Control are applied.
Fig. 16.13

The effect of the Derivative Term is to pre-empt or kick-start the control action.
h. PI Control
The most commonly used control strategy.
Fig. 16.14
Tuning
The correct determination of Gain, Integral of Derivative Times to give optimal control gives rise to
the ‘tuned’ loop.
Tuning Rules
The broadly used tuning rules were first developed and published by Ziegler and Nichols in 1942.
Frequency response analysis was developed as a useful method early in World War II. It was not
until this analysis tool began to spread to the industrial world about 1950 that the striking simplicity
and technical validity of the Ziegler and Nichols rules began to be appreciated.
Closed Loop Technique
1. Turn the reset time to its longest or highest setting (reset rate in repeats per minute to its
lowest or shortest setting).
2. If used, turn the derivative time (rate time) to zero or its minimum.
3. Increase the gain (decrease the proportional band) until the loop maintains a small sustained
cycle. Note the period of the cycle, Pn, to be called the natural period. Implant this securely
in your mind.

4. Then set the controller adjustments to:

Kc = Kcu /2 where KC = Gain (% output / % input)
= 100/Proportional Band.
KCU = ultimate gain, same units.
That which produced the sustained cycle (u = ultimate)
Ti = Pn Ti = Reset or inegral time, minutes (per repeat)
Reciprocal of reset rate, repeat/minute
Pn = Natural period of minutes, established in step 3
Td = Pn/8 Td = Derivative time, min
These may not be precisely the coefficients presented by Ziegler and Nichols, but they are close
enough.
Open Loop Techniques
Place the controller in manual, and when the process is sufficiently stable, make a small sustained
change in the controller output, called a step change. The process response is expected to look
something like this:
Fig. 16.15
Then set Kc = 1/RL

Ti = 4L
Td = L/2
Note the RL combination which determines the gain. The co-ordinates as labelled do not yield the
dimension givenfor R. Normalise the slope calculations to give the dimensions given for R.

The only time to use the open loop approach is on slow processes, such as temperature. On fast
processes such as flow, pressure and level, the closed loop approach is so much faster and more
certain.
On rare occasions, the slope R will continue to increase. That situation is not covered by these
tuning rules. Also on rare occasions, the response may go in the opposite direction first. That case
also is excluded.
Multivariable Control
Pure feedback control does have its shortcomings. For example, by its nature an actual deviation
from set-point is required before control is implemented. Occasionally there are stability problems.
To overcome this, more than one measured variable is used to manipulate the process variable.
a. Cascade Control
Fig. 16.16
The control scheme is feedback in nature with the significant difference that the set-point is
set remotely.
The Controller 2 acts as the master (primary) controller for the slave (secondary) controller.
The advantages of cascade control are:
1. Disturbances originating within the secondary control loop are corrected by the slave
controller before they can influence the controlled variable.
2. Gain variations (e.g. due to non-linearities) are overcome within the secondary loop.
3. The presence of the slave controller tends to allow tighter control action from the master
controller.
The disadvantages of cascade control are:-
1. The additional cost of the slave control loop components.
2. The additional complexity associated with setting up the control system initially.
The greatest benefit of cascade control is obtained when major disturbances originate within
the secondary loop whose response time is fast compared with that of the primary loop. The

slave controller can correct for disturbances arising within the manipulated variable flow
system (e.g. supply pressure) thus effectively isolating the main part of the process from
supply side disturbances. A proportional controller is normally sufficient for the slave controller.
b Ratio Control
Fig. 16.17
With ratio control, the system is required to maintain one variable at some ratio to that of
another uncontrolled (or wild) variable. This is achieved with a feedback control loop around
the controlled variable. However, the controller set point signal is obtained from a ratio unit
which is fed with the measurement signal from the uncontrolled variable. The means of
adjusting ratio is embodied in the ratio unit, either with some manual adjustment or from
some remotely obtained ratio signal.
The applications where ratio control is called for are normally clear cut. Flow is the most
common variable where ratio control is required. Typical applications for flow ratio control
are in blending systems, of which a special case is that for controlling the feed blend or
composition to a reactor of some sort. Fuel/air ratio control systems are normally used on
combustion equipment, e.g. boilers.
Where analogue-signal instrumentation is used in a ratio control scheme, the range of flows
and ratios which can be handled is limited by the accuracy of the instrumentation. For example,
if the accuracy of the controlled flow measuring instrument is 0.5% FS, the accuracy of this
instrument at a low flow of, say, 10% FS deteriorates to 5%. To overcome this limitation,
digital blending systems have been developed. The flow sensing elements are turbine
flowmeters which have an inherent digital output and which themselves have a wide
rangeability.
The algorithm governing the output of a Ratio Controller is
O/P = RATIO x PV wild + Constant
This Constant is called the BIAS.

c. Selective Control
The control output signal is selected from 2 or more signals, usually a safety override.
Fig. 16.18
In this example, pump speed is controlled to maintain discharge pressure, providing suction
pressure does not get below set point.
The normal mode of implementation is to provide each variable with its own controller. The
upstream controller is ‘direct acting’.The output signals are fed to a selector unit which selects
either the higher or the lower of the two signals and delivers this to the final control element.
The scheme is easily extendable to more than two variables.
Selective control schemes are used mainly to provide protection to a piece of equipment
which could suffer damage as a result of abnormal operating conditions. Another typical case
arises with rotary compressors which are subject to damage through “surging” if the delivery
flow rate is restricted excessively. Controllers are therefore provided for pressure and flow at
the compressor delivery. The final control element could be a control valve which bypasses
gas around the compressor.
d. Feed Forward Control
Controller output is a calculated value, using measurements that are indicative of process
load. The objective is to modulate the manipulated variable in response to changing plant
load. This gives smoother control than feedback control, but because feed forward is seldom
perfect, feedback is usually added as a trim.
Fig. 16.19

This is the oldest and most common example of feed forward - 3 element drum level. Basically,
it is a mass balance system - for every kg of steam generated, a kg of water is added. Drum
level control provides the feedback trim. This counteracts long term drift in the system.
The advantage of feedforward control is:
1. The system is always stable.
The disadvantages of feedforward control are:
1. Any disturbances which are not included in the feed forward control loop are not
corrected for in anyway whatsoever.
2. For best results, a feedforward control scheme requires frequent checking and
possible adjustment to ensure the accuracy of the system.
The designer of a feedforward control system must consider two aspects, the
magnitude of the correction for a particular disturbances (i.e. the steady state
aspect) and the time interval which must elapse from the moment the disturbance
is detected until correction is applied (i.e. the dynamic aspects). Achieving close
compensation can become a complex task if both aspects are considered together
for non-ideal types of disturbances.
e. Adaptive Control
The algorithms for feedback control which we looked at earlier have fixed constants, eg.
“Proportional Band”. “Integral Time”. “Derivative Time”. These are normally “Tuned” during
plant commissioning to give optimum controller response. In practice, a fixed constant is not
always the best arrangement to maintain good control under changing plant conditions.
Adaptive control means adapting tuning constants to suit current operating conditions.
f. Computed Controlled Variable Schemes
In principle, this is a feedback control loop in which the controlled variable cannot be measured
directly. Its value must be computed from one or more process measurement.
The simplest cases are differential measurements, e.g. differential pressure and differential
temperature. The required controlled variables is merely the difference between two quantities.
In fact, these barely make the classification of multivariable.
A more complex case is mass flow rate, which is the product of a volumetric flow and a
density. With gases, the density can be computed from pressure and temperature measurements.
If the flow signal comes from an orifice flowmeter, the square root must be extracted from the
composite flowtimes-density signal. Special purpose “mass flow computers” are marketed
for this particular application.
There is no limit these days to the complexity of the computation available to produce a
controlled variable. If the computation principle is simple, then analogue hardware may be
used. For more complex cases, a digital computer may be a more practical proposition.
One difficulty to be considered is the difference in the response times of the various
measurements. A particular case in point is a differential temperature (or composition)
measurement where the requirement is the difference arising through a stream undergoing
some processing operation. The measurement at the outlet of the processing unit must be
related to the inlet measurement of the same element of fluid before it entered the processing

unit. In this case provision must be made for storing the inlet measurements until the
corresponding outlet measurement has been made. Furthermore, it may even be necessary to
provide automatic correction for changes in stream flow rate.
Without these corrections, quite misleading information could be fed to the controller.
Fail Safe Action

All control valves or other final operators on a process plant are designed to fail safe. In other
words, on failure of control signal the valve will shut if a closed position is a safe shutdown condition.
Alternatively, it will open if an open position will give a safe shutdown condition.
A plant operator, particularly when he is operating a control loop in manual mode, has to modulate
the control signal to the valve in the right direction. He has to increase the output signal to a “Fail-
Close” valve to open it, and decrease the signal to a “Fail-Open” valve to open it.
He therefore needs to know which way to modulate the output and the system display should tell
him.
The output from a control system must suit the fail safe action of the valve.
History
Centralised Control
The transmission system that evolved to allow centralised control to take place was the pneumatic
(low pressure air) line and the pneumatic controller. Such a controller would receive a signal from
a sensor through a piece of tubing at a given air pressure, operate on this signal through an ingenious
system of bellows, flapper nozzles and levers that is a tribute to the skill of the mechanical engineer,
and generate an output air pressure which would make an appropriate adjustment to the control
valve. Indicators and recorders became pneumatically driven and could be separate or built into the
controller.
Thus it become possible to centralise the indicators and recorders in a control room, allowing the
resultant improvement in plant operation and control that was needed for continued progress.
The controllers also found their way into the control room and could then be set or adjusted in a
centralised location.
The air pressure become standardised through the process industry at what was then 3 - 15 psi, or in
today’s units 20 - 100 kPa. The offset from atmospheric pressure of 20 kPa allowed:
(i) The existence of energy in a pneumatic system to provide a mechanical force in the bellows
for zero indication
A broken or blocked air line would give 0 kPa and cause that indicator to read negative and
thus identify a fault.
Pneumatics today has evolved to be a widely used, refined and respected technology which is
still being installed in some areas of new plant and will be used far into the future because it

possesses some unique advantages over electronic transmission of signals. Some of these
advantages are:
(ii) Air is relatively safe in a situation which is explosive or inflammable.
(iii) Air lines are free from noise and interference at the sensitivity levels concerned.
(iv) Air lines are easy to lay and repair.
The disadvantages have arisen due to the increasing scale of process plants today and the age of
computers. They are:
(i) The inherent time delay of a step change of air pressure, especially over many hundreds of
meters.
(ii) The signal incompatibility with electronic instruments, digital readout devices and computers.
The migration of controllers, indicators and recorders to a central control room was complete
with the arrival of the electronic controller. Indicators and recorders were also designed to
respond to electrical signals and became physically integrated in the controller and many
companies plied the industry with the advantages of their own electrical communication
standard. The 4 - 20 mA DC current loop emerged as the victor and is now universally
accepted.
The problem of speed of transmission of a signal in a pneumatic line was solved by its
replacement with an electrical cable. The centralisation of control in a controlled environment
was also necessary because the early electronic controllers were designed during the early
days of transistor electronics and simply could not operate in the rugged environment of the
process control valve. One operator in a comfortable air-conditioned control room could now
supervise, adjust and log the performance of a relatively large plant. He was surrounded by a
most impressive collection of indicators, knobs, charts, alarms and status indicators on a false
floor hiding an amazing network of cables.
These cables not only produced the desired signal but an equally unwanted electrical noise.
Of course, this disadvantage could be overcome, but its solution would introduce other
problems, e.g. cost.
The operator became a key figure in the running of the plant. The operator adjusts or manually
generates set-points and monitors the recording of plant variables and alarms.
Computer Control
During the early 1960’s the digital computer was beginning to emerge from its relay and vacuum
tube ancestry to the early discrete semiconductor generations of hardware. It was at the same time
that control room functional layout had reached its most centralised concept of design and the
transition from pneumatics to electronics was under way.
The arrival of the computer was greeted with over-enthusiasm by some and a panacea to all control
problems by others. The underlying sampled-data and z-transform theory that was required for its
introduction had been developed 20 years or more previously and was used in radar system design
during the Second World War. Finally the hardware to apply it to control problems had arrived.
Experience is a good teacher but no-one could boast of having had computer experience when the
first applications of computers in the process industries were being made. Some serious errors

occurred due to the following:

(1) Reliability of hardware proved lower in practice than hoped for in theory. Indeed the earliest
vacuum tube computers had a mean time between failures that was less than the mean time to
repair a failure. The effect of this was that it became necessary to provide analog electronic
controllers to back-up all or most process loops in case of computer failure. This alone
reduced the number of applications on a cost-benefit analysis.
(2) The cost of computer hardware was very high, especially in relation to the computing power
available. The high cost forces “all the eggs to be placed in one basket”, as one observer put
it, but “the basket had a weak handle”.
(3) The software languages for early computers were not very powerful or reliable and the time
that was required for process software development was seriously underestimated. Hence
new installations ran behind schedule and over budget.
(4) The computer was difficult to program so that all tasks could be accomplished within the
real-time scale required by the plant. The speed of computers has since increased and memory
has become cheaper.
The process control industry is conservative for several good reasons. The cost of major down-time
is great, not only in terms of lost production, but also in terms of shut-down and start-up time for
boilers, furnaces and reactors. Those who took part and those who observed the early introduction
of computers to such a conservative industry have learned the lessons from the experience. The
effect has been that the introduction has generally been very slow.
By 1970 computers using low-scale and medium-scale integrated circuits were emerging. Both the
reliability of the hardware and the quality of the software programming languages had improved
greatly and the early 12 bit and 16 bit minicomputers that resulted were finding their way into
process applications. Hence reliability increased and software costs began to decrease. Many
successful applications resulted and the computer become respectable in the industry. Analog back-
up of control loops persisted, however, through most of that decade.
Although costs had fallen, the computer was still expensive enough to require that it work hard for
its money and was located in a centralised location. A computer used in a direct digital control
application performed the sampling of process variables, and the computation of a control law to
generate new values for manipulated variables which were fed back to the plant for all loops. The
display and logging of data and presentation of alarms became an important computer task. These
tasks were generally carried out under the control of an operating system designed for such real-
time work.
The conversion of an analog to a digital signal up to this time was no small problem. An analog to
digital converter (ADC) was an expensive item which was time multiplexed, often with hundreds of
analog variables using the one ADC. This was another factor requiring centralisation of the computer
in the control room.
The last half of the 1970’s saw the effect of the biggest revolution of all in the process industry, the
large scale integrated circuit and its irrepressible offspring, the microprocessor, together with
specialised parallel and serial interfacing chips. Also to emerge were low priced, high reliability
ADC and DAC chips with high performance specifications.
The microprocessor was the device that made it cost effective and practicable to move away form
the centralised computer and distribute the control functions between more than one computer and

in more than one place. It was the key to unlock distributed control. The advent of the integrated
microprocessor and analog converter has made possible the step towards low-cost distributed control.
Distributed Control
Fig. 16.20
With the configuration above, the controllers may be removed from the centralised control room to
a site nearer the sensors and actuator. There may be several clusters of controllers each of which
connects to their own set of sensors and actuators. Each cluster of controllers is normally connected
to the centralised control room via a digital bus, but are capable of operating without this cable if
necessary. The controllers may be analog, digital or a mix of the two, but today are most commonly
found as multiple loop digital controllers.
Fig.16.21
The progression of the controller to the field moves further in the above configuration, where the
controller for each loop is mounted in the field near the sensor and actuator. A data highway carries
configuration data and set points from the control room to the controller and measurements, etc.,
back to the control room. Cabling is minimised, but the controller must be sufficiently ruggedised
to operate in the sometimes hostile environment of the plant.

The direction of development to the Year 2000 is now clear.
Fig. 16.22
In this scenario, purely digital devices (incorporating the basic PID algorithm is either sensor or
actuator as appropriate) will handle the basic loop operation.
Supervisory control capability will access the loops across a LAN using a Fieldbus protocol.
The supervisory control will be able to perform 3 key tasks:
(i) higher order control strategies
(ii) changing the loop tuning parameters
(iii) acting as sink and pass-through of information
The Management Information System (MIS) will be able to access key process and hardware data
as required.
Batch and Sequencing Control

All continuous processes must be started up and closed down in an orderly way at some stage.
Processes also have high-low, start-stop, on-off type binary commands and status signals to be
handled. The computer is well equipped to provide this sequencing facility.
Some processes are described as batch processes because a single batch operation takes place on a
fixed volume of material at a time. An example is the filling of a reactor vessel with raw material,
with the addition of other materials. The application or the removal of heat depending on whether
the process is endothermic or exothermic, the stirring or agitation of the vessel, and finally the
emptying of the vessel, together perhaps with its cleaning, is a typical sequence control.
Special computer based systems have been developed to handle these batch and sequencing
requirements. The most common solution is to use a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) which
is normally a microcomputer based system with software which makes it easy for the programmer
to establish the logical switching of the sequential system. A critical requirement for many users is
that the system by very fast acting so that high-speed interlocking and sequencing can take place.
Such a logical facility also exists on most general purpose process control computers. The difference
between a PLC and a computer is in speed of response and in some cases the ease of programming
that the PLC offers in sequence control. If a suitable connecting bus is used, a combination of the
two systems may give the most satisfactory solution.

Fig.16.23
Expert Systems
An expert system is a computer program that represents the knowledge and judgment of a person
who is a recognised expert in a particular field. Such a system makes the expert’s skills available to
practitioners who lack comparable abilities for solving problems in the field.
An expert system typically consists of an “inference engine” and a knowledge base. The first is a
program that draws logical conclusions (inferences) based on the information in the knowledge
base and on the conditions specific to a problem (often referred to as the context).
A knowledge base represents an expert’s storehouse of information. It is mostly heuristic (i.e. rules
of thumb) representations. Common in expert systems is the premise-action, or IF-THEN-ELSE
rule:
IF (certain conditions are true)
THEN (certain conclusions can be drawn)
ELSE (other conclusions can be drawn)
Expert systems are well suited for advising operations and maintenance personnel on a variety of
problems. Using an expert system, a person who is not expert in a field can solve a problem that

likely would have required consulting with an equipment specialist, a plant engineer or a senior
member of the operations staff. A system can operate separately, accepting information directly
from the user, or it can be linked to a process computer, another computer, a control system, or a
plant database.
For example, if equipment maintenance histories have been stored in a computer, this database can
be linked to the expert system. The system has access to measurements from the data collector,
maintenance histories from the database and symptoms observed by the user.
The system presents a ranked list of probable causes. Statistical confidence factors are applied to
this listing, based on the human expert’s assessment of the relative importance of the symptoms and
their relationships with the observations and the measurements. The user can ask the system to
explain the reasons for its questions and to justify its conclusions.
Fuzzy Logic (FL)

Fuzzy - properly call continuous - logic (FL) rides on the triumph of words over numbers in
representing experience-based knowledge. It harnesses the power of such phrases as “very high,”
“fairly low,” “kind of fast,” “many,” and “rarely,” all of which are used by experienced engineers
and operators to describe practical rules of thumb for controlling a process.
Pivotal to FL is the idea that traditional logic is handicapped by presuming that even everyday rules
of thumb must be either true or false, and nothing else. FL has been designed to accommodate this
grey area by replacing yes or no with degrees of truth.
Using FL to control the water temperature in a bathtub, for example, one would assign the variable
“temperature” to a range of values: cold, cool, moderate, warm, hot, very hot. The same would hold
for other variable such as flowrate. One of the fuzzy rules might read like this: “If the water
temperature in the tub is hot and the water level is fairly high, then the flowrate of cold water must
be slightly increased.” In contrast, using a conventional PID controller to achieve the same results
would require very specific rule: If the water temperature is between 1300F and 1500F and the water
level is between 12cm and 20cm, then the flowrate of cold water must be increased by 20%.”
The difference between the two approaches is clear. The conventional rule would not apply to a bath
at 1290F or 1510F, as conventional logic demands that the rule be applied only when the prescribed
conditions are absolutely true.
On the other hand, the fuzzy rule would cover a much wider range by activating a number of rules
containing such fuzzy variables as warm, very hot and high, extremely high with overlapping
boundaries or cutoff points for the temperature and water level. As a result, one can replace a maze
of conventional rules with one simple fuzzy rule. Further, while in conventional control just one
rule is activated at a time, FL allows activation of many rules simultaneously. This makes fuzzy
logic control more robust because some rules can often compensate for inadequate ones.

Case Study
Boiler Control
The Boiler
A boiler is a vessel that is used to contain water and steam under pressure, a means for efficiently
transferring generated heat to the water and steam, and a means by which fuels may be burned to
provide a maximum burning efficiency. The steam is continually drawn off to be used as energy for
heat, to drive turbines, or used in heat exchangers, etc. The steam is continually replaced by water.
In its simplest form, a boiler can be considered to have two cycles taking place simultaneously.
There is the Water Cycle which consists of the water entry and steam exit, and the Fuel-Air Cycle
which is the fuel and air entry and hot gases exit. These cycles are interdependent.
Fuel-air Cycle
The boiler has a furnace usually located at the bottom (or on the lower sides) that contains burners.
Fuel, usually mixed with air at the burners, is burned in the furnace to provide the heat to turn water
into steam. There are many types of fuels that may be used. The fuel may be a liquid such as oil or
a gas such as natural gas. Liquid or gaseous fuels are easy to supply and usually simple to meter.
They also mix well with air for burning. The fuel may be a solid such as coal or wood bark that does
not flow in its natural state, and which may vary considerably in consistency and does not mix well
with air.
Fig. 16.24
Water Cycle
The main purpose of most boilers is to heat water to steam. To accomplish this, a series of tubes are
placed in the boiler to confine the water and provide a large heat transfer surface for interfacing
with the hot gases of combustion. The water in these tubes is turned to steam. A large header is
provided on each end of the tubes to distribute the water from a central supply and collect the steam
for a single output pipe.

There are several types of boilers including fire tube, water tube, drum type and once through, all of
which operate under similar principals. Our concern will be specifically with the drum type water
tube boilers.
The drum type boiler derives its name from the fact that it has a drum at the top of the boiler. The
drum is plumbed to the tubes in the boiler and therefore, by maintaining a liquid level in the drum,
the boiler tubes will be full of water. The drum provides the water-steam interface and the process
steam is drawn off the top of the drum.
To maintain the water level, feedwater must be added. The feedwater is usually added at the drum.
(There is a small amount of water continually drawn off the drum of the boiler to help keep buildup
of impurities to a minimum. This is called the blow down.) There is an additional plumbing
connection from the drum to a set of tubes outside of where the gas passes (may be in the boiler
wall) and then connected to a header. The water in these tubes is relatively cool with no steam
bubbles while that in the boiler tubes is hot with steam bubbles and, therefore, less dense. The
difference in density causes water to flow from the boiler drum to “cold leg” and back to the boiler
tubes. This tends to reduce the temperature gradient and recondensation of steam bubbles in the
drum. The water is therefore, at nearly all the same temperature.
Fig. 16.25

Control
The object of the control system is to provide steam at a constant pressure, and to do so safely at a
minimum cost. The control must be flexible enough to react to changes in the amount of steam
required and provide steam at an optimum efficiency. The control must provide adequate feedwater
to exactly offset that drawn off as steam and lost as blowdown. At the same time the system must
provide adequate fuel to produce the heat needed to convert the water to steam. An amount of air to
completely burn the fuel must be made available. And, of course, all these functions must be co-
ordinated to provide not only maximum efficiency but also safety. The control scheme outlined is
typical and includes some of the important concepts.
Feedwater Control
We’ll look at the feedwater portion of the control scheme. The aim of this part of the control is to
maintain quite precisely the liquid level in the boiler drum to maximise the steam-water separation.
Maintaining the level is also important to assure that liquid is present in the boiler tubes. This
assures the tubes will be cooled by the water as it boils and acts to protect them from over heating.
In addition, it assures that there will be the water circulation described previously.
The main elements of control of the drum level are the measurement of the liquid level in the drum
and the control of the feedwater flow valve. The obvious control would be to provide the drum level
measurement to a level controller whose output would regulate the feedwater control valve (single
element). This is not, however, a good solution here. The primary reason this does not provide
good control is that the level is a slow responding phenomenon that tends to integrate the results of
the feedwater flow in and steam out. That is, a change in the feedwater flow will take a very long
time to show up as a small increase in the level. This is due to the large volume capacity of water in
the boiler.
Fig. 16.26
If the steam flow changes, this will affect the level which in turn will control the feedwater valve.
As seen before, this is very slow and what we really want to do is to sense a change in steam flow
and make a change to the feedwater flow. We can do this by providing the steam flow measurement
as a feedforward signal to the level controller. In this way the feedforward signal from steam flow
will affect the feedwater valve for changes in steam flow while the level control will accurately
maintain the correct level by controlling the feedwater to correct for losses and minor changes.
This control system is called “2 element feedwater control”.
There is another phenomenon that happens in a boiler called “Shrink & Swell” that we need to look
at. When there is a change in steam flow (consider an increased demand and resulting increase in

steam flow), the pressure in the boiler and drum will immediately begin to be reduced as the steam
is drawn off. When this happens the vapour bubbles in the boiler will expand displacing more water
in the boiler which increases the liquid level in the drum calling for less feedwater flow via the level
controller. This is, of course, the wrong direction as feedwater flow should be increased to replace
the increased steam drawn off. When the cold feedwater enters the drum it cools the water in the
boiler which condenses some steam bubbles which reduces the volume and thereby reduces the
drum level. Again the measurement is going the wrong way. That is, more liquid input is resulting
in the measurement indicating lower level. The Shrink & Swell phenomena are transient effects
from changes in steam flow and feedwater and are relatively short-lived.
The phenomena is overcome by a sophisticated scheme called the “3 element drum level control”
system. Here, feedwater flow to the boiler is actually measured and controlled. The flow required
is based on a demand signal which is the result of both the steam flow feedforward signal and the
drum level controller. Now as steam flow increases, feedwater flow is increased and when steam
flow decreases, less feedwater flow is called for. The drum level controller will maintain the correct
level by adjusting the feedwater flow demand to correct for losses and minor changes.

Summary
a. Control theory can be encapsulated as the matching of a measured variable (PV) to the plant
requirement (SP).
A controller implements a Control Algorithm so that an output signal (O/P) activates a
correcting unit. The ratio of signal output (O) to input (I) signals is GAIN (K).
1 100 I
Proportional Band  % =  % =  x 100%
K Gain 0
Controllers may operate in direct or reverse action and in different modes. If a receiver has
feedback, we have a Closed Loop; otherwise, an Open Loop.
b. Lags may be of two types:
(i) ‘Measurement’ - this is characterised by a time constant (the time taken for the controller
to reach, 63.2% of output).
(ii) ‘Dead Time’ - A delay in observing an effect.
c. Inherently regulated systems have self-restoring equilibrium states.
d. Control Algorithms are primarily:
(i) Proportional - The Controller output follows controller input. In equilibrium, offset
(PV-SP = constant) results.
(ii) Integral - Whilst PV ≠ SP, the controller operates to restore equality. The integral time
gives indication of the strength of this action.
(iii) Derivative - As the PV changes, the controller resists the change. Derivative Time is an
indication of this action.
e. Tuning is the judicious choice of controller gain and time constant to maintain optimum
control. Zeigler and Nicols have provided simple usable rules.
f. Multi-Variable Control can enhance stability of control. Typical schemes are:
(i) Cascade - Involves a master/slave loop combination. The fast-acting slave receives its
set-point from the master.
(ii) Ratio - An uncontrolled flow determines a second flow so that a desired ratio is maintained
between them.
(iii) Selective - The more important condition between two or more candidates is selected.
(iv) Feedforward - The output of the loop drives the input.
(v) Adaptive - Variable time constants determined by changing state of the measured
variables.
(vi) Computed - Supervisory computers used to input set-points and time constants.
g. Fail safe conditions are insurance for loss of automatic control.
h. The history of process control has been and evolution from, pneumatic signalling through

electrical to electronic signalling. This has paralled the progression from stand-alone controllers
through analogue to digital computer control. Discrete field mounted units have gravitated to the
centralised control room and the future will yet see a return of control to the field. Modern expert
systems and fuzzy logic controllers bring new flexibity to the control room.

Discussion
1. Why is the first essential of a Control System ‘consistency’ rather than ‘accuracy’?
2. When illustrating the effects of Control algorithms,what are the relative merits of Closed and
Open Loop Diagrams?
3. Why is Offset a necessary consequence of Proportional Controller action?
4. In the flow situation depicted below, waste gases are being burnt in air. The flame must be
maintained. Which control algorithms might be employed with the measuring instrumentation
given?
Fig. 16.27
5. What are the relative merits of using a DCS or PLC based control system?
6. In the boiler case study, why was three element control superior to both two element and
single element control.
7. Below are two different control schemes for the Fuel-Air component of the boiler. How do
they operate?
Fig. 16.28

Fig. 16.29

Test
Automatic Control
Q1 Give the correct terminology and explanation of the following symbols.

a. PV
b. SP
c. O/P
d. (PV - SP) = constant
e. K
f. T
g. Ti
h. TD
1
i. /K%
Q2 Change in a process gives rise to the graph below and the PID controller output shown.
Fig. 16.30
(i) Which section(s) of the Controller Output Graph correspond to Integral action alone?
(ii) Which section(s) correspond to the Derivative action solely?
(iii) Which combinations of P, I or D were responsible for the curve ‘C’?
(iv) Which combinations of P, I or D were responsible for the curve ‘G’?
(v) Which combinations of P, I or D were responsible for the line ‘B’?
(vi) Describe the significance of the dotted line “A”
(vii) Is the graph of the controller output illustrating closed or open loop response?

Q3 Explain Inherent Regulation.
Q4 Which Multivariable Control Scheme is described below:

(i) Involves master/slave controllers.
(ii) The most critical of two controller inputs is chosen to determine the output (O/P).
(iii) The Integral Time is a function of flow conditions.
(iv) The Controller gain is temperature dependent.
(v) A tank outflow modulates the flow input controller by altering the set point.
(vi) Algorithm includes a BIAS term.
Q5 Explain ‘Distributed Control System’ as distrinct from ‘Centralised Control’.
Third Printing: October 1996

Second Printing: July 1993
First Printed: October 1991

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Automatic control 16 - 1

It should never be forgotten that the rate of

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Control Algorithm - the pre-defined response of the controller to PV-SP

Other Useful Definitions

Proportional Band (P.B.) - The variation in Controller input corresponding to 0-100%

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

The time constant is designated by T (tau).

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

An example of multiposition control is the control of a multicylinder compressor. From a

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

The Algorithm is:

- (PV - SP) + Constant

(Constant is normally 50%)

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

d (O/P) = constant x - (PV-SP)

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

-TD d(PV - SP)

Again, the heating of the tank example illustrates the effects.

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

4. Then set the controller adjustments to:

Then set Kc = 1/RL

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

O/P = RATIO x PV wild + Constant

This Constant is called the BIAS.

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Fail Safe Action

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

occurred due to the following:

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

The direction of development to the Year 2000 is now clear.

Batch and Sequencing Control

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Fuzzy Logic (FL)

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Q1 Give the correct terminology and explanation of the following symbols.

Principles of Instrumentation and Control Course 9050 - October 1996

Q3 Explain Inherent Regulation.

Q4 Which Multivariable Control Scheme is described below:

Q5 Explain ‘Distributed Control System’ as distrinct from ‘Centralised Control’.

Third Printing: October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996 Principles of Instrumentation and Control