These “Brief Notes” of General Chemistry I are taken from the textbook “Chemistry” by Raymond Chang
1998.
t is therefore very important –when studying these notes- to review the selected sections of each chapte
extbook first.
hope that these “Brief Notes” will serve their purpose in promoting better understanding for chemistry in
mproving the outcome of the overall grades of the undergraduate students.
_______________________________________________
Chapter 1: Chemistry: The study of Change
Chemistry is the center of basic sciences because it is needed in almost every area of science such as b
biochemistry, medicine geology, ecology etc..
1. Health/medicine:
- disease prevention and control
-new drug production etc..
2. Energy and environment:
- emission control
- energy efficient technologies such as solar energies
3. Material and technology
- new chemical products/ new and advanced chemical industries
4. Food/ agriculture:
- new biotechnologies to produce more food
- efficient fertilizers
----------------------------
- The scientific method is a systematic approach to research. The scientific method follows the following
1. Defining the problem
2. Performing actual experiment: collecting data. These data can be:
a. qualitative: based on general observations
b. quantitative: based on experimental results
3. Hypothesis:
- interpretation of the obtained data
- tentative explanation for a set of observations
- hypothesis also can be considered as educated guess.
4. Theory:
- a theory is a hypothesis tested intensively under different conditions and adopted as theory
5. Scientific law:
The theory is further tested under different locations/conditions by different researchers and proven to b
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
Classifications of matter:
Note:
1. a molecule is a substance that formed from combination of two or more of the same element (exampl
Cl2, Br2, N2 are molecules).
2. Nobel gases such He, Ar, Xe, Ne etc are considered molecules with one atom ONLY!
----------------------------
Change in states:
Melting: from solid state to liquid state
Freezing: from liquid state to solid state
Melting point (temperature) = Freezing point
Boiling: from liquid state to gas (vapor) state
Condensation: from gas (vapor) to liquid
Boiling point = Condensation point
Sublimation: from solids to gas without undergoing liquid state.
Deposition: from gas to solid without undergoing liquid state.
Sublimation point = Deposition point.
----------------------------
The interconversion is carried out without change in composition. Therefore, it is a physical change.
A chemical property:
A property of substance which is observed under changing composition.
n order to observe a chemical property, one should carry out a chemical reaction.
A chemical change:
A change in matter that leads to a change in composition and the process is irreversible.
Example: 4 Fe + 3 O2 ------> 2 Fe2O3
a. mass Kilogram Kg
b. length Meter m
c. pressure Pascal Pa
d. temperature Kelvin K
e. Heat Joules J
. volume Liter L
Note that "Liter" is not an SI base unit. However, it is adopted by the SI measuring system.
----------------------------
Mass /weight:
----------------------------
Volume: is equal to mass divided by density:
Volume = [(mass) / (density)] or in symbols:
V = [(m) / (d)]
Volume is measured in Liter in SI system.
1 Liter (L) =1000 mL
1 L = 1000 cm^3
Unit conversion:
1 cm^3 = (1X 10^-2 m)^3 = 1 X 10^-6 m^3
(because 1 cm = 10^-2)
----------------------------
Example:
The density of sulfuric acid in a certain car battery is 1.41 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 242 mL of the liqu
Solution:
mass = volume X density =242 mL X 1.41 g/mL = 341.22 g
----------------------------
Temperature:
A property that describes the change in heat.
3 Scales: a. English system: uses Fahrenheit (oF)
b. Celsius system: celsius degree (oC)
c. SI system: Kelvin (K)
H2O is used as a standard: Boiling and freezing points of water are used to inter- relate the three system
Note that the celsius scale is 100 units (100 - 0) and Fahrenheit scale is 180 units (212 - 32)
Example:
Convert 323.15 oC to oF
----------------------------
How to handle numbers?
Scientific Notations:
- are used when working with very large or very small numbers
- scientific notations are expressed in the following term: N X 10^n
where N = number between 1 and 10
n = exponent (can be positive or negative integer)
2. n = 1
When n = 1, the power is usually not written.
Example: 341.2 X 10^1 = 341.2 X 10
1. First adjust the values of the exponents n1, n2, n3....etc, so that the value of all exponent is the same
2. Add/subtract the values of N1, N2, N3 .....etc
a. Multiplication:
- add exponents n1, n2, n3 .......etc
- multiply N1, N2, N3 .........etc
Example: (3.1 X 10^3) X (5.1 X 10^2) =
(3.1 X 5.1) X (10^3 X 10^2) = 15.81 X 10^5
b. Division:
- subtract exponents n1, n2, n3 .......etc
- divide N1, N2, N3 .........etc
Example: (3.1 X 10^3) / (5.1 X 10^2) =
(3.1 / 5.1) X (10^3 / 10^2) = 0.608 X 10^1
= 6.08
_______________________________________________________
Significant Figures:
----------
- They give the margin of error by indicating the meaningful digits in the measured/calculated quantity.
- When significant figure are used, the last digit is uncertain.
- Considering significant figures, reflects the precision of the measurements.
Example:
Determine the number of significant figures (sig. fig.) of the following measurements:
a. 24 mL (undetermined)
b. 3.001 g ( 4 sig. fig.)
c. 0.032 m (2 sig. fig.)
d. 800 mL (undetermined)
Example:
61.34 X 13.121 = 804.8421 (calculator result)
4 sig. fig. is the determining number (least sig. fig.). Therefore, the answer will have 4 sig. fig.
Final result is 804.8
Note that when rounding a number that equal to 5 or higher, add one to the number to rounded of.
Example:
347.59 is rounded to 4 sig. fig. as 347.6
b. Addition/subtraction:
Example:
Add the following: 31.31 (2 digits after decimal)
2.1 (1 digit after decimal)
3.467 (3 digits after decimal)
__________________________
36.877 (calculator result)
2.1 has only one digit after the decimal. Therefore, it will control the outcome of the result.
Answer is 36.9 (with one digit after the decimal).
Note that 7 is greater than 5, so one is added to the number 8.
n multiplication/division, whole number (without decimal will have no effect on the outcome of the result
Example:
13 X 3.21 X 3.674 = 153.31602 (calculator result)
The number 13 is undetermined and hence has no effect.
3.21 has the least sig. fig. and hence it will control the outcome of the result.
The final answer will have 3 sig. fig.: 1.53 X 10^2
n addition/subtraction, whole number is very important because it determines the outcome of the result.
Example:
Add 13 (undetermined)
3.21 (2 digits after the decimal)
3.674 (3 digits after the decimal )
_________________________________
19.9884 (calculator result)
Answer is 20 (because the undetermined sig. fig 13 controls the outcome of the result which has to be u
without any digits)
Two ways:
1. Do all calculations with calculator, then round off to the least sig. fig. (ignor the digit rule of addition/su
Example:
Calculate the following. Rounding the answer to the right sig. fig.
Comment:
This way of rounding off approach in not really accurate.
10.6 has 3 sig. fig. will control the outcome of the result because 58 is whole number (no effect in divisio
Answer is -------------> 5.47
Comment:
This approach is more accurate because it considers all rules and it gives results with more sig. fig (com
5.4 of the first approach).
_______________________________________________
Example:
A roll of aluminum has a mass of 1.07 Kg. What is its mass in pounds. [ 1 lb = 453.6 g]
Note that all units have to be canceled except the one in question.
Example:
The density of the lightest metal lithium (Li) is 5.34 X 10^2 kg/m^3. Convert its density to g/ cm^3.
Example:
Convert 3.52 ft^3 into m^3:
Conversion ft-->inch-->cm-->m
Example:
Convert 8.5 tons to mg:
Please work on these problems. If you have any question, contact your instructor!
1.11;1.13;1.15;1.17;1.18;1.22;1.25;1.29;1.30;1.31;1.32;1.33;1.36;1.39;1.40;1.42;1.47;1.48;1.50;1.54;1.5
-------------------------------------
Recommended Problems/Answers:
b. [(321.098 -231.862 + 980)] = 1069.236 = 1069 ( no digits and no decimal because the answer is cont
value 980)
Atomic laws:
3. Law of conservation of mass: Law of constant mass: (by Dalton, English teacher)
"Matter can not be destroyed or created.
Example:
2 Mg + O2 ---------> 2 MgO
4g3g7g
f the mass of the product is less than 7 g then some grams of the matter had converted into light (UV ra
2 Mg + O2 ----------> 2 MgO + UV
-------------------------------------
The structure of atoms:
An atom is made of electrons, protons and neutrons.
1. The electrons:
The evidence of the presence electrons was provided by High Vacuum Discharge Tube experiment. In t
cathode rays were observed by introducing a fluorescent screen of zinc sulfide. Green rays were obtaine
deflected by the presence of magnetic and electric field. From this experiment one concluded that:
Electrons are particles (have mass) and are negative charged (attracted to the North pole of the magnet
attracted to the positive electrical plate).
Radioactivity:
X - Rays:
Some radiation coming out the cathode rays could penetrate materials without being deflected by magn
ields. These are not particles. Because their source was unknown, therefore it was called X - rays.
Radioactivity:
Spontaneous emission of particles and/ or radiation.
Radioactive element:
An element that spontaneous emits radiation.
There are three types of rays are produced by the decay or breakdown of a radioactive element:
a. alpha rays (radiation):
are positive charged particles [He+]. Their origin is the decay of protons in nucleus]. They are deflected
electrical field.
b. beta rays (radiation):
are negative charged particles. Electrons produced by neutrons' decay in the nucleus. They are deflecte
electrical field.
c. gamma rays (radiation):
ike X - rays, gamma rays do not have charge and are not deflected by a magnet or electrical field.
2. Protons:
Evidence of their presence was provided by the high vacuum discharge tube. In this experiment a perfor
(anode with holes in it) was used.
Positive rays were observed.
Mass of the protons is 1.67252 X 10^ - 24 g [about 2000 (1840 exact) times larger than the mass of elec
Mass of electrons is 9.09 X 10^ -28 g
3. Neutrons:
- The atomic mass of an element when based only on protons is less that the actual mass determined b
(electrons masses are neglected because they are very small).
- With help of radioactivity experiment by Chadwick, by which a beryllium foil was bombarded by alpha r
observed that some type of radiation remained undeflected by magnetic or electrical field. These radiatio
charged (neutral) and hence called neutrons.
The neutrons have masses slightly greater than protons.
- the total atomic mass is obtained when adding the mass of the protons and the mass of the neutrons. T
what obtained by experiments.
Note that in a neutral atom, number of electrons (e) equals number of protons.
n periodic table the following expression is given (relating the element to its A and Z values):
Example: If the following expression is given, calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons.
12.01
C
6
Z=6=#p=#e
# n = A - Z = 12 - 6 = 6
Note that the atomic mass is always rounded off to obtain exact number of neutrons. There is no fraction
neutrons.
sotopes:
atoms that have the same atomic number (same number of protons) but different mass number (differen
neutrons).
Example:
12 13 14
CCC
666
With the hydrogen as exception in naming the isotopes, all isotopes are named accoring to thier mass n
1
H is called hydrogen (p =1, e = 1 , n = 0)
1
2
H is called deutrium (p =1, e = 1 , n = 1)
1
3
H is called tritium (p =1, e = 1 , n = 2)
1
Nuclear reactions: are nucleus based. Protons and neutrons are taking part in the reaction in the nuclue
electrons.
Note that isotopes of the same element exhibit the same chemical properties and behave very similar to
chemical reaction.
Periodic table:
A chart in which elements are organized according to their chemical and physical properties.
Elements are organized horizontally in rows called periods and vertically in columns called groups.
There are 7 periods and 8 main groups designated by 1A,2A, 3A..........8A and 8 non main groups or tra
groups designated by1B,2B,3B.......8B.
All transition metals and group 1A,2A,3A(except boron B) are metals group 4A, 5A,6A,7A,8A are non m
Molecular models:
Are used to visualize the structures and bonds among atoms of the molecule.
Two Models.
1. Space - filling model: H2O (does not show all bonds
and angles)
2. Ball and Stick model: 3 dimensions (shows bonds and angles between atoms).
ons: Are atoms lost electrons (cations = positively charged) or gained electrons during a chemical react
negatively charged).
39
K -------------> K+ + 1e-
19 cation
p=19 p=19
e=19 e=18
19
F + 1e- --------> F-
9
p=9 p=9
e=9 e=10
K+ + F- -------> K F
Chemical Formulas:
Are formulas used to express the composition of the molecules and ionic compounds.
3 Types:
1. Molecular formula:
Expresses the exact number of atoms of each element.
Example: H2, H2O,CO2.
2. Empirical formula:
Expresses the simplest whole ratio of the atoms of each element. (but not the actual ratio)
Example:
C6H6-Molecular formula ----->Empirical formula C1H1
H2O2-Molecular formula ---->Empirical formula H1O1
Molecular formulas: are true chemical formulas.
Empirical formulas: are not true chemical formula but it reduces the ratio of the atoms of the elements to
(smallest) whole ratio (no fraction).
Sometimes the molecular form is equal to the empirical formula.
Example: CH3OH-molecular formula -----> CH3OH empirical formula
3. structural formula:
Expressing the bonds and angles among the atoms of the molecule.
Example: H2---C===C---H2
1. Organic compounds: compounds that contain carbon atom combined with other non metal atoms
2. Inorganic compounds: combination of metal with non metal atoms (ionic compounds) or non metal wi
(covalent compounds).
Example:
Potassium chloride: [potassium in the first group K+1, Cl in 7th group, therefore it will have 7 - 8 charge
-1].Hence potassium chloride has the chemical formula KCl
Note that the number of charges of the elements in main groups will be as follows:
group 1A : +1
group 2A : +2
group 3A : +3
group 4A : -4
group 5A : -3
group 6A : -2
group 7A : -1
group 8A : 0
The transitional elements (group 1B through group 8B)will not follow the above scheme, instead the cha
as in the following example:
Examples:
Write down the chemical formula of Ferric oxide:
Ferric = Fe+++ (3 positive charges), Oxide = O-- (2 negative charges).
Ferric oxide = Fe2O3
Manganese-III-oxide: Mn2O3
Potassium permanganate: K+, MnO4^- = KMnO4
Calcium nitrate: Ca2+, NO3^-1 = Ca(NO3)2
Calcium carbide: Ca2+, C^4- = Ca4C2 = Ca2C
sodium nitride: Na+1, N^3- = Na3N
ammonium dihydrogen phosphate = (NH4)^+, PO4^3- =
(NH4)3PO4
----------------------------
n case of non metal combines itself with non metal, then the prefixes mono, di, tri ...etc are used. Exam
NO = Nitrogen mono oxide--> omit the o --> Nitrogen monoxide
NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide
N2O3 = Dinitrogen trioxide
N2O5 = Dintrogen penta oxide --> omit a --> Dintrogen pentoxide.
N2O4 = Dintrogen tetra oxide --> omit a --> Dinitrogen tetroxide
Note this is not allowed in an ionic compound nomenclature: Example: Al2O3 is aluminum oxide and NO
ri oxide.
More Examples:
NF3 = Nitrogen triflouride
Cl2O7 = Dichloro hepta oxide --> Dichloro heptoxide
SiCl4 = Silican tetra chloride --> Silicon tetrchloride.
P4O10 = Tetra phosphorous deca oxide --> Tetra phosphorous decoxide.
----------------------------
Some exceptions to the rule of naming are the trivial names (found mostly in commercial and domestic u
H2O = water and NOT Dihydrogen monoxide
NH3 = ammonia and NOT Nitrogen trihydride
B2H6 = Diborane and NOT Diboran hexa hydride
CH4 = methane and NOT Carbon tetra hydride
SiH4 = Silane and Silicon tetra hydride
PH3 = Phosphine and NOT Phosphorous tri hydride
H2S = Hydeogen sulfide and Not Dihydrogen sulfide
----------------------------
Nomenclature of Acids and Bases:
1. An acid is a compound that gives H+ when dissolved in water: HCl(g) + H2O -----> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
1. Naming Acids that start with hydrogen.
Note that all inorganic acids start always with hydrogen at the beginning of their structure. To name such
hydro + anion name + ic:
2.12;2.15;2.18;2.21;2.23;2.33;2.38;2.41;2.45;2.53;2.55;2.64;2.69
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1. State whether the following statements represent "law of definite proportions" or "law of multiple propo
constant mass"
a. 20 grams of magnesium react with 30 grams of oxygen to give 50 grams of magnesium oxide.
Answer: Law of constant mass
b. Copper forms two oxide CuO (Cu:O = 1:1) and Cu2O (Cu:O = 2:1)
Answer. Law of multiple proportion.
c. Iron oxide produced in lab has the formula of Fe2O3. Iron oxide also found in nature (as in mineral roc
ormula of Fe2O3.
Answer: Law of definite proportion.
5.State the most important conclusion of Rutherford's experiment regarding the atomic model:
Answer: Atom is mostly empty space, with the mass being concentrated in the nucleus (center of the ato
density at distance from nucleus. Nucleus is made of protons and neutrons.
184
W e- = 74
74 p+ = 74
n = 184 - 74 = 110
7. Determine the number of electrons, protons and neutrons of the following ions: [Hint: use periodic tab
Ca^2+ = Ca has Z = 20, A = 40
Ca^2+ --> e- = 20 -2 =18
p+ = 20
n = 40 - 20 = 20
N^3- = N has Z = 7, A = 14
N^3- --> e- = 7 + 3 = 10
p+ = 7
n = 14 - 7 = 7
8. Determine the empirical formula of the following compounds and determine if both molecular and emp
are represented:
a. C2H2:
molecular formula: C2H2
empirical formula: C1H1
b. KMnO4:
molecular formula: KMnO4
empirical formula: KMnO4
c. P4O10
molecular formula: P4O10
empirical formula: P2O5
d. C6H12O6
molecular formula: C6H12O6
empirical formula: C1H2O1
e. N2O4
molecular formula:N2O4
empirical formula: N1O2
Atomic mass:
s the mass of the atom in atomic units (amu). One amu is defined as a mass exactly equal to one - twel
one carbon -12 atom.
12
C ---> 6 p+ and 6 n (is the standard atom)
6
----------------------------
Average weighed atomic mass:
= (sum of all natural abundance of each isotope of the element) X (atomic mass)
Example:
Determine the average weighed atomic mass of boron if the following information is given:
- boron atomic mass 10.0129 amu,its natural abundance 19.78%
- boron atomic mass 11.0093 amu,its natural abundance 18.22%
Solution:
Average weighed mass = (0.1978 X 10.0129)+ (0.8022 X 11.0093)= (1.9806) + (8.83166) = 10.8123 am
----------------------------
Question: Why do most masses of the elements (with some exceptions) have fraction (not whole numbe
Answer: Because each element has several isotopes and the average weighed atomic mass is calculate
which includes all isotopes found in nature (natural in abundance).
----------------------------
Molar mass of an element and Avogadro number:
Mol (SI unit): The amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules o
as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon - 12 isotope.
The actual number of atoms is determined by experiment.
1 mol = 6.022 X 10 ^23 particles
= 6.022 X 10 ^23 atoms
= 6.022 X 10 ^23 molecules
= 6.022 X 10 ^23 formula units
Avogadro number = 6.022 X 10 ^23
Examples:
Calculate the number of grams of lead (Pb) in 12.4 moles of Pb.
? g Lead = (12.4 mol Pb) X (207.2 g Pb/mol Pb)= 2569.28 g = 2.57 X 10^3 g
----------------------------
Calculate the number of atoms in 0.551 g of potassium K.
? atoms K = (0.551 g K)X (1 mol K/39.10 g K) X (6.022 X 10^23 atom K/mol K) = 8.486 X 10^23
----------------------------
Calculate the molar mass of methanol (CH3OH).
molar mass = sum of all atomic masses of the elements
= 1C + 4H + 1O = (1X12) + (4X1) + (1X16)= 32 gram/mol
Note that molar mass and molecular mass mean the same thing. the unit of molar mass (or molecular w
---------------------------
Example:
Calculate the number of moles of chloroform (CHCl3)in 198 g of chloroform.
molar mass = 1C + 1H + 3Cl= (1X12) + (1X1) + (3X35.5)
= 119.5 g/mol
? mol CHCl3 = (198 g CHCl3)X(1 mol/119.5 g CHCl3)= 1.66 g.
----------------------------
Example:
How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of isopropanol (rubbing alcohol = C3H8O)?
molar mass = (3X12) + (8X1) = (1X16)= 60 g/mol
? atoms H = (72.5 g alcohol)X(1 mol alcohol/60 g alcohol)X(6.022X10^23 alcohol molecule/ mol alcohol
alcohol molecule)= 4.22 X 10^26 H atoms
----------------------------
Percent Composition of compounds: The % mass of each element in a compound.
% composition = (mols of element/1mol of compound)X(atomic mass of the element/ molar mass of the
molecule)
Example:
Calculate the % composition by mass of each element in sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
molar mass H2SO4 = 2H + 1S + 4O = (2X1)+ (1X32)+ (4X16) = 98 g/mol
% H = (2 mol H/ 1 mol molecule)X [(1 H g/molH)/ (98 g/mol molecule)] X 100 = 2.04 %
% S = (1 mol S/ 1 mol molecule) X [( 32 S g/molS) / (98 g/mol molecule)] X 100 =32.65 %
% O = (4 mol O/ 1 mol molecule)X [(16 O g/molO)/ (98 g/mol molecule)] X 100 = 65.31 %
Note:
% O (the last % mass) can be determined by another method, which gives the same answer:
% O = 100 - 2.04 - 32.65 = 65.31 %
----------------------------
Determination of the empirical formula from the mass percent (%) composition of the elements:
Example: Determine the empirical formula of a compound having the following % mass composition:
K = 24.75 %
Mn = 34.77 %
O = 40.51 %
Solution:
1. Assume that the sample is 100 g, then:
K = 24.75 g
Mn = 34.77 g
O = 40.51 g
2. Transfer # grams into # mols:
# mols K = (24.75 gK) X (1 mol K/39 gK) = 0.6329
# mols Mn = (34.77 gMn)X(1 mol Mn/55 gMn) = 0.6322
# mols O = (40.51 gO) X (1 mol O/16 gO) = 2.5319
3. Dividing by the smallest # mols:
K = (0.6329 / 0.6322) = 1.0011 ~ 1.0
Mn = (0.6322 / 0.6322) = 1.0
O = (2.5319 / 0.6322) = 4.0049 ~ 4.0
4. The ratio among the elements is K:Mn:O = 1:1:4, and hence the empirical formula is KMnO4.
----------------------------
Calculations of # grams of an element that found in the molecule or a compound:
Example:
Calculate the number of grams of Aluminum in 371 g of Al2O3.
Solution:
Molar mass Al2O3 = (2X27) + (3X16) = 102 g/mol
Atomic mass of Al = 27 g/mol
% Al = [(2 mol Al/ 1 mol Al2O3)]X[(27 g/mol Al)/(102 g/mol Al2O3)] X 100% = 52.94 %
Therefore, the mass of aluminum in aluminum oxide is 52.94 grams.
----------------------------
How to write chemical equations:
Rule:
1. Identify the reactants and products.
2. # of atoms in the reactant side (left) = # atoms in the product side (right)
3. Trial/error: Changing stoichiometric coefficient to equalize both sides.
4. Check # charges in both sides (left and right). If they are not equal. Try to equalize them.
Example:
HNO3 + Cu ----------> Cu^2+ H2O + NO2 + NO3^-
1. Trial / error:
multiply both sides of the chemical equation with 2 and compare the number of the atoms:
2 HNO3 + 2 Cu ---------> 2Cu^2+ + 2H2O + 2NO + 2NO3^-
2. Check # atoms:
reactants: products:
H=2H=4
N=2N=4
O = 6 O = 12
Cu = 2 Cu = 2
3. Charges:
Left = 0 Right = +4 -2 = +2
Charges at left are not equal charges at right.
Trial/error:
Multiply HNO3 by X4
Multiply Cu by X1
Multiply NO2 by X2
Multiply NO3^-1 by X2
Multiply H2O by X2
4 HNO3 + Cu ---------> Cu^2+ + 2H2O + 2NO + 2NO3^-
4. Check # of atoms in both sides:
reactants: products:
H=4H=4
N=4N=4
O = 12 O = 12
Cu = 1 Cu = 1
Atoms are balanced
3. Charges:
Left = 0 Right = +2 -2 = 0
Charges are balanced.
Example:
2 Al + Fe2O3 ----> Al2O3 + 2Fe
124 g 601 g
1. Calculate the mass of Al2O3 in grams.
2. How much of the excess reactant had left at end of the reaction.
3. Calculate the % yield if the actual yield is 150 g Al2O3.
Solution:
1. Determine the limiting reactant:
a.# mols Al2O3 based on Al=
(124 gAl)X(1 mol Al/ 27 g Al)X(1 mol Al2O3/1 molAl)=2.296 mol Al2O3
8. Determine the empirical formula of the compound having the following composition:
C=25.5%, H=45.64%, O=28.86%
Answer:
Assume the compound is worth 100 g.
C=25.5 g, H=45.64 g, O=28.86 g
moles C = (25.5 gC)X(1 mol/12 gC) = 2.125 moles C
moles H = (45.64 gH)X(1 mol/1 gH) = 45.64 moles H
moles O = (28.86 gO)X(1mol/16 gO) = 1.803 moles O
Dividing by the smallest moles number (1.803 moles)
C(2.125) H(46.64) O(1.803) ----> C(1.178) H(25.861) O(1) ---> C(1) H(26) O(1)
10. 125 g of AgNO3 react with 205 g of iron (Fe) according to the balanced chemical equation:
3 AgNO3 + Fe ----> Fe(NO3)3 + 3 Ag
Calculate the following:
a. The mass of the product Fe(NO3)3 in grams
b. How much of the excess reactant had left at the end of the reaction.
c. The % yield if the actual yield of Fe(NO3)3 (obtained from the experiment) is 50.5 grams.
Answer:
a. First the limiting reactant has to calculated:
# moles Fe(NO3)3 based on AgNO3:
(125 g AgNO3)(1 mol AgNO3 /170 g AgNO3)(1 mol Fe(NO3)3 / 3 mol AgNO3) = 0.245 moles Fe(NO3)3
Note the molar mass of AgNO3 is 170 g/mol
# moles of Fe(NO3)3 based on Fe:
(205 g Fe)(1 mol Fe /56 g Fe)(1 mol Fe(NO3)3 / 1 mol Fe) = 3.66 mol Fe(NO3)3.
Comparing the two results AgNO3 is the limiting reactant.
Therefore, # g of Fe(NO3)3 based on the limiting reactant:
AgNO3 = (0.245 mol Fe(NO3)3) (242 g Fe(NO3)3 / 1 mol Fe(NO3)3) = 59.29 g Fe(NO3)3
Note that the molar mass of Fe(NO3)3 is 242 g/mol
c. The % yield = [(actual yield) / (theoretical yield based on limiting reactant calculations)] X 100%
= [(50.5 g / 59.29)] X 100% = 85.17 %
_______________________________________________
Aqueous solution:
A solution that is homogeneous mixture made of two or more substances:
1. The solute: is the substance that has the ability to be dissolved and is found in smaller amount.
2. The solvent: is the substance that is dissolving and is found in larger amount.
Aqueous solution is the solution by which the solute is a solid or a liquid or a gas and the solvent is H2O
aqueous solutions in the lab made of dissolving a solid (as solute) in a liquid (as a solvent).
Electrolyte:
A substance that when dissolved in H2O results in a solution that can conduct electricity (producing ions
Example: NaCl(s) + H2O(l) ---> Na+(aq) + Cl^-(aq)
Non electrolyte:
A substance that does not conduct electricity when dissolved in water such as:
sugar + H2O ---> non electrolyte
methanol + H2O ---> non electrolyte
Strong electrolyte: an electrolyte that dissociates 100 % (completely) when dissolved in water such as:
NaCl(solid) + H2O ---> Na^+1(aq) + Cl^-1(aq) [100% dissociation]
Weak electrolyte:: an electrolyte that dissociates partially (not completely) when dissolved in H2O such a
CH3COOH <---> H^+1(aq) + CH3COO^-1(aq)
Study Table 4.1 pages 111 (memorize it!!!)
Note: The difference between complete and partial dissociation can be easily recognized by inspecting t
chemical equations:
Double arrows: <---> = process is reversible and there is partial dissociation.
Single arrow: ---> process is irreversible and there is complete dissociation.
Hydration:
The process in which an ion is surrounded by a number of water molecules. Actually water molecules w
cage around the dissolved ion.
NaCl(s) ---> Na^+1(aq) + Cl^-1(aq)
Na^+1(aq)= means that Na^+1 ions are surrounded (caged) with water molecules. Oxygen is the partial
water molecules, will be attracted to the positive charge of Na^+1 ions.
Cl^-1(aq)= means that Cl^1- ions are surrounded (caged) with water molecules. Hydrogen is the partial
water molecules, will be attracted to the negative charge of Cl^1- ions.
Types of reactions:
1. Precipitation reactions:
Results in a insoluble product called a precipitate.
How do we know that we a precipitate?
To answer this question, check the solubility rules:
Solubility rules:
A. The soluble precipitates:
1. All nitrates (NO3^1-)of all cations are soluble.
2. All halides (7th group 7A elements) of all cations are soluble [except: Ag^1+, Hg2^2+ (mercury 1 or m
Pb^2+].
3. All sulfates (SO4^2-) of all cations are soluble [except: Ba^2+, Ca^2+, Sr^2+, Ag^1+, Pb^2+].
4. All compounds contain alkali metal ions such as Li^1+, Na^1+, K^^1+, Rb^1+, Cs^1+ and NH4^1+ are
Example:
Acid Types:
1. Monoprotic: (producing one H^+ in aqueous solution):
Examples: HCl, HNO3, HClO4
2. Diprotic: (producing two 2H^+ in aqueous solution):
Examples: H2SO4, H2S
3. Triprotic (producing three 3H^+ in aqueous solution):
Examples: H3PO4
The dissociation of these acids is as follows:
HCl(aq) ---> H^+(aq) + Cl^-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) ---> 2H^+(aq) + SO4^2-(aq)
H3PO4(aq) ---> 3H^+(aq) + PO4^3-(aq)
2. Neutralization Reactions:
Acid + base ---> salt + H2O (in aqueous solution)
Example:
CO3^2-(aq) + 2 H^2+(aq) ---> H2CO3(aq)
OH^-(aq) + H^+(aq) ---> H2O(aq)
NO2^-(aq) + H^+(aq) ---> HNO2(aq)
HCO3^-(aq) + H^2+(aq) ---> H2CO3(aq)
NH3(aq) + H^+(aq) ---> NH4^+
The driving force of an acid - base neutralization reaction is the reaction of H^+ (of the acid) with OH^- (
produce H2O.
Oxidizing agent:
A compound that does the actual oxidation process and itself will be reduced in the process.
Reducing agent:
A compound that does the actual reduction process and itself will be oxidized in the process.
Example:
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ---> ZnSO4(aq) + Cu
Oxidation: Zinc gives 2 electrons
Zn(0) ----> Zn^2+ (in ZnSO4)
Zn goes from oxidation number 0 to 2
Reduction: Copper accepts these 2 electrons
Cu(2+) (in CuSO4) ---> Cu(0)
Because oxidation and reduction are connected processes, they are coupled together in the expression
Red stands for reduction and ox stands for oxidation.
Note that O.N. is very rare cases can have a fraction number.
Example:
O2^ - ----> N.O. = - 1/2
Example:
Determine O.N. of Cr in Cr2O7^2-
Outside charge = the sum of all O.N. of all elements involved.
-2 = 2 (Cr) + 7 (O)
-2 = 2 (Cr) + 7 (-2)
-2 = 2 (Cr) - 14
+ 12 = 2 (Cr)
(Cr) = (+ 12 / 2) = + 6
Example:
Determine the O.N. of Mn in MnO4^-
-1 = 4(O) + 1 (Mn)
-1 = 4(-2) + 1(Mn)
-1 = -8 + Mn
-1 +8 = Mn
Mn = + 7
2. Decomposition reaction:
2 HgO ---> 2 Hg + O2
3. Displacement reactions:
a. metal displacement rxn:
Cu^2+ + Zn ---> Zn^2+ + Cu
Metal displacement depends on the activity series of metals (electrochemical series).
Li
K
Ba
H
Cu
Hg
Au
The displacement hydrogen from acid increases from Au to Li.
The displacement of hydrogen from water increases from Au to Li.
Elements above Hydrogen are good reducing agents (being itself easily oxidized).
Elements below Hydrogen are good oxidizing agents (being itself easily reduced).
b. Hydrogen displacement:
rom acid: Ca + 2 HCl ---> CaCl2 + H2
rom water: K + H2O ---> KOH + 1/2 H2
c. Halogen displacement:
Halogen activity series:
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
-----------------------> decrease in oxidizing agent characteristics.
F2 is very reactive (less stable)
2 is least reactive (the most stable)
Example:
F2 + 2 NaCl ---> very reactive
Cl2 + 2 NaBr -----> Br2 + 2 NaCl
Br2 + 2 KI ---> I2 + 2 KBr
Halogens are very reactive (strong oxidizing agents).
4. Disproportion reactions:
Hg^+ ----> Hg^2+ + Hg
(O.N. =+1) (O.N.=+2) (O.N.=0)
(medium) (highest) (lowest)
Example:
H2O2 ---> O2 + H2O
(O.N. of Oxygen= -1) (O.N.=0) (O.N.= -1)
(medium) (highest) (lowest)
Concentration of solutions:
Amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution is expressed as molarity.
The molarity is defined as follows:
Molarity = [(# moles of the solute) / (Liters of solution)]
The unit of molarity (as concentration of solute in a solvent) is given as:
mol/L or M or molar.
Example:
How many grams does one need of NaOH to prepare 0.1 M of NaOH in 500 mL solution (solvent is wate
Answer:
Molar mass of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g/mol
? #g NaOH = [(0.1 mol NaOH / L solution) (40 g NaOH / mol NaOH) (0.5 L solution) = 2 g NaOH
Note that unit cancellation is the key for correct answer.
Dilution of Solution:
Dilution law:
# mols of the stock solution = # mols of first diluted solution = # mols of second diluted solution = .........
C1 X V1 = C2 X V2 = C3 X V3 = ..........
Where:
C1 = molarity of the stock solution
V1 = volume taken from the stock solution
C2 = molarity of the diluted solution (first solution diluted from stock)
V2 = volume of the first diluted solution
C3 = molarity of the second diluted solution
V3 = volume of the second diluted solution
Example:
How would you prepare 200 mL of 0.866 M NaOH solution starting with a 5.07 M stock solution?
Answer:
C1 X V1 = C2 X V2
5.07 M X V1 = 0.866 M X 200 mL
V1 = (0.866 M X 200 mL) / (5.07 M) = 34.16 mL
To prepare 200 mL of 0.8666 NaOH out 5.07 M stock, one needs to transfer 34.16 mL of the 5.07 M sto
he sample up to 200 mL (i.e. add 165.84 mL deionized water).
4.7;4.8;4.10;4.15;4.16;4.18;4.23;4.25;4.26;4.39,4.43;4.44;4.56;4.58;4.60;4.66;4.69;4.74;4.84
------------------------------------------------------------------
Selected problems:
2. Predict the type of the following reactions: [{Hint: types of reactions are precipitation, neutralization, re
(combination), redox (decomposition) etc.]
a. 3NaOH + H3PO4 ----> Na3PO4 + 3H2O [neutralization]
b. HgO --------------> Hg + O2 [decomposition]
c. MgSO4.7H2O -------> MgSO4 + 7H2O [decomposition, dehydration]
d. Hg2Cl2 + NH4OH ---> Hg + HgNH2Cl [redox reaction]
e. 2Al + 3CuCl2 -----> 2AlCl3 + 3Cu [redox reaction]
3. Predict the products in the following reactions. If there is no ppt or no change, write NO Reaction!
Hint: Balance the equations]
a. Mg + 2 HCl -----> MgCl2 + H2
b. 2 CuO --------> 2 Cu + O2
c. 2 NaCl + Ca(NO3)2 ----> 2 NaNO3 + CaCl2 (both are soluble and therefore there is NO reaction)
d. Bacl2 + Li2SO4 ------> BaSO4 + 2 LiCl
e. Pb(NO3)2 + Na2S -----> 2 NaNO3 + PbS
. (NH4)2CrO4 + 2 AgNO3 -----> 2 NH4NO3 + Ag2CrO4
5. Determine whether the following acids and bases are strong or weak.
1. HCO3^- + H2O <------> H2CO3 + OH^- [weak base]
Double arrow <----> = weak
one arrow -----> = strong
2. HClO4 -----> H^+ + ClO4^- [strong acid]
3. CH3COOH <-------> H^+ + CH3COO- [weak acid]
4. H3PO4 <--------> 3H^+ + PO4^3- [weak acid]
5. LiOH ---------> Li^+ + OH^- [strong base]
7. Determine the Oxidation number N.O. (or oxidation state O.S.) of the element in question:
a. C2H5OH [element: C]
0 = 2C + 6H + 1O
0 = 2C + 6(1) + 1(-2) = 2C + 6 - 2
-4 = 2C and hence C = -4/2 = -2
b. P4O10 [element: P]
0 = 4P + 10(O)
0 = 4P + 10(-2) = 4P -20
20 = 4P and hence P = 20/4 = 5
c. HCO3^- [element: C]
-1 = 1(H) + 1C + 3(O)
-1 = 1(1) + 1C + 3(-2)
-1 -1 +6 = 1C and hence C = +4
d. ClO4^- [element: Cl]
-1 = Cl + 4(O)
-1 = Cl + 4(-2)
-1 +8 = Cl and hence Cl = +7
e. S4O6^2- [element: S]
-2 = 4S + 6(O)
-2 = 4S + 6(-2)
-2 + 12 = 4S and hence S = 10/4 = 5/2
. AlH3 [element: Al]
0 = Al + 3(H)
0 = Al + 3(-1) Al - 3
0 + 3 = Al and hence Al = 3
Note that H has always +1 Oxidation number N.O. in a covalent bond. However H always will have alwa
ound in IONIC compounds.
9. How many milliliter (mL) are needed of the stock solution that is 2.5 M to prepare 550 mL of 0.250 M?
C1 X V1 = C2 X V2
2.5 M X V1 = 0.250 M X 550 mL
V1 = [(0.250 M X 50 mL) / (2.5 M)] = 55 mL
10. A student has weighed 3.6431 g of Ca(OH)2 solid. The student then dissolved this amount of mass
250 mL. Calculate the molarity of this solution.
Molar mass of Ca(OH)2 = 40 + 32 + 2 = 74 g/mol
# moles of Ca(OH)2 = (3.6431 g/74.9 g/mol) = 0.04923 moles
molarity = [(# moles of Ca(OH)2) / ( Volume of the solution)]
molarity = [(0.04923 moles / 0.250 L)]= 0.1969 M
11. How many grams of KOH are needed to neutralize 15.56 mL of 0.1081 M H2SO4?
The chemical equation is as follows:
2KOH + H2SO4 ------> K2SO4 + 2H2O
Molar mass of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 g/mol
? # g KOH = (15.56 mL H2SO4 /1000 mL H2SO4)X(1 Liter H2SO4)X(0.1081 mol H2SO4 /L H2SO4)X(2
H2SO4)X(56 g KOH /mol KOH)
Unit cancellation:
? # g KOH = (15.56/1000)(0.1081)(2/1)(56 g) = 0.1884 g
_______________________________________________________
Chapter 5: Gases
Characteristics of gases:
- gases assume the volume and the shape of their container
- gases are compressible
- gases are mixed completely and evenly when confined to the same container
- gases have much lower density than liquids and solids
Elements that form gases at room temperature (25 C)and 1 atm are: H, He, N, O, F, Ne, Cl, Ar, Kr, Xe, R
Diatomic gases: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2
Monatomic gases: He, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
- Atoms are held by intermolecular forces (attractive forces, week bond) in the gases (covalent compoun
-------------------------------------------------------
onic compounds do not exist as gases at 25 C and 1 atm, because the cations and the anions in an ion
ogether by strong electrostatic forces. [(need large amount of energy to break the bond)
-------------------------------------------------------
Barometer:
A Barometer is a device used to measure the atmospheric pressure only
Manometer:
A Manometer is a device used to measure the pressure of gases other than the atmospheric pressure
Standard atmospheric pressure = 1 atm is equal to the pressure that support a column of mercury which
mm Hg (or 76 cm)at 0 C at sea level.
1 torr = 1 mm Hg
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1.10325 X 10^5 Pa
Note that 1 cm = 10 mm]
-------------------------------------------------------
The pressure - volume relationship:
Example:
A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 946 mL at a pressure of 726 mm Hg. Calculate the press
(in mm Hg) if the volume is reduced at constant temperature to 154 mL.
Answer:
P1V1 (initial condition) = P2V2 (final condition)
(726 mm Hg)(946 mL) = P2 (154 mL)
P2 = (726 Hg X 946 mL) / (154 mL) = 4459.7 mm Hg
Example:
A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 3.20 L at 125 C. Calculate the temperature at which temper
gas occupy 1.54 L if the pressure remains constant?
Answer:
V1/T1 (initial condition) = V2/T2 (final condition)
3. Avogadro's Law:
Volume - amount relationship
V is direct proportional to # moles (at constant temperature and pressure)
V=Kn
where K = constant
n = # moles of the gas
The combination of all three laws leads to the following relationship called the Ideal Gas Equation:
PV = n RT
where R = gas constant = 0.082 atm.L/mol.K
R has another unit = 8.314 Joules/mol.K
An ideal gas:
The molecules of an ideal gas do not attract or repel one another, and their volume is negligible compar
volume of the container.
Example:
What is the volume (in Liters) occupied by 49.8 of HCL at STP?
PV = nRT
V = (nRT) / (P)
n = # moles HCl = 49.8 g HCL / 36.5 (g/mol) = 1.36438 moles
R = 0.082 atm.L/mol.K
T = 0 C = 273.15 K (K=Kelvin)
P = 1 atm
V = (1.36438 X 0.082 X 273.15) / (1 atm)= 30.56 Liters
Another solution:
1 mol HCl (at STP) --------> 22.4 Liters
1.36438 mol HCl -----------> X Liters
X = (1.36438 X 22.4) = 30.56 Liters.
------------------------------------------------------------------
mportant relationships:
(P1XV1) / T1 = (P1XV1) / T2
PV = (mRT) / (MM)
Dividing both sides by the volume V
P = (mRT) / (V)(MM)
But m/v = d = density
Hence P = (d RT) / (MM)
d = (PXMM) / (RT)
One can also determine the molar mass (MM) of a gas if its density is given as follows:
MM = (d RT) / (P)
Examples:
What is the density in g/L of Uranium hexaflouride (UF6) at 779 mm Hg and 62 C?
Answer:
Molar mass of UF6 = 238 + 6(19) = 352 g/mol
d = (PXMM) / (RT)
d = [(779 mm Hg) / (760 mmHg/1 atm)][352 g/mol] / [(0.082 atm.L/mol.K)X(62+273.15 K)] = 13.13 g/L
------------------------------------------------------------------
Dalton's Law of partial pressure:
The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of all pressure that each gas would exert if it were pr
pressure is called the partial pressure of this gas.
P(total) = The sum of all of partial gases
Example:
A sample of natural gas contains 8.24 moles methane CH4, 0.421 moles ethaneC2H6 and 0.116 moles
f the total pressure of the gases is 1.37 atm, what are the partial pressures of the gases?
Answer: Given are the followings:
P(total) = 1.37 atm
n(CH4) = # moles of methane = 8.24 moles
n(C2H6) = # moles of ethane = 0.421 moles
n(C3H8) = # moles of propane = 0.116 moles
X(CH4) = mole fraction of methane = [(8.24 mol)] / [(8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116)mol] = (8.24 / 8.777) = 0.9388
X(C2H6) = mole fraction of ethane = [(0.421 mol)] / [(8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116)mol] = (0.421 / 8.777) = 0.048
X(C3H8) = mole fraction of propane = [(0.116 mol)] / [(8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116)mol] = (0.116 / 8.777) = 0.01
Therefore,
P(CH4) = partial pressure of methane = (0.9388)P(total) = (0.9388)(1.37 atm) = 1.286 atm
Hydrogen gas generated when calcium metal reacts with water. Hydrogen then is collected over water.
gas collected at 30 C and at 988 mm Hg is 641 mL. What is the mass (in grams) of the hydrogengas ob
pressure of water vapor at 30 C is is 31.82 mm Hg.
Answer:
Ca + 2 H2O ---------> Ca(OH)2 + H2(gas)
P(H2)V(H2) = n(H2)RT
P(total) = P(H2) + P(H2O)
P(H2) = 988 mm Hg - 31.82 mm Hg = 956.18 mm Hg
P(H2) = (956.18 mm Hg)X(1 atm / 760 mm Hg) = 1.258 atm
(1.258 atm)(0.641 l) = n(H2)(0.082 l.atm/K.mol)(30+273.15K)
n(H2) = 0.0324 mol
n(H2) = (0.0324 mol)X(2 g / mol)= 0.0648 g
-------------------------------------------------------
5.17;5.20;5.22;5.30;5.34;5.38;5.52;5.52;5.54;5.60
-------------------------------------------------------
2. Name the elements that found as mono atomic gases and name the elements that found as diatomic
Answer:
Monatomic elements: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Rn.
Diatomic gases: H2, O2, N2, Cl2, F2, I2, Br2,
4. Define:
a. pressure
b. atmospheric pressure
Answer:
Look in textbook + notes
5. What is the major difference between the barometer and manometer instruments?
Answer:
Barometer: an instrument used to measure the air atmospheric
Manometer: an instrument used to measure mainly the pressure of any gases. It also can be used to me
pressure of the air pressure (although this is not common).
6. A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 5.34 L at 120 C. Calculate the temperature at which the g
2.50 L if the pressure remains constant.
Answer:
nitial condition:
V1 = 5.34 L
T1 = (120 + 273.15) = 393.15 K
Final condition:
V1 = 2.50 L
T2 = ?
V1 /T1] = [V2/T2]
5.34 L / 393.15 K] = [2.50 L/T2]
T2 = (393.15 X 2.50) / 5.34 = 35.96 L
8. A sample of oxygen gas initially at 0.98 atm is cooled from 22 C to - 70 C at constant volume. What is
pressure in atm?
Answer:
nitial conditions:
T1 = 22 + 273.15 = 295.15 K
P1 = 0.98 atm
Final conditions:
T2 = -70 + 273.15 = 203.15 K
P2 = ?
P1 / P2 = T1 / T2
(0.98 atm / P2) = (295.15K / 203.15 K)
P2 = (0.98 X 203.15) / (295.15)
P2 = 0.675 atm
9. What is the density in g/L of BaCl2 (barium chloride) at 770 mm Hg and 65 C?
Answer:
d = m/ V = P (MW) / R T
R = 0.082 L.atm/mol.K
P = (770 mm Hg) X (1 atm / 760 mm Hg) = 1.013 atm
T = 65 + 273.15 = 338.15 K
MW = molecular weight of BaCl2 = 137 + 2(35.5) = 208 g/mol
d = [1.013 atm X 208] / [0.082 X 338.15] = 7.599 g/L
10. The density of gaseous compound is 4.38 g/L at 1.86 atm and 50 C. What is molar mass?
Answer:
d = m/ V = P (MW) / R T
(MW) = d R T / P
(MW) = [(4.38)(0.082)(50+273.15)] / [(1.86)] = 62.4 g/mol
11. A 2.14 L sample of hydrogen chloride gas at 2.61 atm and 28 C is completely dissolved in 668 mL o
hydrochloric acid solution. Calculate the molarity of acid solution.
Answer:
molarity = mol / L , PV = n R T, n to be calculated first:
n = PV /RT
n = [(2.61 atm)(2.14 L)] / [(0.082 atm.L/mol.K)(28 +273.15 K)] = 0.2262 mol
Molarity = 0.2262 mol / 0.668 L = 0.338 M
12. A sample of natural gas contains 8.24 moles of methane (CH4), 0.421 mol of ethane (C2H6), and 0.
propane (C3H8). If the total pressure of the gases is 1.37 atm, what are the partial pressures of gases?
Answer:
P(CH4) = X(CH4) P(total)
P(C2H6) = X(C2H6) P(total)
P(C3H8) = X(C3H8)P(total)
X(CH4) = n(CH4) / (n(CH4) + n(C2H6) + n(C3H8)
X(C2H6) = n(C2H6) / (n(CH4) + n(C2H6) + n(C3H8)
X(C3H8) = n(C3H8) / (n(CH4) + n(C2H6) + n(C3H8)
X(CH4) = (8.24 mol) / (8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116) mol = 0.9388
X(C2H6)= (0.421 mole) / (8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116) mol = 0.0479
X(C3H8) = 1 - 0.9388 - 0.0479 = 0.0133
P(CH4) = (0.9388)(1.37) = 1.286 atm
P(C2H6) = (0.0479)(1.37) = 0.0656 atm
P(C3H8) (0.0133)(1.37) = 0.0182 atm
_______________________________________________
Chapter 6: Thermochemistry
Law of conservation of energy = the total quantity of energy in the universe is assumed constant.
Thermochemistry:
The study of heat change in chemical reactions.
To study the energy change associated with chemical reactions we have define.
3 types of systems:
a. open system: a system that allows a change of mass and heat
b. close system: a system that allows a change in heat only but not in mass
c. isolated system: a system that DOES NOT allows a change in heat or in mass
Exothermic reactions:
n a chemical reaction, energy (heat) can be given off, the reaction is called exothermic reaction.
Example:
2 H2 + O2 ------> 2 H2O + Heat (exothermic)
Endothermic reactions:
n a chemical reaction, energy (heat) can be taken in, the reaction is called endothermic reaction.
Example:
Heat + 2 CuO ------> 2 Cu + O2 (endothermic)
------------------------------------------------------------------
Enthalpy H:
The amount of heat flow into or out of a system in a constant pressure proces of 1 atm.
H = E + PV
where:
H = enthalpy
E = internal energy
PV = work (a multiplication of pressure and volume)
Thermochemical equations:
The heat (enthalpy) information will be added to the chemical equation.
Example:
1CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -------> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + H = -890 KJ
This chemical reaction is exothermic reaction. 890 Kilojoules (KJ) will be given off.
1 cal = 4.18 Joules
Example:
Calculate the heat evolved when 266 g of white phosphorous (P4) burn in air according to the equation:
P4(s) + SO2(g) ------> P4O10(s) H = -3013 KJ/mol
Answer:
(266 g P4)]X[(1 mol P4 / (4 X 31 g P4)][(- 3013 KJ / 1 mol P4)]
-------------------------------------------------------
Standard enthalpy of formation and reaction:
The sea level reference point for all enthalpy expressions is called the standard enthalpy of formation. H
defined as the heat change that result when one mole of a compound is formed from its element at a pre
Elements are said to be in standard states.
Hess's law:
When reactants are converted to products, the change in enthalpy is the same wether the reaction takes
step or in a series of steps.
Example:
Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of acetylene (C2H2) from its elements:
2 C(graphite) + H2(g) ------> C2H2(g)
The equations for each step and corresponding enthalpy changes are:
a. C(graphite + O2(g)----> CO2(g) H(rxn) = -393 KJ
b. H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)----> H2O(l) H(rxn) -285 Kj
c. 2 C2H2 + 5 O2(g) -----> 4 CO2(g) + 2 H2O H(rxn)= -2598 KJ
Answer:
1. Reverse equation C to obtain C2H2(g) in the product side.
4 CO2(g) + 2 H2O ----> 2 C2H2(g) + 5 O2 H(rxn)= + 2598 KJ
2. Multiply equation a by 4:
3. Multiply equation b by 2 and add up the three equations:
4C(graphite) + 4O2(g) ---> 4 CO2(g) H(rxn) = -4X393= -1572 KJ
2H2(g) + O2(g) ---> 2H2O(l) H(rxn) = -2X285.8 = - 571 KJ
4CO2(g) + 2H2O ---> 2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) = +2598 KJ
------------------------------------------------------
4C(s) + 2H2(g) ---> 2C2H2(g)
6.18;6.22;6.35;6.45;6.46;6.47;6.66;6.68;6.99
------------------------------------------------------------------
Answer:
Look for the definitions in the textbook and notes.
2. State the law of conservation of energy. If energy is not destroyed, where does it go?
Answer:
Energy is not created or destroyed. It can transfer from one form to another types of energy, (i.e. mecha
electrical or chemical energy to electrical energy).
3. Determine whether the following chemical reactions are exothermic or endothermic reactions:
a. Heat + NH4NO3(solid) + H2O(liquid) ----> NH4^+ + NO3^ - + H2O(liquid)
Answer:
Since the heat at the reactants' side, reaction is endothermic
b. 2 ZnO(solid) + Heat ------> 2 Zn(solid) + O2(gas)
Answer:
Reaction is endothermic (heat is at the reactants' side)
c. HClO4(aq) + LiOH(aq) ------> LiClO4(aq) + H2O(liquid) + Heat
Answer:
Heat is at the products' side. Hence the reaction is exothermic
d. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) ---> CO2(g) + 2 H2O(liquid) H = -890 KJ
Answer:
H is negative value. The reaction is exothermic
e. 4 CO2(gas) + 2 H2O(liquid) ----> 2 C2H2(gas) + 5 O2(g) H = + 2598.8 KJ
H is positive value. The reaction is endothermic.
5. Calculate the heat evolved when 305.5 g of carbon (graphite) burn in air according to the following eq
C(graphite) + O2(gas) ----> CO2(gas) H = -393.5 KJ/mol
Answer:
? Heat =(305.5 g C)( 1 mol/12 g C)(-393.5 KJ/mol C) = 10017.85 KJ = 1.002 X 10^4 KJ
7. Calculate H(rxn) for the following reactions: [Hint: Use the table in appendix 3, page A-8]
a. 4B(s) + 3O2(g) ----> 2B2O3(s)
Answer:
H(rxn) = [2(-1263.6 KJ/mol)] - [0 - 0] = -2527.2 KJ/mol
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Chapter 7: Quantum Theory and the electronic structure : Dual nature of the electron.
Electron can behave as wave and as a particle depending on the experiment conditions.
Example: Light behaves as wave (propagating through medium) or as particle (photoelectric effect).
Quantum mechanics:
A topic deals with finding (probability of finding) electrons in an atom.
t is impossible to define exact location of a wave (electron) because it extends through the space.
Schroedinger Equations:
Complex mathematical equations incorporating both particle behavior (in terms of mass m) and wave be
of wave function (psi)), which depend on the location in space of the system (such as an electron in an a
(Psi)^2 = psi square = the probability of finding electron density in a certain region in space.
Atomic orbital:
can be thought as the wave function of an electron in an atom.
Quantum numbers:
4 (four) quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other at
quantum numbers are derived from the mathematical solution of the Schroedinger equation for the hydr
Subshell:
A combination of n and l
Example:
2s is subshell made of n = 2 and l = 0 (s orbital --> l = 0)
3s 3p 3d is a shell (the same value of n of 3) made of three subshells: 3s , 3p and 3d.
Note that 1s is subshell and the same is a shell because there is no 1p or 1d.
Atomic orbitals:
n] [l] [m(l)] [# of orbitals] [atomic orbitals]
-------------------------------------------
1][0] [0] [1] [1s]
___________________________________________
2][0] [0] [1] [2s]
1] [-1,0,+1] [3] [2p(x),2p(y),2p(z)]
____________________________________________
3][0] [0] [1] [3s]
1] [-1,0,+1] [3] [3p(x),3p(y),3p(z)]
2] [-2,-1,0,+1,+2] [5] [3d(xy),3d(xz),3d(zx),
3d(x^2 -y^2),3d(z^2)]
_____________________________________________
Orbital filling:
The order in which atomic orbtials is filled can be shown as follows:
1s [1st shell has only 1 subshell]
2s 2p [2nd shell has 2 ubshells]
3s 3p 3d [3rd shell has 3 subshells]
4s 4p 4d 4f [4th shell has 4 subshells]
5s 5p 5d 5f [5th shell has 4 subshells]
6s 6p 6d [6th shell has 3 subshells]
7s 7p [7th shell has 2 subshells]
Note that 1s is the only shell that is a subshell at the same time.
Using an arrow (head/tail) through the shell organized as above, the orbitals will be filled in the following
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 7p
Electron configuration:
Distribution of electrons among the various atomic orbitals. There are three types of electron configuratio
1. Ground state electron configuration or spdf electron configuration:
Na has atomic number of 11. The distribution of these 11 electrons will be in the order of:
1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^1
mportant notes:
a. The sum of all electrons is 11 electrons (all electrons have to accounted for)
b. The valence electrons are electrons found in the last (outermost) shell, which turns to be equal to the
group. In case of sodium the last (outermost) shell is 3s^1 which has 1 electron. This 1 electron is the va
which agrees with the number of the group (sodium is in the first group).
c. Number of the period indicates the number of the period that element is found in. This works in combi
determine the outermost shell (or subshell) that valence electrons can be found in.
Sodium is found in 3rd period and 1st group (main group).Therefore sodium will have valence electron o
group) and this valence electron will occupy 3s orbital ( 3 = 3rd period).
The filling above of the orbital in boxes (orbital diagram) follows "Pauli Exclusion Principal" which states
"No two electrons in an atom can have the same 4 quantum numbers in the same orbital (box)"
Most of the time, the electrons will distinguish themselves in the spin quantum number m(s). Therefore t
drawn as arrows pointing against each other; meaning that 1st electron will spin upwards (clockwise) an
electron will spin downwards (counter clockwise).
Hund's rule:
Electrons are filled in orbital singly and parallel to each other.
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshell is the one with greatest number of parallel spins.
For example d orbital with 5 electrons unpaired will have 5 spins (paramagnetic, more stable arrangeme
orbital with 7 electrons unpaired will have 7 spins (paramagnetic, more stable arrangement of electrons)
Shielding Effect:
Shielding effect is observed in many electron atoms. The 1s^2 electrons act a shield so that electrons fa
nucleus do not feel the whole positive charge attraction of the nucleus. As a result, a reduction in the ele
between the protons in the nucleus and the electrons in 2s,2p.
2s is more closer (more penetrating) to the nucleus than 2p (meaning less shielded).
Building - Up Principal:
group 1A is called the s - group (their valence electrons equal 1)
group 2A is called the s - group (their valence electrons equal 2)
group 3A through group 8A are called the p - group (their valence electrons are found in the s and p orb
electrons in the outermost shell of s-p orbital is the valence electron number which is the same as group
Transition metals have group B, are called the d group or block. Their actual electron configuration is:
Nobel Gas] ns^2 (n-1)d^x , where x has the value of 1 to 10 and n is the number of the period.
Lanthanides and actinides electron configuration is:
Nobel Gas] ns^2 (n-2)f^x , where x has the value of 1 to 14 and n is the number of the period.
Note again that d orbital is always ONE unit less than the number of the period and f orbital is always TW
han the number of the period.
-------------------------------------------------------
7.7;7.8;7.10;7.16;7.20;7.31;7.34;7.40;7.48;7.54;7.55;7.73;7.79;7.84;7.102
-------------------------------------------------------
5. State the range (minimum, maximum) value for each quantum number n, l, m(l), m(s)
n = 1 -----------> infinity
= 0 -----------> n-1
m(l) = -l, ........,0,.........,+l
m(s) = -1/2, +1/2
6. Why do atoms other than hydrogen atom show a split in their orbital energies?
Due to electrons repulsion within the orbital.
10. How many subshells are in an energy level with each of the value of n
a. n=1 -----> 1 subshell (1s)
b. n=2 -----> 2 subshells (2s 2p)
c. n=3 -----> 3 subshells (3s 3p 3d)
d. n=4 -----> 4 subshells (4s 4p 4d 4f)
e. n=5 -----> 4 subshells (5s 5p 5d 5f)
. n=6 -----> 4 subshells (6s 6p 6d 6f)
g. n=7 ----> 2 subshells (7s 7p)
11. Which of the following subshells do not exist?
2d, 1s, 4d, 1p, 2g, 3f, 4f, 0s, 5d
Answer:
2d, 1p, 2g, 3f, 0s, 2p
13. Give the periodic table group number and period for the element whose atoms have the following ele
configurations:
a. 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6
Outermost shell 2s 2p (2nd period). Valence electrons are 2+6 = 8. Hence 8th A group. Matching 8th gro
he element is Neon. Double check it: the sum of all electrons are: 2 + 2+ 6 = 10 electrons which is the s
number of Neon.
e. [Ne] 3s^2
Ne has 10 electrons. Valence electrons are 2. Total number of electrons is 12 electrons. (Z=12). Hence
Magnesium. This can be confirmed by the valence electrons number which is 2 (2nd A group) and the p
period (because n=3).
_______________________________________________
Cation:
an element or molecule that loses electrons (being oxidized). When the electrons are lost (donated), the
will decrease because the nucleus will have more attractive forces to pull the leftover (not donated) elec
This is because of the fact that more positive charges (protons in the nucleus) than negative charges pre
Anion:
an element or molecule that gains electrons (being reduced). When the electrons are gained (accepted)
atom will increase because the nucleus will have less attractive forces to pull the extra
electrons towards it. This is because of the fact that less positive charges (protons in the nucleus) than n
(electrons) present.
Be: has Z =4
Z(effective) = 4 - 2 = +2
B: has Z =5
Z(effective) = 5 - 2 = +3
C: has z =6
Z(effective) = 6 - 2 = +4
N: has Z=7
Z(effective) = 7 - 2 = +5
O: has Z =8
Z(effective) = 8 - 2 = +6
F: has Z =9
Z(effective) = 9 - 2 = +7
n conclusion, the effective nuclear charge increases in the period of the periodic table from left to right.
effective nuclear charge is the more attraction towards the nucleus can be utilized, the smaller the atom
Therefore, the atomic radius decreases within the period of the periodic table from left to right.
onic radii:
The ionic radii for the metals (cations) are LOWER than their corresponding atomic radii. The trend is st
radii (of the cations) increase within the group from top to bottom and decrease within the period from le
The ionic radii for the non metals (anions) are HIGHER than their corresponding atomic radii. The trend
onic radii (of the anions) increase within the group from top to bottom and decrease within the period fro
onization energy:
The minimum energy in KJ/mol required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
he electron is an endothermic process (i.e. needs heat/energy to proceed).
Example:
Boron atom has 5 electrons:
Energy + B(g) ----> B^1+ + 1e^ - I(1) = first ionization energy
Energy + B^+1 ----> B^2+ + 1e^- I(2) = second ionization energy
Energy + B^+2 ----> B^3+ + 1e^- I(3) = third ionization energy
Energy + B^+3 ----> B^4+ + 1e^- I(4) = fourth ionization energy
Energy + B^+4 ----> B^5+ + 1e^- I(5) = fifth ionization energy
(5) is the greatest ionization energy because the last electron is held very tightly due to attractive forces
charges of the nucleus.
The ionization energy has an opposite trend to the atomic radius. The larger the atomic radius of the ato
he removal of electrons will be, the smaller the ionization energy is.
Therefore, ionization energy decreases within the group of the periodic table of the element from top to b
atomic radius). However, the ionization energy increases within the period from left to right (small atomic
Electron affinity:
The energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form a
X(gas) + e^ - -----> X^ - (gas)
This process is exothermic. Heat will be generated, when an electron is taken by an gaseous atom. The
process is the opposite of the ionization energy process. The electroaffinity increases within the period o
able from left to right (Fluorine atom has the highest electroaffinitive element). The electroaffinity decrea
group from top to bottom.
Note that halides (non metals of the 7th A group) have the highest electroaffinity in general.
Also note that ionization energy process produces cations and electroaffinity process produces anions.
Electronegativity:
The ability of the atom to attract or pull electrons towards it in a chemical bond (covalent, sharing bond b
bond).
Electronegativity increases within the period from the left to right and (fluorine is being the highest electr
element followed by oxygen). The Electronegativity decreases within the group from top to bottom.
Non metals are considered more electronegative and metals are considered more electropositive.
------------------------------------------------------------------
Selected problems from Textbook - Chapter 8:
8. 8.13;8.24;8.26;8.27;8.37;8.40;8.43
------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Rearrange the following elements according to their increasing atomic radius: Give a reason for tour a
a. Sn, C, Pb, Si
The arrangement is C, Si, Sn, Pb (C is the lowest and Pb is the highest). In the group the atomic radius
op to bottom.
b. Re, Bi, Ba, Au
The arrangement is Bi, Au, Re, Ba (Bi is the lowest and Ba is the highest). This is because atomic radiu
within the period from left to right (because of the effective nuclear charge).
5. Compare the ionization energy for the following elements: [Hint: rearrange them according to their inc
onization energies]
a. O, Po, Te
The arrangement is Po, Te, O (O is the highest and Po is the lowest). The larger (in size) the atom is the
onization energy. The ionization energy decreases within the group from top to bottom.
b. Ge, Ca, Br, Co
The arrangement is Ca, Co, Ge, Br (Ca has the largest atomic radius and hence the smallest ionization
other hand has the smallest atomic radius and therefore it has the highest ionization energy). The ioniza
ncreases within the period from left to right.
7. Compare the effective nuclear charge for the above elements: (question # 5)
a. O, Po, Te No comparison can be made because effective nuclear charge is applicable in the period o
group.
b. Ge, Ca, Br, Co
The arrangement is Ca, Co, Ge, Br (Br is the highest and Ca is the lowest). The effective nuclear charge
eft to right within the period because of the shielding effect.
Example:
LiF
Li ^+1 ::F::^ -1
Li (valence electron is 1) loses its valence electron and it transfers to cation with a charge of +1.
F (valence electrons are 7) gains one electron form Li and it transfers to an anion with a charge of -1.
n conclusion, an ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds ion in an ionic compound. Lewis dot stru
describe the ionic bonding.
The most striking feature of the ionic compound is its lattice energy.
Lattice energy: is the energy required to completely separate one mol of a solid ionic compound into gas
Lattice energy is a measure of the stability of the ionic compound. The large the lattice energy (more en
separate the ionic compound) the more stable the ionic compound.
Lewis Structure:
Representation of covalent bonds in which shared electron pairs are shown either as line or as dots betw
Octet rule:
An atom (not hydrogen) tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by Eight valence electrons. By sharing
covalent bond, atoms can complete their octet.
Example:
:F:. .:F:: ------> ::F:: ::F:: [Note that each fluorine atom is surrounded with 8 electrons].
Octet rule works ONLY for the 2nd period elements (2s 2p subshells) which can hold a total of 8 electron
gas configuration.
Octet Rule is held strictly and Exclusively for the elements of the second period: Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxyg
C,N,O,F]
Other elements may or may not follow the octet rule.
H] \
H]__N___ [H]
4. Checking up ----> the total # of electrons is 8 which is the same number calculated.
5. Formal charge on each Hydrogen = total # of valence electrons - total # of non bonding electrons - 1/2
bonding
= 1 - 0 - 1/2(2) = 1 - 0 - 1 = 0
Formal charge on Nitrogen = 5 - 2 -1/2(6) = 5 - 2 - 3 = 0
------------------------------------------------------------------
Example:
Draw the Lewis structure of Carbonate ion CO3 ^2-
1. Total # of valence electrons + charges = 4 + 3(6) + 2(charge) = 24 electrons
2. Carbon the least electronegative atom is the central atom. Oxygen is the most electronegative atom is
atom.
3. Start building single bond between carbon atom and oxygen atoms. Then check the octet rule for both
oxygen. If it is not satisfied, then form double bond and recheck again.
4. The following Lewis structure is drawn:
O::
C =O::
O::
The two negative charges will be added to each oxygen atom (singly bonded) to complete the octet rule
5. Formal charge of the two single bonded oxygen atoms = 6 - 6 - 1/2(2) = 6 - 6 -1 = -1
Formal charge on carbon atom = 4 - 0 - 1/2(8) = 4 - 0 - 4 = 0
Formal charge on the double bonded oxygen atom = 6 - 4 - 1/2(4) = 6 - 4 - 2 = 0
6. The total number of electrons used in the structure agrees with the one calculated
------------------------------------------------------------------
Example:
NH4^+ [ammonium ion]
1. total # of valence electrons - charge = 5 + 4(1) - 1 = 8 electrons
2. Hydrogen is always terminal. Nitrogen is therefore is the central atom.
3. Single bonds are drawn. Remember that hydrogen will never have double bond.
The Lewis structure is:
H
N__H
\
HH
4. Octet rule is held.
5. Formal charge of each hydrogen atom = 1 - 0 - 1/2(2) = 1 - 0 - 1 = 0
Formal charge of nitrogen = 5 - 0 - 1/2(6) = 5 - 0 - 4 = +1
6. . The total number of electrons used in the structure agrees with the one calculated.
------------------------------------------------------------------
Selected Problems from Textbook - Chapter 9:
9.16;9.17;9.28;9.34;9.43;9.44;9.45;9.50;9.52;9.53;9.54;9.61;9.62;9.72;9.73;9.74
------------------------------------------------------------------
Selected Problems and Answers - chapter 9:
C__Br:::
\Br:::
Br::
Note: go through all procedures
6. What does "octet rule' mean? What is the octet rule used for?
"Octet rule": an atom tends to form bond (covalent bond) by having eight electrons (valence electrons) b
bonding (lone pair). It is used for the elements in the periodic table in general to achieve ideal gas (grou
configuration.
7.What are the elements which have to obey the octet rule without any exceptions?
C, N, O, F.
10. What is the general trend of the Electronegativity within the period and within the period?
Electronegativity increases within the period from left to right with fluorine being the most electronegative
The Electronegativity decreases within the group from top to bottom.
O:: -
---------------------------
PO4^3-
O:
|
P___O::: -
\O::: -
O::: -
Note: All steps of writing Lewis structures should be considered as already done in the examples in the
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