Background Theory

Background Theory
2.1 Introduction
Engineers design endless variety of objects to serve the basic needs of society. Factors to be

considered in design included functionality, strength, appearance, economics and environmental

protection. The background theory related to the loading frame elements design will be presented

in this chapter.

2.2 Design Against Static Load

2.2.1 Modes of failure
The load is designed as static load if it is gradually applied to a mechanical component and does

not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time. The engineering materials can be

classified into two group's ductile and brittle materials. A ductile material has a relatively large

tensile strain before fracture occurs; on the other hand, a brittle material has a relatively small

tensile strain prior to fracture. A tensile strain of about 5% is considered to be the dividing line
between brittle and ductile material [4].

A mechanical component may fail this is may be unable to perform its function satisfactorily, as a

result of any one of the following three modes of failure.

• Failure by elastic deflection.

• Failure by general yielding.

• Failure by fracture.

In application like transmission shaft supporting gears, the maximum force acting on the shaft,

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (1 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory
without affecting its performance, is limited by the permissible elastic deflecting. Lateral or

torsional rigidity is considered as the criterion of design in such cases. Sometimes, the elastic

deflection result in unstable conditions, such as buckling of columns or vibration. The design of

the mechanical component, in all these cases, is based on the permissible lateral or torsional

deflecting. The stresses induced in the component are not significant and the properties of the

material, such as yield strength or ultimate tensile strength, are not of primary importance. The

modulus of elasticity and rigidity are the important properties and the dimensions of the

component are determined by the load deflection equation.

A mechanical component made of ductile material loses its engineering usefulness due to a large

amount of plastic deformation after the yield point stress is reached. A considerable portion of the

component is subjected to plastic deformation called general yielding. There is a basic difference

between general yielding and localised yielding. The localised yielding in the region of stress

concentration is restricted to a very small portion of the component and is not considered

significant. The yield strength of a material is an important property when a component is

designed against failure due to general yielding.

Components made of brittle materials cease to function satisfactorily because of the

sudden fracture without any plastic deformation. The failure in this case is sudden and total. The

ultimate tensile strength of the material in an important property for determining the dimensions

of these components.

In the light of the above the design of components on both strength and rigidity basis is

expected.

2.2.2 Safety factor

The loads that a structure is capable of supporting must be greater than the load it will be

subjected to when in service if the structure failure is to be avoided. The strength is the ability of

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (2 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

a structure to resist loads; the actual strength of a structure must exceed the required strength. The

factor of safety is the ratio of the actual strength to the required strength.
(2.1)
The factor of safety must be of course greater than 1.0 if failure is to be avoided. Factors of

safety from slightly above 1.0 to a much as 10 are used. Since both strength and failure have

many different meanings, the incorporation of factors of safety in design is not a simple matter.

Strength may be measured by the load carrying capacity of a structure, or it may be measured

by the stress in the material. Failure may mean the fracture and complete collapse of a structure

or it may mean that the deformation have become so large that the structure can no longer

perform its intended functions. The latter type of failure may take place at loads much smaller

than those that cause collapse. The determination of a factor of safety must also take into

account such matters as the following: probability of accidental overloading of the structure by

loads that exceed the design loads; types of loads (static or dynamic); whether the loads are

applied once or are repeated; how accurately the loads are known; possibilities for fatigue

failure; inaccuracies in construction; variability in the quality of workmanship; variations in

properties of materials; deterioration due to corrosion or other environmental effects; accuracy

of the methods of analysis; whether failure is gradual (ample warning) or sudden (no warning);

consequences of failure (minor damage or major catastrophe); and other such consideration. If

the factor of safety is too low, the likelihood of failure will be high and the structure will be

unacceptable; if the factor is too large, the structure will be wasteful of material and perhaps

unsuitable for its function (for instance, it may be too heavy).

There are many international codes and regulations which proscribe the factor of safety

where danger to human life is involved. The provisions of codes and specification are intended

to provide reasonable level of safety without unreason able costs.

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (3 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

2.2.3 Allowable stresses and allowable loads

Factors of safety are defined and implemented in various ways. As mentioned in the

preceding section while designing a component it is necessary to ensure sufficient reserve

strength in case of an accident. It is ensured by taking a suitable factor of safety (n). The factor

of safety may be defined as

(2.2)
(2.3)
The allowable stress (or working stress) value is used in design to determine the

dimension of the component. It is considered as a stress which the designer excepts will not be

exceeded under normal operations.

For ductile materials the allowable stresses in normal and shear are obtained by the following

equation:
(2.4)

Or
(2.5)

For brittle material, the relationships are:

(2.6)
(2.7)

The allowable load (the permissible load or the safe load) can be obtained knowing the

allowable stress and the geometry of the component.

2.2.4 Elements design

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (4 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

Bar subjected to normal load

The stress is given by

(2.8)
The strain is given by

(2.9)

The elongation (contraction) is given by:

(2.10)
Design criteria
(2.11)
(2.12)
Components subject to direct shear stress

The average shear stress is given by

(2.13)

Shear strain is given by

(2.14)

The design criteria

The permissible shear stress is given by

(2.15)
Where
= is the yield strength in shear equals
50% and 57.7% of the yield strength in tension, according to the principle shear stress theory

and the distortion energy theory of failure respectively[5].

Bar subjected to torsion moment

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (5 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

(2.16)
(2.17)

(2.18)
(2.19)

Design criteria

(2.20)
(2.21)
where θ is the angle of twist

2.2.5 Members subjected to buckling load.

Load carrying structures may fail in variety of ways depending upon the type of structure the

conditions of support the kind of loads and the materials used. For instance, an axle in a vehicle

may fracture suddenly from repeated cycles of loading, or a beam may deflect excessively, so

that the structure is unable to perform its intended function. These kinds of failures are prevented

by designing structures so that the maximum stresses and maximum displacement remain within

tolerable limits. Thus, strength and stiffness are important factors in design.

Another type of failure is buckling. We will consider specifically the buckling of

columns, which are long slender structural members loaded axially in compression (Figure. 2.1).

If a compression member is relatively slender, it may deflect laterally and fail by bending rather

than failing by direct compression of material. You can demonstrate this behavior by

compressing a plastic ruler or other slender object. When lateral bending occurs, we say that the

column has buckled. Under an increasing axial load, the lateral deflection will increase too, and

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (6 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

eventually the Column will collapse completely.

Figure.2.1: Buckling of column due to an axial compressive load.

The phenomenon of buckling is not limited to columns. Buckling can occur in many kinds of
structures and can take many forms. When you step on top of an empty aluminum can, the thin
cylindrical walls buckle under your weight and the can collapses. When a large bridge collapsed a
few years ago, investigators found that failure was caused by the buckling of a thin steel plate that
wrinkled under compressive stresses. Buckling is one of the major causes of failures in structures,
and therefore the possibility of buckling should always be considered in design.

Critical Load:

P < Pcr The structure returns to the vertical position after a slight disturbance
(The structure is stable)
P > Pcr The structure buckles (It is unstable)
(2.22)
http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (7 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM
 Background Theory

Le = effective length = KL
Figure 2.2: Critical loads, effective lengths, and effective-length factors for ideal
columns.[5]

K = effective length factor (Figure 2.2)

L = actual length of the column
Critical Stress
(2.23)

2.2.6 Power screws

A power screw is a mechanical devise meant for converting rotary motion into translation motion
and for transmitting power. The main application pf power screws are as follows:

• to load a specimen, e.g. universal testing machine;

• to raise the load, e.g. screws-jack;
• to obtain accurate motion in machining operations, e.g. lead-screws of lath;
• to clamp a work piece, e.g. vice;

Forms of threads
There are four type of thread used for power screws square, acme, I.S.O. metric
trapezoidal, and buttress, as shown in figure 2.3. The guidelines for the selection of a proper
thread profile for the power screws are as follows:
• The efficiency of square threads is more than that of other types of threads.
• Square threads are difficult to manufacture. Square threads have limited application due to
difficulties in their manufacture.
• The strength of a screw depends upon the thread thickness at the core diameter. As seen in
figure 2.3(a), (b) and (c), acme and trapezoidal threads are stronger than square threads due to
more thread thickness.
• The wear of the thread surface becomes a serious problem in applications.

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (8 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

• Buttress threads can transmit power and motion only in one direction, while square, acme
and trapezoidal threads can transmit force and motion in both directions.
Square threads are used for screw-jacks, presses and clamping devise. Acme and trapezoidal
threads are used for the lead-screw and other power transmission devise in machine tools.
Buttress threads are used in vices, where force is applied only in one direction.

Figure 2.3: Threads for power screw

Stresses in screw

The body of a screw is subjected to an axial force W and torsional moment (Mt) as shown in
figure 2.4. The direct compressive stress is given by

(2.24)

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/presen...fs08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (9 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

Figure 2.4: Stresses in screw

For long and slender screws, buckling is considered instead of compression. The torsional shear
stress is given by

(2.25)

The principle (max) shear stress given by,

(2.26)

The threads of the screw which are engaged with the nut are subjected to transverse shear
stresses. The screw will tend to shear off the threads at the core diameter under the section of load
W. the shear area of one thread is π dc t. the transverse shear stress in the screw is given by

(2.27)
where
= transverse shear stress at the root of the screw (N/mm2)

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/prese...s08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (10 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

t = thread thickness at the core diameter (mm)

z = number of threads in engagement

The transverse shear stresses in the nut are determined in a similar way. Under the action of load
W, the thread on the nut will tend to shear off at the nominal diameter. The shear area of one
thread is π d t. Therefore,

(2.28)
where
τn = transverse shear stress at the root of the nut (N/mm2)
t = thread thickness at the root of the nut (N/mm)

The bearing pressure between the contacting surface of the screw and the nut is an important
consideration in design. The bearing area between the screw and the nut for one thread is [ π/4
( - ]. Therefore,

(2.29)
or
(2.30)
where
Sb = unit bearing pressure (N/mm2)

The permissible bearing pressure depends upon the materials of the screw and the nut, and the

rubbing velocity. The permissible values of unit bearing pressure are given in Table 2.1 [4].

Table 2.1 Unit bearing pressure for power screws

2.3 Thermodynamics background

The main thermodynamics principle used in this project to design the conditioning

chamber is the energy balance. Energy balance states that the net change in the total energy of

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/prese...s08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (11 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

the system during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the

total energy leaving the system. In mathematical form, this can describe as follows:

(2.31)

The system used in this project is an open system operating under steady flow conditions,

so the equation of the energy balance will be:

(2.32)

In the studied furnace, we need to calculate the heat transferred from the hot water to the
specimen. In this case, changes in potential and kinetic energy are negligible and there is no work
interaction between system and its surrounding. Therefore, the final form of the energy equation
that gives the rate of heat transferred to the specimen becomes:

(2.33)

By applying the first law of thermodynamics to the hot water entering, we can calculate the rate

of heat transfer to the specimen as follows:

(2.34)

2.4 Heat transfer modes

Heat is defined as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another

because of temperature difference. The science that deals with the determination of the rates of

such energy transfers is the heat transfer. The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher

temperature medium to the lower temperature one.

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/prese...s08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (12 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM

 Background Theory

Heat can transfer in three different modes:

1- Conduction

2- Convection

3- Radiation

In our project, heat transferred from hot water to the specimen takes place by convection a

brief description of these modes is given below.

2.4.1 Convection heat transfer:

Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid

or gas that is in motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfers.

By the following equation, we can calculate the heat transfer to the system:

(2.35)

From the following Table 2.2 we can find the convective heat transfer coefficient:

Table 2.2: Heat transfer convective [5].

http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/departments/units/gra/prese...s08.09/Male/Mech/MEM2-1/website/background_theory1.htm (13 of 13)1/18/2011 3:19:13 PM