Trigonometry (from Greek trigōnon "triangle" + metron "measure")[1] is a branch of

mathematics that studies triangles and the relationships between their sides and the angles
between the sides. Trigonometry defines the trigonometric functions, which describe
those relationships and have applicability to cyclical phenomena, such as waves. The
field evolved during the third century BC as a branch of geometry used extensively for
astronomical studies.[2]

Trigonometry is usually taught in middle and secondary schools either as a separate

course or as part of a precalculus curriculum. It has applications in both pure mathematics
and applied mathematics, where it is essential in many branches of science and
technology. A branch of trigonometry, called spherical trigonometry, studies triangles on
spheres, and is important in astronomy and navigation.

There are an enormous number of uses of trigonometry and trigonometric functions. For
instance, the technique of triangulation is used in astronomy to measure the distance to
nearby stars, in geography to measure distances between landmarks, and in satellite
navigation systems. The sine and cosine functions are fundamental to the theory of
periodic functions such as those that describe sound and light waves.

Fields that use trigonometry or trigonometric functions include astronomy (especially for
locating apparent positions of celestial objects, in which spherical trigonometry is
essential) and hence navigation (on the oceans, in aircraft, and in space), music theory,
acoustics, optics, analysis of financial markets, electronics, probability theory, statistics,
biology, medical imaging (CAT scans and ultrasound), pharmacy, chemistry, number
theory (and hence cryptology), seismology, meteorology, oceanography, many physical
sciences, land surveying and geodesy, architecture, phonetics, economics, electrical
engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, computer graphics, cartography,
crystallography and game development.

Astronomy and geography Trigonometric tables were created over two thousand
years ago for computations in astronomy. The stars were thought to be
fixed on a crystal sphere of great size, and that model was perfect for
practical purposes. Only the planets moved on the sphere. (At the time
there were seven recognized planets: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, the moon, and the sun. Those are the planets that we name our days
of the week after. The earth wasn't yet considered to be a planet since it was
the center of the universe, and the outer planets weren't discovered then.)
The kind of trigonometry needed to understand positions on a sphere is
called spherical trigonometry. Spherical trigonometry is rarely taught now
since its job has been taken over by linear algebra. Nonetheless, one
application of trigonometry is astronomy.
Spherical Trigonometry deals with triangles drawn on a sphere. The subject originated
in the Islamic Caliphates of the Middle East, North Africa and Spain during the 8th to
14th centuries. It arose to solve an apparently simple problem: Which direction is
Mecca?

The development of this subject lead to improvements in the art of navigation, stellar
map making, geographic map making, the positions of sunrise and sunset, and
improvements to the sundial.

In the figure above, a triangle, ABC, is drawn on a spehere. Each line of the triangle is a
Great Circle. These are circles drawn on a sphere with the same radius as the sphere.
Great circles cover the shortest distance between two points.

The capital letters (A, B, C) denote the angles between the great circle arcs of the triangle
as measured on the surface of the sphere. The small latters (a, b, c) represent the lengths
of the great circle arcs measured as angles from the centre of the Spherical
Trigonometry deals with triangles drawn on a sphere. The subject originated in the
Islamic Caliphates of the Middle East, North Africa and Spain during the 8th to 14th
centuries. It arose to solve an apparently simple problem: Which direction is Mecca?

The development of this subject lead to improvements in the art of navigation, stellar
map making, geographic map making, the positions of sunrise and sunset, and
improvements to the sundial.

In the figure above, a triangle, ABC, is drawn on a spehere. Each line of the triangle is a
Great Circle. These are circles drawn on a sphere with the same radius as the sphere.
Great circles cover the shortest distance between two points
sphere.

A spherical triangle, differs from a plane triangle in that the sum of the angles is more
than 180 degrees.

Distance Between Two Points

Definitions
The Cosine and Sine Rules can be used to solve the basic problems of
navigation on the surface of the Earth.

In the figure above, the points B and C are two points on the surface of the Earth. We can
define the following:

• Point A is the North Pole.

• The great circle joining points B and C is the shortest distance
between them.
• The great circle (in blue) joining B' and C' is the Equator
(Latitude 0°).
• The great circle (red) joining ABB' is a line of Longitude. It is
the Longitude of B.
• The great circle joining ACC' is another line of Longitude. It is
the Longitude of C.
• The length of the great circle arc B'B is the Latitude of point
B. The arc B'A is 90° (Equator to Pole).
• The length of the great circle arc C'C is the Latitude of point
C. The arc C'A is also 90°.
Latitude (λ) is measured in degrees (°) measured from the Equator Northwards (marked
N) or Southwards (S). The Latitude of the North Pole is 90°N and the Latitude of the
South Pole is 90°S. Southern Latitudes are considered negative (by convention). The
Equator is a natural line on the Earth as it represents the great circle bisecting the Earth's
axis of rotation.

Longitude (L) is measured in degrees East (E) or West (W) of the Line of Longitude
passing through Greenwich Observatory, in a suburb of London (UK). This is called the
Prime Meridian of the Greenwich Meridian. It is not a natural line and has been
chosen by convention.

Using the Cosine Rule

The Cosine Rule can be used to determine the distance between points B
and C (the arc, a) as follows:
Cos(a) = Cos(b) × Cos(c) + Sin(b) × Sin(c) × Cos(A)

where

• A is an angle measured in degrees. It is the difference in

Longitude between points B and C.
• The great circle arc, b, is 90° minus the Latitude of C. This is
called the Polar Distance.
• The great circle arc, c, is 90° minus the Latitude of B.

Declination or Latitude from Stars

Definitions
In the essay about Coordinate Systems, it was shown that there are two
local coordinates that can be used to fix the position of a star from a
particulat location. In the diagram below, point O is the observer and S
is a star:

• The angle NOT is the Azimuth, α, (measured in degrees clockwise

from North).
• The angle TOS is the Altitude, measured in degrees from the
horizon. In practice it is easier to measure Zenith Distance, z,
which is 90° - Altutude. The Zenith is the point directly
overhead.
A star map (or a table of star positions) is a very useful aid in navigation. The Celestial
Sphere has a coordinate system analagous to that on the Earth. The Right Ascention is
analagous to Longitude on the Earth. It is found by measuring times and will not be
discussed here. The Declination of a star is the number of degrees North or South of the
Celestial Equator. Once these two coordinates are known, the star can be plotted
accurately onto a star map or tabulated for use in navigation.

Sunrise and Sunset Points

Definitions
The Sun's Declination changes throughoiut the year from +23.5° on 21
June to -23.5° on 21 December. These two dates are called the
Solstices. This movement from north of the Equator to south of the
Equator causes the seasons. It also changes the length of daylight and
the position of local sunrise and sunset throughout the year.

On the Equinoxes (21 March and 23 September) the Sun's Declination is 0° and the Sun
rises exactly in the East (Azimuth 90°) and sets exactly in the West (Azimuth 270°). At
other times of the year the Sun rises and sets North or South of the East or West point as
its Declination changes.
In the diagram above (set in the Northern Hemisphere), the red line is the daily path of
the Sun on the Equinox. It rises in the East (Azimuth = NOE) passes through the South
(when it is at its highest) and sets in the West (Azimuth = NOW).

The blue line is the daily path of the Sun during the December Solstice. The Sun rises
South of East (Azimuth = NOR), passes through the South (lower than at the Equinoxes)
and sets to the South of West (Azimuth = NOT).

In the diagram above, the green line is the daily path of the Sun during the June Solstice.
The Sun rises North of East (Azimuth = NOR), passes through the South (higher than at
the Equinoxes) and sets to the North of West (Azimuth = NOT).
This formula calculates the rising and setting points of the Sun (or any other object) if its
Declination is known for a given Latitude.