Unit 3 Review Guide: Humanism

1. Define “humanism” and “humanist.”

humanism - any system or mode of thought or action in which human interests, values, and dignity predominate,
devotion to or study of the humanities, and in Philosophy a variety of ethical theory and practice that emphasizes reason,
scientific inquiry, and human fulfillment in the natural world and often rejects the importance of belief in god.

humanist - a person having a strong interest in or concern for human welfare, values, and dignity. A person devoted to
or versed in the humanities, a student of human nature or affairs, a classical scholar or any one of the scholars of the
Renaissance who pursued and disseminated the study and understanding of the cultures of ancient Rome and Greece,
and emphasized secular, individualistic, and critical thought, and finally, somtimes a person who follows a form of
scientific or philosophical humanism

2. What does “Renaissance” literally mean, and what cultures did its humanists wish
to revive?
Renaissance - A rebirth or revival.

The humanistic revival of classical art, architecture, literature, and learning that originated in Italy in the 14th
century and later spread throughout Europe. The period of this revival was roughly the 14th through the 16th
century, marking the transition from medieval to modern times. They were trying to revive the Classical
Cultures of the Greeks and Romans.

3. What were the worldview and goals of Renaissance humanists?

Humanism is a term applied to the social philosophy and literary culture of the Western world from approximately 1400
to 1650, particularly in Italy where the Renaissance began before spreading to other European countries. This was the
beginning of Renaissance Humanism which "rediscovered" the ancient classical learning of Greece and Rome and began
to view pagan writers and thinkers in a favorable light, especially in regard to the secular outlook illuminating human
experience in contrast to the dominant world view of medieval supernaturalism. The Greek and Latin classics, humanists
believed, held all the lessons that one needed to learn in order to lead a moral and productive life. Indeed, the majority of
historians will agree that the emerging world view of humanism stood almost exactly between medieval supernaturalism
where every aspect of experience was controlled and influenced by otherworldly beings, and the modern scientific and
critical attitude regarding the physical characteristics of the universe.

4. When, where, and how did Renaissance innovation and exploration begin?
Secular Directions in the Italian Renaissance - The Renaissance, which began in Italy at the beginning of the
fifteenth century, turned away from the medieval cultural synthesis toward a more secular outlook in art and literature.
The wealth of Italian cities patronized the burgeoning of Italian cultural production. The typical political unit of the
Italian peninsula was the city-state. Cities competed amongst themselves for land, cultural accomplishments, and
administrative innovations.

Human Values and Renaissance Culture - The Renaissance was an age of cultural innovation and individualism.
Renaissance artists abandoned medieval formalism to embrace more realistic and secular styles. Classical architectural
forms replaced Gothic. Initially the Renaissance was largely limited to Italy, and even there its style was not accepted
everywhere. The wide range of Italian commercial and shipping techniques laid the foundation for western expansion.
The "Renaissance spirit" encouraged a sense of innovation and discovery.
 Unit 3 Review Guide: Humanism

5. Why were merchant-class families such as the Medici important for the
Renaissance?
The Black Plague had wiped out most workers, so the wages of the survivors increased drastically, which resulted in the
very wealthy merchant class. The merchant class had excessive wealth, and after the Black Plague, most survivors
started to care about the present and about worldly things. Art was one of those luxuries. The merchant class became
patrons of the art, which means that they sponsored many artists and supplied them with money so they could continue
their work. The basis of the Renaissance was art, and the patronage of the wealthy merchant class was one of the main
reasons why art was able to strive in that era.

6. Who is considered the “Father of Renaissance Humanism?” What two cultures

did he aim to reconcile?
By putting classical greek/roman philosophical ideas into a Christian framework–at least that’s how Francesco Petrarca
did it. In Roman Catholic Europe many of the ideas of ancient Greece and Rome were not likely to be accepted unless
they could be reconciled with the Christian faith, and Petrarch did so in his writings. His basic idea was that the study of
mankind, as such, was a viable and important field for Christian people, thus laying the groundwork for later
Renaissance figures to read and popularize classical history, literature, and philosophy–with its “man as the center of all
things” foundation point.

Petrarch was born in 1304 (how time has flown!) in Arezzo, Italy. He studied law but was much more interested in Latin
literature and in creative writing.

He is most famous for his sonnets about his unrequited love for Laura, whoever she was. He is credited for perfecting
the sonnet, and thus the Italian sonnet form is sometimes called the Petrarchan sonnet form. The translation of his
sonnets by Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, brought that poetic form to the English-speaking
world.

7. Describe Castiglione’s view of the “Renaissance Man.” What classical idea was
this reviving?
In the early 16th century, Castiglione (The Book of the Courtier) laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady. he
Book of the Courtier (Italian: Il Cortegiano) is a courtesy book. It was written by Baldassare Castiglione over the course
of many years beginning in 1508 and published in 1528 just before his death. It addresses the constitution of a perfect
courtier, and in its last installment, a perfect lady. The Book of the Courtier remains the definitive account of Renaissance
court life. Because of this, it is considered one of the most important Renaissance works. The book is organized as a
series of fictional conversations that occur between the courtiers of the Duke of Urbino in 1507 (when Baldassare was in
fact part of the Duke's Court). In the book, the courtier is described as having a cool mind, a good voice (with beautiful,
elegant and brave words) along with proper bearing and gestures. At the same time though, the courtier is expected to
have a warrior spirit, to be athletic, and have good knowledge of the humanities, Classics and fine arts. Over the course
of four evenings, members of the court try to describe the perfect gentleman of the court. In the process they debate the
nature of nobility, humor, women, and love. Platonic debate
 Unit 3 Review Guide: Humanism
8. How does Pico’s Oration on the Dignity of Man express the Renaissance view of
humanity?
Pico della Mirandola's "Oration on the dignity of man", which glorifies humanity and praises the human ability to
reason, offers the opposing view to Shakespeare's Hamlet and Montaigne's essay "Man's presumption and Littleness"
which both suggest that humans are no higher in the universal order of things than any other of God's creatures. Pico
begins his essay by informing his readers that he knows where humans stand in the divine order of the world. Pico
believes that humans were the last creatures created by God, and that God's purpose, in creating them, was to fulfill his
desire for someone to appreciate the great wonders and beauties of his world:
When the work was finished, the Craftsman kept wishing that there were someone to ponder the plan of so great a
work... therefore... he finally took thought concerning the creation of man. (Mirandola 224)

It is also Pico's belief that when Humans were created, they were given qualities both divine and earthly, and could
become whatever they chose:
We have made thee neither of heaven nor of earth, neither mortal nor immortal, so that with freedom of choice... thou
mayest fashion thyself in whatever shape thou shalt prefer. (Mirandola 225)

Pico's conclusion about human ranking among the divine order of things was that while some people were almost
celestial, others were no better than animals, and that this great variance of character among the human population only
served to increase their importance and uniqueness from all other of God's creatures. His essay, which praised human
greatness and exalted the powers of humanity, was opposed by more negative views of humanity, as expressed in the
works of Montaigne and Shakespeare.

9. Describe Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam. How does this express his humanistic
views?
The Sistine Chapel ceiling, painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, at the commission of Pope Julius II, is one of
the most renowned artworks of the High Renaissance. The ceiling is that of the large Papal Chapel built within the
Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV after whom it is named the Sistine Chapel. The chapel is the location
for Papal Conclaves and many important services.[1]The ceiling's various painted elements comprise part of a larger
scheme of decoration within the Sistine Chapel which includes the large fresco The Last Judgment on the sanctuary wall,
also by Michelangelo, wall paintings by a team of the most highly regarded painters of the late 15th century including
Botticelli and Perugino, and a set of large tapestries by Raphael, the whole illustrating much of the doctrine of the
Catholic Church.[2][3] Central to the ceiling decoration are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis of which the Creation of
Adam is the best known, having an iconic standing equaled only by Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, the hands of God
and Adam being reproduced in countless imitations. As a philosopher, he combined both wisdom and eloquence: this
combination became the ideal throughout the Renaissance. Even visual artists, such as Michelangelo Buonarotti, prided
themselves on wisdom and eloquence and began to attach both values to visual arts.

10. How is Leonardo the ideal “Renaissance Man”? Describe the Renaissance
techniques in “Last Supper.”
He was the ideal Renaissance man, because, Da Vinci embodied all the qualities pertaining to a Renaissance man. He was
a painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect, and engineer whose genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure,
epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. And, because he wanted to know everything possible. He was the opposite of
an expert, who knows a lot about a defined subject. In true Renaissance man style, Leonardo excelled in all manner of
disciplines and as a painter, sculptor, and scientist. Artist Leonardo DaVinci was the model of the Renaissance man.
Leonardo Da Vinci was a man of many worlds. As a master of both of art and science, Leonardo, worked as a painter,
sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, inventor, and scientist. His lasting contributions and genius left its mark in many
areas and his works continue to inspire contemporary audiences. Da Vinci was born in the Tuscan village of Vinci in
1452, Leonardo's remarkably incomplete formal training began at the studio of Andrea Verrochio, with an
apprenticeship, sometime around 1472. At the start of his artistic career, Leonardo began to develop an extremely
 Unit 3 Review Guide: Humanism
inventive painting method and daring experimental process that would later define the standard for works of the High
Renaissance.

Da Vinci and Architecture:

The High Renaissance was the culmination of the many experimental artistic developments during the Early
Renaissance, and lead to one of the most dynamic periods of creative brilliance in the history of the world. It is
time noted for giving the world, arguably the three of the greatest artists in history: Michelangelo Buonarroti,
Leonardo da Vinci, and Raphael Sanzio.

11. Compare Renaissance literature (Boccaccio and Chaucer) with medieval

literature (Dante).
In the renaissance period they had to write books by hand and everything revolved around god. After the Middle Ages
the printing press was invented and production of books tripled, and not everything revolved around god! Literature
combined the Classical views with traditional Christian views.

Medieval literature is a broad subject, encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe and beyond
during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire ca. AD 500 to
the beginning of the Florentine Renaissance in the late 15th century). The literature of this time was composed of
religious writings as well as secular works. Just as in modern literature, it is a complex and rich field of study, from the
utterly sacred to the exuberantly profane, touching all points in-between. Because of the wide range of time and place it
is difficult to speak in general terms without oversimplification, and thus the literature is best characterized by its place
of origin and/or language, as well as its genre. Many Florentine artists and writers used characteristics in their works
that made each painting or piece of literature either medieval or Renaissance thinking

Many Florentine artists and writers used characteristics in their works that made each painting or piece of literature
either medieval or Renaissance thinking. Many famous Florentine artist and writers lived from the middle ages to the
Renaissance. There are characteristics of each artist or writer's works that can clearly be categorized as medieval or
Renaissance thinking. Painters such as Giotto, Raphael, and Jan van Eyck painted masterpieces during with Renaissance
beliefs that are still studied today. Also, writers such as Machiavelli and Castiglione made their mark in the modern
world with excellent writing during the Renaissance. In medieval art, artists did not use a lot of emotion. Everything was
two-dimensional, and the art was simple, containing little color. Renaissance art was more complicated because the
characters in the paintings were life-like, while medieval humans were frozen in place in the picture. The Homage of a
Simple Man by Giotto was painted in 1321, during the medieval era. The painting itself is also more medieval than
Renaissance because it has a religious theme. Also, the perspective is imperfect because the vanishing point lies outside
the actual painting. However, the painting does contain some depth, implicating the development of more complicated,
Renaissance art. TheSchool of Athens by Raphael Santi, painted around 1508-1511, is a good example of Renaissance art.
The painting has perfect perspective. The characters include ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and
Socrates. There are also Greek gods and goddesses like Athena in the painting, making it extremely humanist. The
painting shows many characters informally sprawled over the floor studying philosophy and mathematics. The church
would be angered to see men waste their time on something not involving God.

The setting of the painting is a building with round arches, which are Roman. These arches would have never been
allowed by the church in the Middle Ages because Romans were heretics; therefore, how good could their creations be?
In another Renaissance masterpiece, a painting called Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride by Jan van Eyck shows a couple
being married. There are symbols linking the painting to be both secular and religious. It can be considered secular
because the couple is not exchanging their vows in a church, which would have been required during the strict days of
the medieval era. Also, the man and the woman are dressed like mobility although they are in the merchant class. This
expresses social mobility, which would have never happened in the middle ages. In addition, the woman seen holding
hands with Giovanni Arnolfini has a bloated stomach that means the woman is pregnant. This painting would not have
been allowed during the medieval era because it was a horrible sin to be pregnant before marriage. The painting has
some religious aspects as well. The single lighted candle on the chandelier represents Christ and diving light. The mirror
symbolized the all-seeing eye of God. While art in the Renaissance improved greatly, many great ideas were expressed in
excellent Renaissance literature.
 Unit 3 Review Guide: Humanism
12. Is Machiavelli’s The Prince idealistic or realistic, and why? What’s his central
message?
Realistic

Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince, written in 1513, is a classic treatise in political theory. However, the book is secular,
separating state form church. He writes that a prince should learn not to be good, according to necessity of the case at
hand. He said that it was more important to seem to have a good quality than to actually possess it. He then speaks out
against the church. He writes, "¡¦in order to maintain the state, to act against faith, against charity, against humanity,
and against religion." Although the church still had great influence during this time, the church could not stop this from
being written as it could have in the medieval era. If the church had a choice, we would not be reading this quote from
Machiavelli today. He would have considered a heretic, but he was in the days of the exciting, new Renaissance. He also
writes, "Everybody sees what you appear to be, few feel what you are¡¦ the end justifies the means." The author believes
that it is much more critical what is on the outside rather than what is in the inside. Also, the last part of the quote
implies that he does not care that God knows what he's like as long as he looks good to other humans. Baldesar
Castiglione's The Book ofthe Courtier describes the qualities men and women needed in court life to succeed. He writes,
"Thus, I would have our Courtier born of a noble and genteel family¡¦" This is more religious and medieval because this
shows that there is no social mobility. He writes that the ideal courtier should be faithful, which is important to a
Christian's beliefs. He then says in his book, "I would have him more than passable learned in letters, at least in those
studies which we call the humanities." This means that it is important for everyone to be literate, not just the clergy. This
goes against the church's viewpoint. Castiglione then talks about how people should learn Greek and their vernacular
language. This is obviously Renaissance thinking because the church believed that anything worth reading was written in
Latin. Castiglione then writes, in detail, how a woman should act. This is a new Renaissance idea that women are people
just like men, and it is also new to even mention women in a piece of literature.

There are clear differences between Renaissance ideas and medieval ideas. Each artist or writer mentioned above used
new ideas of the Renaissance and old ideas of the medieval era. They were able to use new ideas blended in with religious
beliefs to create masterpieces centuries ago that are still marveled at today. In a time of much change, these writers and
artists expressed their exciting ideas so that we can learn from them today.

13. What techniques does Raphael use in School of Athens? How does it portray
conflicting ideas?
Fresco

Raphael’s School of Athens, 1509-10, gathers together philosophers and intellectuals from western history to create an allegory
of philosophy and intellect. When this work is related to the Christian iconography in The Disputa on the opposite wall the Neo-
Platonist relationships between classical philosophy and Christianity became apparent with the central figures of Aristotle and
Plato in the School of Athens indicating the classical concept of the physical order of the universe and the figures of the Trinity
in the centre of The Disputa indicating the spiritual order of the Roman Catholic universe. Through his admiration and imitation
of those great painters before him, Leonardo and Michelangelo, Raphael became “the ideal third in the great trinity of
Renaissance painters”. His painting the “School of Athens” is considered by many to be the paradigmatic work of the Italian
High Renaissance. It is almost as if the work of Ghiberti, Donatello, Bramante, Leonardo and Michelangelo are all synthesized
into this unique creation. Perhaps this parallels the content of the work. Raphael gathers a large group of lively men of varying
ages (many of whom are the great philosophers and intellects in western history) into a vast hallway. They debate the seven
liberal arts and depict the stages of a man’s education, and in doing so creating an allegory of philosophy and intellect.

Natural and moral themes are explored in this work with Plato shown in the middle to be pointing to the Sky and holding his
Timaios in one arm, exuding a sense of calm and assurance. Next to him is Aristotle holding his Ethics, providing a harmonious
contrast to Plato and his laws of cosmic harmony with his own laws of moral behaviour. In the famous words of Saint
Bonaventura, “And so it appears that, of the philosophers, it was the gift of Plato to speak of wisdom, to Aristotle of science; the
former looked mainly toward the upper things, the latter toward the lower ones”. These two men are generally agreed to be the
two greatest philosophers of the ancient world, and it is in their harmonious portrayal together that Raphael has achieved a
thought synthesis that is characteristic of the Neo-Platonic philosophy. “Plato de naturalibus agit divine, quemadmodum
 Unit 3 Review Guide: Humanism
Artistoteles, vel de divninibus natruraliter agit” (“Plato deals with the natural things divinely while Aristotle even with divine
things naturally”)-as the great Neo-Platonic philosopher Marsilio Ficino expresses in the context of this painting, their ideal
union parallels the reconciliation of Platonic and Aristotelian idealism with Christian theology.

For the Renaissance, it has been said that Plato and Aristotle were like Moses and the prophets, precursor of Saint Peter and
Saint Paul. There are many theses that argue the Christian meaning embedded in this painting, which during the time of Raphael
would have been felt by the sensitive onlookers of his works. In a time when there was not much distinction between the secular
and sacred, much of what Raphael painted was thought to emanate a profoundly Christian spirit. In the context of its
surroundings, the allegorical nature of the painting is highlighted. On the opposite wall to the “School of Athens” is the fresco
painting of the “Disputa”. When seen with the strong Christian iconography of the “Disputa”, a clear relationship between
Classical philosophy and Christianity can now be observed. The central figures of Aristotle and Plato illustrate the classical
concept of the physical order of the universe while the figures of the Trinity in the centre of the “Disputa” allude to the spiritual
order of the Christian universe. Here again we see the qualities of Neo-Platonism in the reconciliation of classical philosophies
with Christian beliefs.

14. How was the northern Renaissance similar to and different from the Renaissance
in Italy and Spain?
The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in northern Europe, or more broadly
in Europe outside Italy. Before 1450 Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy. From the
late 15th century the ideas spread around Europe. This influenced the German Renaissance, French
Renaissance, English Renaissance, Renaissance in the Netherlands, Polish Renaissance and other national and
localized movements, each with different characteristics and strengths.

In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Italian artists (including Leonardo da Vinci),
and built grand palaces at great expense, beginning the French Renaissance. Trade and commerce in cities like
Bruges in the 15th century and Antwerp in the 16th increased cultural exchange between Italy and the Low
Countries, however in art, and especially architecture, late Gothic influences remained present until the arrival
of Baroque even as painters increasingly drew on Italian models.[1]

Universities and the printed book helped spread the spirit of the age through France, the Low Countries and
the Holy Roman Empire, and then to Scandinavia and finally Britain by the late 16th century. Writers and
humanists such as Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard and Desiderius Erasmus were greatly influenced by the Italian
Renaissance model and were part of the same intellectual movement. During the English Renaissance (which
overlapped with the Elizabethan era) writers such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe
composed works of lasting influence. The Renaissance was brought to Poland directly from Italy by artists
from Florence and the Low Countries, starting the Polish Renaissance.

In some areas the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of
political power. While Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city-states, parts of central and
western Europe began emerging as nation-states. The Northern Renaissance was also closely linked to the
Protestant Reformation and the long series of internal and external conflicts between various Protestant
groups and the Roman Catholic Church had lasting effects, such as the division of the Netherlands.

Italian is made in Italy and also looks more realistic with human features, real sexuality stuff that Northern Renaissance
doesn't have. he Northern Renaissance was an entity unto itself, although related to the Italian Renaissance, the North
developed in radically different ways that affected its development.

Think about how Italy and its surrounding neighbors could embrace Humanism and other Renaissance themes yet
retained and even complimented the power of the Catholic church. Consider then how similar concepts caused the exact
 Unit 3 Review Guide: Humanism
opposite to happen in the north, inducing the Reformation. The north also had its own humanist scholars; Erasmus of
Rotterdam and Thomas More of England namely. These philosophers cited the same sources from antiquity as those of
the Italian Renaissance, yet came to differing conclusions. Such commonalities and yet such differences suggest that
while both were cognate to one another with foundations in antiquity, the North developing in a different fashion implies
a differing focus on the meaning of the works surveyed.

Most scholars generally believe that the different approaches are due to cultural foundations in the North, as opposed to
a radically different social, economic and political situation to the South. These differences in the instance of England, for
example, developed because Humanism and other Renaissance principles had to interact and relate with the long
standing English culture that had been developing independently from Rome.

Generally speaking, the North tended to focus more on the individual, and this inclination towards the rights of
individuals related in a different way with Humanism than the South where humanism was often seen as putting the
individual in context to the community as opposed to the North that would tend to set the individual in contrast to the
community.

15. What conditions in Germany made it an ideal birthplace for the Protestant
Reformation?
The 16th century in Europe was a great century of change on many fronts. The humanists and artists of the Renaissance
would help characterize the age as one of individualism and self-creativity. Humanists such as Petrarch helped restore
the dignity of mankind while men like Machiavelli injected humanism into politics. When all is said and done, the
Renaissance helped to secularize European society. Man was now the creator of his own destiny -- in a word, the
Renaissance unleashed the very powerful notion that man makes his own history (on the Renaissance, see Lecture 1).
But the 16th century was more than just the story of the Renaissance. The century witnessed the growth of royal power,
the appearance of centralized monarchies and the discovery of new lands. During the great age of exploration, massive
quantities of gold and silver flood Europe, an event which turned people, especially the British, Dutch, Italians and
Germans, money-mad. The year 1543 can be said to have marked the origin of the Scientific Revolution -- this was the
year Copernicus published his De Revolutionibus (see Lecture 10) and set in motion a wave of scientific advance that
would culminate with Newton at the end of the 17th century. In the meantime, urbanization continued unabated as did
the growth of universities. And lastly, the printing press, perfected by the moveable type of Gutenberg in 1451, had
created the ability to produce books cheaply and in more quantities. And this was indeed important since the
Renaissance created a literate public eager for whatever came off the presses.

Despite all of these things, and there are more things to be considered, especially in the area of literature and the arts, the
greatest event of the 16th century -- indeed, the most revolutionary event -- was the Protestant Reformation. It was the
Reformation that forced people to make a choice -- to be Catholic or Protestant. This was an important choice, and a
choice had to be made. There was no real alternative. In the context of the religious wars of the 16th and 17th centuries,
one could live or die based on such a choice.
We have to ask why something like the Reformation took place when it did. In general, dissatisfaction with the Church
could be found at all levels of European society. First, it can be said that many devout Christians were finding the
Church's growing emphasis on rituals unhelpful in their quest for personal salvation. Indeed, what we are witnessing is
the shift from salvation of whole groups of people, to something more personal and individual. The sacraments had
become forms of ritualized behavior that no longer "spoke" to the people of Europe. They had become devoid of
meaning. And since more people were congregating in towns and cities, they could observe for themselves and more
important, discuss their concerns with others. Second, the papacy had lost much of its spiritual influence over its people
because of the increasing tendency toward secularization. In other words, popes and bishops were acting more like kings
and princes than they were the spiritual guides of European men and women. And again, because so many people were
now crowding into cities, the lavish homes and palaces of the Church were noticed by more and more people from all
walks of life. The poor resented the wealth of the papacy and the very rich were jealous of that wealth. At the same time,
the popes bought and sold high offices, and also sold indulgences. All of this led to the increasing wealth of the Church --
and this created new paths for abuses of every sort. Finally, at the local level of the town and village, the abuses
continued. Some Church officials held several offices at once and lived off their income. The clergy had become lax,
corrupt and immoral and the people began to take notice that the sacraments were shrouded in complacency and
indifference. Something was dreadfully wrong.
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These abuses called for two major responses. On the one hand, there was a general tendency toward anti-clericalism, that
is, a general but distinct distrust and dislike of the clergy. Some people began to argue that the layperson was just as
good as the priest, an argument already advanced by the Waldensians of the 12th century (see also my HERETICS,
HERESIES AND THE CHURCH). On the other hand, there were calls for reform. These two responses created fertile
ground for conflict of all kinds, and that conflict would be both personal and social.
The deepest source of conflict was personal and spiritual. The Church had grown more formal in its organization, which
is hardly unsurprising since it was now sixteen centuries old. The Church had its own elaborate canon law as well as a
dogmatic theology. All of this had been created at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. That Council also established the
importance of the sacraments as well as the role of the priest in administering the sacraments. 1215 also marks the year
that the Church further elaborated its position on Purgatory (see Purgatory: Fact or Fantasy). Above all, the Fourth
Lateran Council of 1215 established the important doctrine that salvation could only be won through good works --
fasting, chastity, abstinence and asceticism.
The common people, meanwhile, sought a more personal, spiritual and immediate kind of religion -- something that
would touch them directly, in the heart. The rituals of the Church now meant very little to them -- they needed some kind
of guarantee that they were doing the right thing – that they would indeed be saved. The Church gave little thought to
reforming itself. People yearned for something more while the Church seemed to promise less. What seemed to be needed
was a general reform of Christianity itself. Only such a major transformation would effect the changes reflected in the
spiritual desires of the people.

16. How did Luther, Gutenberg, Henry VIII, and Elizabeth I contribute to the spread
of Protestantism?
The Protestant Reformation, also called the Protestant Revolt or simply The Reformation, was the European Christian reform
movement that established Protestantism as a constituent branch of contemporary Christianity. It began in 1517 when Martin
Luther published The Ninety-Five Theses, and concluded in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended years of European
religious wars
he causal factors involved in the Reformation were complex and interdependent. Precursors of the Reformation proper included
the movements founded by John Wycliffe (the Lollards) and John Huss (the Hussites) during the 14th and 15th centuries. These
reform groups, however, were localized (in England and Bohemia) and were largely suppressed. Changes in the intellectual and
political climate were among the factors that made the reform movement of the 16th century much more formidable.
The cultural Renaissance that occurred during the preceding century and a half was a necessary preliminary, because it raised the
level of education, reemphasized the ancient classics, contributed to thought and learning, and offered Humanism and rhetoric as
an alternative to Scholasticism. Especially through its emphasis on the biblical languages and close attention to the literary texts,
the Renaissance made possible the biblical exegesis that led to Martin Luther's doctrinal reinterpretation. Moreover, Christian
humanists like Desiderius Erasmus criticized ecclesiastical abuses and promoted the study of both the Bible and the church
fathers. The invention of printing by Johann Gutenberg provided a powerful instrument for the spread of learning and
Reformation ideas.
Although England had a religious reform movement influenced by Lutheran ideas, the English Reformation occurred as a direct
result of King Henry VIII's efforts to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. The formal break with the papacy was
masterminded by Thomas Cromwell, the king's chief minister. Under Cromwell's direction Parliament passed the Act in
Restraint of Appeals (to Rome; 1533), followed by the Act of Supremacy (1534) fully defining the royal headship over the
church. As archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine, allowing the king to marry
Anne Boleyn. Although Henry himself wished to make no doctrinal changes, Cromwell and Cranmer authorized the translation
of the Bible into English, and Cranmer was largely responsible for the Book of Common Prayer, adopted under Henry's
successor, Edward VI. The gains that Protestantism made under Edward (r. 1547-53) were lost under his Catholic sister Mary I
(r. 1553-58). The religious settlement (1559) under Elizabeth I, however, guaranteed the Anglican establishment.

The divisions within Protestantism were from the beginning sharp, and attempts to reconcile Calvinist, Lutheran, and other
doctrine had only partial success. Moreover, in England the Reformation went its own course. It was there much more closely
connected with the conflict of church and state than was the Reformation on the Continent. The conflict of King Henry VIII with
Rome led to the Act of Supremacy (1534), which firmly rejected papal control and created a national church (see England,
Church of). Currents of Calvinistic thought were, however, strong in England. The Reformation was begun with the creation of a
state church and the dissolution of the monasteries. It was given Calvinist touches under Edward VI, suffered a complete
reversal under Mary I, and reached a sort of balance under Elizabeth I with some persecution of both Catholics and Calvinists.
The process was to work itself out slowly later in the English civil war, just as the fierce hatreds between Protestant and
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Protestant as well as between Catholic and Protestant were to be worked out later on the Continent.

17. How did humanist individualism influence the northern Renaissance and
Reformation?
The major individualistic reform movements that revolted against medieval scholasticism and the institutions that
underpinned it were: humanism, devotionalism, and the observatine tradition. In Germany, “the modern way” or
devotionalism caught on in the universities, requiring a redefinition of God, who was no longer a rational governing
principle but an arbitrary, unknowable will that cannot be limited. God was now an unknowable absolute ruler, and
religion would be more fervent and emotional. Thus, the ensuing revival of Augustinian theology, stating that man
cannot not be saved by his own efforts but only by the grace of God, would erode the legitimacy of the rigid institutions
of the church meant to provide a channel for man to do good works and get into heaven. Humanism, however, was more
of an educational reform movement with origins in the Renaissance's revival of classical learning and thought. A revolt
against Aristotelian logic, it placed great emphasis on reforming individuals through eloquence as opposed to reason. The
European Renaissance laid the foundation for the Northern humanists in its reinforcement of the traditional use of Latin
as the great unifying cultural language.

The polarization of the scholarly community in Germany over the Reuchlin (1455-1522) affair, attacked by the elite
clergy for his study of Hebrew and Jewish texts, brought Luther fully in line with the humanist educational reforms who
favored academic freedom. At the same time, the impact of the Renaissance would soon backfire against Southern
Europe, also ushering in an age of reform and a repudiation of much of medieval Latin tradition. Led by Erasmus, the
humanists condemned various forms of corruption within the Church, forms of corruption that might not have been any
more prevalent than during the medieval zenith of the church. Erasmus held that true religion was a matter of inward
devotion rather than an outward symbol of ceremony and ritual. Going back to ancient texts, scriptures, from this
viewpoint the greatest culmination of the ancient tradition, are the guides to life. Favoring moral reforms and de-
emphasizing didactic ritual, Erasmus laid the groundwork for Luther.

Humanism's intellectual anticlericalism would profoundly influence Luther. The increasingly well-educated middle
sectors of Northern Germany, namely the educated community and city dwellers, would turn to Luther's rethinking of
religion to conceptualize their discontent according to the cultural medium of the era. The great rise of the burghers, the
desire to run their new businesses free of institutional barriers or outmoded cultural practices, contributed to the appeal
of humanist individualism. To many, papal institutions were rigid, especially regarding their views on just price and
usury. In the North burghers and monarchs were united in their frustration for not paying any taxes to the nation, but
collecting taxes from subjects and sending the revenues disproportionately to the Pope in Italy.

These trends heightened demands for significant reform and revitalization along with anticlericalism. New thinkers
began noticing the divide between the priests and the flock. The clergy, for instance, were not always well-educated.
Parish priests often did not know Latin and rural parishes often did not have great opportunities for theological
education for many at the time. Due to its large landholdings and institutional rigidity, a rigidity to which the excessively
large ranks of the clergy contributed, many bishops studied law, not theology, being relegated to the role of property
managers trained in administration. While priests emphasized works of religiosity, the respectability of the church began
diminishing, especially among well educated urbanites, and especially considering the recent strings of political
humiliation, such as the apprehension of Pope Boniface VIII by Philip IV of France, the “Babylonian Captivity,” the
Great Schism, and the failure of Conciliar reformism. In a sense, the campaign by Pope Leo X to raise funds to rebuild
the St. Peter's Basilica was too much of an excess by the secular Renaissance church, prompting the high-pressure sale of
indulgences that rendered the clerical establishments even more disliked in the cities.

Luther, taking the revival of the Augustinian notion of salvation by faith alone to new levels, borrowed from the
humanists the sense of individualism, that each man can be his own priest (an attitude likely to find popular support
considering the rapid rise of an educated urban middle class in the North), and that the only true authority is the Bible,
echoing the reformist zeal of the Conciliar movement and opening up the debate once again on limiting the authority of
the Pope. While his ideas called for the sharp redefinition of the dividing lines between the laity and the clergy, his ideas
were still, by this point, reformist in nature. Luther's contention that the human will was incapable of following good,
however, resulted in his rift with Erasmus finally distinguishing Lutheran reformism from humanism.
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18. What factors in Europe contributed to the transformation of art into a

commodity?
The Work of Art: A Spectacular Commodity
UNFORTUNATELY, it is not only the avant-garde of revolutionary art and politics which has a different conception of
the role to be played by artistic creativity. "The problem is to get the artist onto the workshop floor among other
research workers, rather than outside industry producing sculptures," remarks the Committee of the Art Placement
Group, which is sponsored by, amongst others, the Tate Gallery, the Institute of Directors, and the Institute of
Contemporary Arts (Evening Standard, 1/2/67). In fact, industrialisation of 'art' is already a fait accompli. The
irreversible expansion of the modern economy has been forcing it to accord an increasingly important position for a long
time now. Already the substance of the tertiary sector of the economy - the one expanding the most rapidly - is almost
exclusively 'cultural.' Alienated society, by revealing its perfect compatibility with the work of art and its growing
dependence upon it, has betrayed the alienation of art in the harshest and least flattering light possible. Art, like the rest
of the spectacle, is no more than the organisation of everyday life in a form where its true nature can at most be
dismissed and turned into the appearance of its opposite: where exclusion can be made to seem participation, where one-
way transmission can be made to seem communication, where loss of reality can be made to seem realisation.
Most of the crap passed off as culture today is no more than dismembered fragments - reproduced mechanically without
the slightest concern for their original significance - of the debris left by the collapse of every world culture. This rubbish
can be marketed simply as historico-aesthetic bric-a-brac or, alternatively, various past styles and attitudes can be
amalgamated, up-dated and plastered indiscriminately over an increasingly wide range of products as haphazard and
auto-destructive fashions. But the importance of art in the spectacle today cannot be reduced to the mere fact that it
offers a relatively unexploited accumulation of commodities. Marshall McLuhan remarks: "Our technology is, also,
ahead of its time, if we reckon by the ability to recognise it for what it is. To prevent undue wreckage in society, the artist
tends now to move from the ivory tower to the control tower of society. Just as higher education is no longer a frill or a
luxury, but a stark need for production in the shaping and structure created by electric technology." And Galbraith,
even more clearly, speaks about the great need "to subordinate economic to aesthetic goals." (Guardian, 22/2/67).

Art has a specific role to play in the spectacle. Production, once it is no longer answering any real needs at all, can only
justify itself in purely aesthetic terms. The work of art - the completely gratuitous product with a purely formal coherence
- provides the strongest ideology of pure contemplation possible today. As such it is the model commodity. A life which
has no sense apart from contemplation of its own suspension in a void finds its expression in the gadget: a permanently
superannuated product whose only interest lies in its abstract technico-aesthetic ingenuity and whose only use lies in the
status it confers on those consuming its latest remake. Production as a whole will become increasingly 'artistic' insofar as
it loses any other raison d'etre.
Rated slightly above the run-of-the-mill consumers of traditional culture is a sort of mass avant-garde of consumers who
wouldn't miss a single episode of the latest 'revolt' churned out by the spectacle: the latest solemn 80 minute flick of 360
variegated bare arses, the latest manual of how to freak out without tears, the latest napalm-twisted monsters air-
expressed to the local Theatre of Fact. One builds up resistance to the spectacle, and, like any other drug, its continued
effectiveness demands increasingly suicidal doses. Today, with everyone all but dead from boredom, the spectacle is
essentially a spectacle of revolt. Its function is quite simply to distract attention from the only real revolt: revolt against
the spectacle. And, apart from this one point, the more extreme the scandal the better. Any revolt within the spectacular
forms, however sincere subjectively - from The Who to Marat/Sade - is absorbed and made to function in exactly the
opposite perspective to the one that was intended. A baffled 'protest vote' becomes more and more overtly nihilistic.
Censorship. Hash. Vietnam. The same old careerism in the same old rackets. Today the standard way of maintaining
conformity is by means of illusory revolts against it. The final form taken by the Provos - Saturday night riots protected
by the police, put in quarantine, functioning as Europe's premier avant-garde tourist attraction - illustrates very clearly
how resilient the spectacle can be.

Beyond this, there are a number of recent cultural movements which are billed as a coherent development from the bases
of modern art - as a contemporary avant-garde - and which are in fact no more than the falsification of the high points of
modern art and their integration. Two forms seem to be particularly representative: reformism and nihilism.
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19. How is the tone/mood of literary works of the northern Renaissance different
from those in the south?

20. Identify major works of Giotto, Leonardo, Michelangelo, Botticelli, Bosch, Van
Eyck, Durer

Giotto:
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Leonardo:
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Michelangelo:
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Botticelli:

Bocsh:
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Van Eyck:
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Durer:
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