Adult Enrollment 1

RUNNING HEAD: ADULT ENROLLMENT

From Participation to Commitment: Factors in Adults’ Decisions to Enroll in a

Higher Education Degree Program

David S. Stein, Associate Professor

Workforce Development and Education
The Ohio State University
College of Education and Human Ecology
A486 PAES Building
305 W. 17th Ave.
Columbus, OH 43210
(614) 292-0988
stein.1@osu.edu

Constance E. Wanstreet, Instructor

Workforce Development and Education
The Ohio State University
2200 Olentangy River Road
Columbus OH 43210-1035
(614) 688-8242
wanstreet.2@osu.edu

Lynn A. Trinko, Program Manager

The Ohio State University Lima
Galvin Hall 205A
4240 Campus Drive
Lima, OH 45805
(419) 995-8448
trinko.1@osu.edu

Corresponding author: David S. Stein

Please consider manuscript as a major article.

 Adult Enrollment 2

Abstract

This study identified factors associated with the decision to enroll in a higher education

degree program. In the context of predicting enrollment in a workforce development

credentialing program, this study identified six variables that are strongly related to the

likelihood to enroll: time out of school; possibilities for intellectual, personal, and career

opportunities; institutional support; synchronizing learning and earning; reflective learner;

and match with an academic reputation. Results suggest that enrollment is the result of an

interaction among situational, occupational, and institutional factors rather than primarily a

desire or need to acquire knowledge as a commodity. The decision to enroll in a long-term

commitment is a negotiated activity in which self-interests are balanced among various other

interests, including the employer, family, friends, and identity as a learner. This study

contributes to the literature by suggesting that time out of school is strongly related to the

decision to enroll.
 Adult Enrollment 3

From Participation to Commitment: Factors in Adults’ Decisions to Enroll in a

Higher Education Degree Program

Adult learners account for almost half of higher education enrollments in the United

States; and in the next decade, they may exceed the number of traditional-age college

entrants (Kim, Collins, Williamson, & Chapman, 2004). As more adults enroll in higher

education degree programs, factors that are associated with their enrollments assume greater

importance. Although trends suggest that adults will return to college throughout their

careers (Blumenstyk, 2006), most will not complete their planned programs of study (Horn &

Berger, 2004). Perhaps not working through the ramifications of the decision fully causes

this tremendous loss of potential.

If higher education is associated with more knowledgeable citizens and a more highly

skilled workforce, and if adults are not completing their programs of study, then institutions

need to better understand why this occurs. Knowledge of the factors adults consider when

deciding to enroll in higher educational opportunities would assist institutions in

understanding the negotiations among social relationships that take place as adults

contemplate a long-term commitment to higher education. Understanding these factors might

assist higher education institutions in developing strategies for helping adults decide to

enroll.

This study identified factors adults considered when deciding to enroll in a

degree/licensure program offered by the Workforce Development and Education section at a

large Midwestern university. The study examined the extent to which enrollment in a higher

education credentialing program can be predicted based on a set of characteristics.

 Adult Enrollment 4

Specifically, the study explored this primary research question: What is the factor structure

underlying the decision to enroll in a credentialing program in workforce development and

education? A secondary research question was also addressed: How well does a model

derived from the participation literature explain how adults make the decision to enroll in a

long-term credentialing program in workforce development and education?

Literature Review

Research into adult enrollment patterns has evolved from identifying adults’ reasons for

enrolling in learning opportunities (Houle, 1961; Johnstone & Rivera, 1965) to examining the

social, environmental, situational, and institutional factors that influence enrollment (Balatti

& Falk, 2002; Cross, 1981; Kilpatrick, Field, & Falk, 2003; Smart & Pascarella, 1987; Stein

& Wanstreet, 2006; Yang, Blunt, & Butler, 1994).

Johnstone and Rivera (1965) suggested that the foundation for adult participation was

to improve one’s occupational standing by improving present performance or seeking

learning for a new occupation. In additional to a vocational orientation, Houle (1961)

suggested that adults might attend educational programs as an opportunity to socialize with

others; i.e., attendance at an educational program was an opportunity to interact with others

or simply to be intellectually challenged. The Chain of Response model proposed by Cross

(1981) suggested five considerations for participation in a learning experience: (a) attitudes

toward education; (b) assessment of the ability to succeed; (c) costs of enrollment versus the

benefits that might accrue; (d) life phase or the timing of the decision; and (e) availability of

information concerning the program, institution, and services available to assist the

learner. The considerations are linked and must be addressed before a learner might move

toward making the decision.

 Adult Enrollment 5

Smart and Pascarella (1987) proposed a model of the factors associated with the

intention of adults to resume higher education that shows variables ordered in a causal

sequence. These include variables associated with the undergraduate experience,

characteristics of the adults’ employers, and career experiences, all of which influence adults’

current self-concept. Smart and Pascarella suggest that the intention to resume higher

education is dependent on the preceding variables. In reviewing the literature on adult

participation in undergraduate programs, Brown (2002) added role preparation, degree

utility, institutional commitment, and self-efficacy to the list of important variables.

Yang, Blunt, and Butler (1994) introduced the behavioral intention model as a way to

understand and predict adult learner participation in continuing professional education.

Subjective norms were shown to be the most influential variable in predicting enrollments,

giving additional support to the role of social interactions in helping to form the decision to

participate.

In reviewing models of adult participation, Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner

(2007) suggest that the decision to participate in a complex process involves various decision

points. Life transitions and institutional barriers figure predominately in the decision to

enroll. Factors may be weighted differently by the life circumstances of each adult. Models

are useful in portraying the adult learner as an information seeker and evaluator of multiple

factors, including impact on family, job circumstances, role expectations, perceived benefits,

and costs.

The contribution of the models is that the adult learners are seen in a flow pattern

constantly collecting, monitoring, and evaluating information. The models recognized that

the adult is an active decision maker evaluating a variety of circumstances arising from the
 Adult Enrollment 6

life space (Wildemeersch & Leriman, 1988). The decision to seek formal or nonformal

learning opportunities was influenced by environmental, situational, and institutional factors.

Jung and Cervero (2002) proposed a societal model suggesting that participation is a

combination of structural factors, including availability of higher education in the state,

budgetary practices supporting higher education, and the state’s occupational profile.

However, the authors stated that it is unclear how those variables influenced the decision to

enroll. Participation, then, is a combination of internal, or individual, and external factors

over which the adult learner has no control, including institutional and societal forces.

The timing of the decision to enroll is also emerging as an important area of interest

for institutions of higher education. The decision to enroll and to persist is a complex process

that does not occur at a moment in time but is a decision made over a period of time (Cross,

1981; Hensley & Kinser, 2001; Micari, 2004).

Research into adult enrollment patterns has concentrated on the course level of

participation. Few studies have described patterns related to the decision to enroll and

commit to a degree program (Brown, 2002). In addition, the research has not focused on

predicting enrollments as much as it has focused on describing patterns of enrollment in

courses. Our reading of the literature suggests that the decision to enroll in a course of study

is a complex, multifaceted process. A comparison of the major studies shows between five

and eight factors that explain from 41% to 72% of the variance in the dependent variable

related to participation, indicating that much is still unknown about the factors adults

consider when deciding to participate in an adult education activity and how those factors

work (Beder, 1990; Darkenwald & Valentine, 1985; Drake, 1988; Garrison, 1988; Henry &

Basile, 1994; Scanlan & Darkenwald, 1984).

 Adult Enrollment 7

In line with the model-building movement, Stein and Wanstreet (2006) have

proposed a conceptual framework from the literature describing the factors adults consider

when deciding to enroll in higher education. The framework was an attempt to synthesize

major findings from the participation literature. The decision to enroll is a cognitive,

emotional, and relational decision considered within the web of family, work, social,

financial class, gender, institutional support, and program delivery considerations (see Figure

1). The participation literature suggests that models have been built from data. However,

given the body of knowledge that has accumulated over the years, we ask how well our

knowledge can be used to predict enrollments in formal adult education programs requiring a

substantial commitment of time, energy, and fiscal resources. This study tests a framework

with four theoretically derived factors against the data. How these factors work in the

empirical world with adult students interested in returning to study in a degree-granting

program in workforce development and adult education is the question for this study.

[Figure 1 about here]

Method and Procedures

This ex post facto, associational study identified factors adults consider when

deciding to enroll in a degree/licensure program. The accessible population included 421

adults with e-mail addresses who had inquired about admission or applied to any of the

credentialing programs offered by the Workforce Development and Education section at a

large Midwestern university between 2003 and 2006. A questionnaire developed by the

researchers was sent via e-mail to the accessible population in September 2006. Two follow-

up questionnaires were sent in October 2006.

 Adult Enrollment 8

Instrument Development

An instrument was developed to measure the factors influential in contributing to an

adult’s decision to enroll in a workforce development credentialing program. One dependent

variable was measured: intent to enroll in a postsecondary workforce development academic

program. Independent variables included gender, age, race, job title, distance from course

location, and length of time out of school.

Intent to enroll was operationally defined as an adult’s self-reported decision to enroll

based on the perceived level of influence multiple factors may have had in the decision-

making process. The factors were related to securing a pathway to a better life; reflecting on

prior learning experiences; synchronizing learning, earning, and living; and fitting into an

academic life. Intent to enroll was measured on a 48-item questionnaire developed by the

researchers based on Scanlan and Darkenwald (1984) and Darkenwald and Valentine (1985).

The scale has been modified by various researchers to accommodate the groups investigated

as well as the settings (Blais, Duqueite, & Painchaud, 1989; Hayes, 1988; Henry & Basile,

1994).

Content and face validity was established through a panel of experts. Two adult

learners who had recently made the decision to enroll in higher education and an associate

professor of workforce development and education served as the subject matter experts. The

adult learners were given an initial list of 51 statements related to enrolling in a higher

education program and were asked to check “yes” if the statement crossed their minds during

the decision-making process or “no” if it did not. After the items were refined and reduced to

48, the professor reviewed the questionnaire for face validity.

 Adult Enrollment 9

Instructions on the Decision to Enroll in WDE questionnaire asked participants to rate

the influence of the final 48 items on a five-point scale on their decision to enroll. One (not

influential) was the low point and five (very greatly influential) was the high point.

Methodological Issues

The questionnaire was administered through the Web using the Flashlight™ survey

tool. Three issues were addressed to protect the identity of the population: (a) collection of IP

addresses, (b) identity protection, and (c) spam filters.

Collection of IP Addresses. Flashlight resides on a secure, non-encrypted server at

Washington State University where server logs record connection information, such as IP

addresses of survey participants. However, the IP addresses are not stored with the survey

responses. In addition, server logs are not available to users of Flashlight. Therefore, the IP

addresses, which potentially could be connected to the respondents, were concealed.

Identity Protection. Although Flashlight can support anonymous respondent surveys,

the lack of tracking would prohibit sending follow-up messages to non-respondents’ e-mail

addresses. The researchers enlisted a third party to assign an identifier code and send follow-

up messages as needed without compromising the identity of the respondents. The identifier

code was not tied to the server log of IP addresses.

Spam Filters. To reduce the likelihood of the e-mail invitation to participate being

rejected by spam filters, the third party sent an individual message to each potential

participant so that no single message was sent to more than one address. The subject line

avoided using keywords that trigger spam filters, and no file attachments were included. A

brief message explained the study and included a Web link to the questionnaire where the
 Adult Enrollment 10

participants could complete the survey. Less than five messages were rejected by aggressive

spam filters at the recipients’ messaging systems.

Questionnaire Responses

From an accessible population of 421 workforce development professionals, 75

questionnaire responses were received. Participation was on a voluntary basis with no

incentives to motivate completion, which may account for the 18% response rate. One

questionnaire was too incomplete to be used. In the case of 13 questionnaires with between

one and six answers missing, mean substitution was used. Respondents included 47 females

and 28 males. Ages at the time of the decision to enroll ranged from 18 to 60, with a mean

age of 37 for women and 35 for men. Forty-nine respondents enrolled in a workforce

development credentialing program, of whom 21 were males and 28 were females. Twenty-

six respondents did not enroll (seven males and 19 females). Six of the 26 respondents who

did not enroll planned to do so at a later time.

Results

Factor Structure

Common factor analysis of 48 self-report enrollment decision items was conducted to

assess the factor structure underlying the decision to enroll. The analysis used a maximum

likelihood extraction method and a promax rotation to determine which factors were

correlated. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was .724, indicating that the correlations were

adequate for factor analysis (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006). Similarly, Bartlett’s test of

sphericity was significant (p<.001), indicating sufficient correlation between the variables to

proceed with the analysis (Meyers et al., 2006). Readers should be cautioned about
 Adult Enrollment 11

interpreting results due to the small sample size. However, the sample size met the minimum

criteria to proceed with the analysis (Hair . . . ) [ADD]

Using the Kaiser-Guttman retention criterion of eigenvalues greater than 1.0 resulted

in an 11-factor solution that accounted for 76% of the total variance. However, an

examination of the scree plot indicated that five factors, all with eigenvalues greater than 2.0,

accounted for 57% of the total variance with the remaining factors providing diminishing

returns. Therefore, a five-factor solution was chosen since it provided the clearest extraction.

Tables 2-6 show the items and mean scores. Communalities were high for each of the items,

ranging from .656 to .913. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha is .93 for Factor 1, .86 for Factor 2, .

81 for Factor 3, .64 for Factor 4, and .56 for Factor 5, indicating good subscale reliability for

the first three factors.

The five empirically determined factors are as follows:

1. Possibilities for Intellectual, Personal, and Career Opportunities (eigenvalue =

12.15) accounted for 30% of the variance and had 14 items. Items that pertain to

the perceived ability to complete the program ( = 4.56 out of 5), to obtain an

education that suits the learner’s professional image ( = 4.43), to increase career

opportunities ( = 4.33), and to engage in an intellectual challenge ( = 4.28)

were rated most important by the learners.

2. Institutional Support (eigenvalue = 3.91) accounted for 10% of the variance and

had nine items. A reasonable time to completion ( = 3.71), courses being

offered at a convenient location ( = 3.51), the ability to relate to other students

in the program ( = 3.20), and readily available technology support ( = 3.03)

were items rated most important.

 Adult Enrollment 12

3. Sychronizing Learning and Earning (eigenvalue = 2.89) accounted for 7% of the

variance and had six items. Employer funding emerged as an important item in

this factor ( = 3.04).

4. The Reflective Learner (eigenvalue = 2.49) accounted for 6% of the variance and

had four items. Confidence in learning abilities ( = 4.41) and past academic

success as a precursor to future success ( = 4.09) were the items rated most

important.

5. Match with an Academic Reputation (eigenvalue = 2.00) accounted for 5% of the

variance and had three items. The importance of a recognizable credential in the

WDE field emerged as the most important item in this factor ( = 4.20).

Results indicate that the conceptual, literature-derived, four-factor PRiSM model

evolved to an empirical, five-factor PRISM model, with Institutional Support emerging as a

separate factor from the conceptual model.

Predicted Enrollment

The second research question examined how well the five-factor PRISM model

predicted enrollment. Logistic regression with simultaneous entry was used to predict group

membership; i.e., group enrolled or group not enrolled. The predictor variables used in the

initial regression model are the scores for Possibilities for Intellectual, Personal, and Career

Opportunities; Institutional Support; Synchronizing Learning and Earning; the Reflective

Learner; and Match with an Academic Reputation.

Prediction success for the cases used in the model was moderate, with an overall

prediction success rate of 68% and correct prediction rates of 86% for WDE professionals
 Adult Enrollment 13

who enrolled in a postsecondary workforce development academic program and 35% for

those who did not enroll. The Nagelkerke pseudo R2 indicated that the model accounted for

15% of the total variance in the decision to enroll.

Because the literature suggested that timing of the decision is important, a second

analysis was conducted adding Length of Time Out of School Before Enrolling (based on the

median score of 6, this variable was coded 0 = 1-6 years, 1 = 7+ years). The Nagelkerke

pseudo R2 indicated that the model accounted for 22% of the total variance in the decision to

enroll. Prediction success increased, with an overall prediction success rate of 73%. Correct

prediction rates increased to 91% for WDE professionals who enrolled in a postsecondary

workforce development academic program, while the prediction rate for those who did not

enroll remained at 35%.

The odds of estimating correctly which workforce development professionals enroll

in higher education improve by 145% if they have been away from school for seven or more

years (See Table 1 [2.452-1]). In addition, if workforce development professionals perceive a

match with the institution’s reputation, the odds of estimating enrollment correctly improve

by 25%. Institutional support improves the odds of estimating enrollment correctly by 5%.

Table 1 also shows the regression coefficients (B), the Wald statistics, significance level, and

the 95% confidence intervals (CI) for odds ratios for each predictor.

[Table 1 about here]

Discussion
 Adult Enrollment 14

Using studies published in the adult enrollment literature, Stein and Wanstreet (2006)

proposed a conceptual PRiSM decision framework for adult enrollment that integrated four

themes: pathway to a better life; the reflective learner; synchronizing learning, earning, and

living; and match with an academic life. In the context of predicting enrollment in a

workforce development credentialing program, the present study identified six variables:

time out of school; possibilities for intellectual, personal, and career opportunities;

institutional support; synchronizing learning and earning; reflective learner; match with an

academic reputation.

The PRISM-T Framework

The PRISM-T framework recognizes the decision-making process in the context of

time. With women in this study having a mean age of 37 and men a mean age of 35, time out

of school implies that the participants have experience in their field and are ready to take

advantage of learning opportunities that are focused on career advancement. Time may also

indicate a building of supportive networks that encourage participating in a credentialing

program in higher education. While the job-related notion of adults returning to school is

prevalent in the participation literature, this study suggests that it is one of many factors

learners may consider. In addition, middle-aged adult learners have had time to settle child-

rearing and other life issues before making a long-term commitment to a special field and a

specific program.

Regarding possibilities for intellectual, personal, and career opportunities, this study

suggests that learners have developed an image of themselves as professionals and perceive

that furthering their education will enhance their image and their career opportunities. While

it is important that participating in the program will be personally satisfying and

 Adult Enrollment 15

intellectually challenging, it is also important that the learners perceive they will be able to

complete the program.

Completing the program has an intellectual component as well as a temporal

dimension. Being able to complete the program in a reasonable time is an aspect of

institutional support in this study. Adult-centered institutions that recognize the time

demands their learners face not only develop programs that can be completed in a reasonable

time but also eliminate time-wasting barriers by making the enrollment process easy, having

convenient bookstore hours, and offering readily available technical support. With time being

a finite resource, adult learners expect to invest their time in learning rather than in trying to

secure books, for example. When deciding to enroll, learners consider the ease with which

they can navigate through the institutional environment to secure the resources they need and

accomplish the work they need to do. Institutions that do not have an adult-centered culture

will miss out on this group of learners.

Synchronizing learning and earning refers to the influence of employers on an adult’s

decision to enroll. Tuition reimbursement benefits are important to professionals considering

higher education. In addition, employers who encourage participation and provide time off to

attend classes can reduce the stress of balancing work and educational responsibilities for

adult learners who are committing to a long-term program.

This study suggests that learners who reflect on their academic success will make a

more informed enrollment decision. Confident learners who have been successful in school

perceive the importance of that experience to their decision. In addition, learners felt it was

important to sacrifice what little leisure time they had. This presents an opportunity for

faculty to work with adults on readiness issues. Adults with limited previous academic
 Adult Enrollment 16

success may be at a place in their lives where they can make the commitment necessary to

succeed if they are encouraged to do so.

For the working professionals in this study, it was important to enroll in a program

with a good reputation that offered a recognizable credential in the WDE field. The payoff

for the investment of time, money, and intellectual energy is a credential that will improve

their professional image and career path and give the learners a feeling of personal

satisfaction at their accomplishment.

Predictive Ability of the Model

The decision to enroll is complex and is comprised of a variety of variables, some of

which may not have been captured by the original questionnaire or in the revisions to the

DPS. While PRISM-T explained 22% of the observed variance in the decision to enroll, this

indicates that additional variables are needed to more fully explain the decision-making

process. The model presented in this study is in line with previous reported findings. Thus,

there appears to be reliability in the findings and the factor structure of the decision to

participate in adult learning opportunities. However, since more of the variance needs to be

explained, the predictive ability of the model was weakened.

The present framework suggests that adults considering a specific degree-granting

program assess the extent to which the program will challenge them intellectually and

occupationally and determine the degree to which they are ready and able to commit

intellectual, financial, and social resources in pursuit of higher education. The present

framework also suggests that adults need time to establish their careers and families before

incorporating the rigors of an academic program into their lives.

 Adult Enrollment 17

The PRISM-T framework illustrates that an adult’s decision to participate in a

particular higher education program may be influenced by the resources one has acquired

from past educational, occupational, and social situations. Who participates and when the

decision to participate is reached may depend on the resources the adult learner has

assembled during the “thinking through” stage while making the decision to enroll in a

sustained program of study in higher education. Smith (as cited in Cookson, 1986) suggests

that individuals who decide to enroll in adult education programs possess higher levels of

resources and access to resources compared to those who do not participate in adult

education. McClenaghan (2000, 2003) also suggests that social and cultural capital can

facilitate or inhibit participation in formal educational activities by influencing the attitudes

an adult may have toward education. Education might be seen as a vehicle for advancement

or a means for leaving the community behind, thus isolating the adult learner from the

community. Participation in higher education may be seen as threatening the norms and

stability of one’s local network. The networks in which learners are embedded outside of

formal education influence the ways in which formal and informal (Shrestha, Wilson, &

Singh, 2008) learning opportunities are perceived as valuable and worthwhile financial,

social, and psychological investments.

The PRISM-T framework also suggests that the decision to enroll in a long-term

commitment is a negotiated activity in which self-interests are balanced among various other

interests, including the employer, family, friends, and identity as a learner. Policies directed

toward increasing the number of adult learners in degree programs must take account of the

complex social environment in which the adult life is embedded (Gorard, Rees, Fevre, &

Welland, 2001). Institutions interested in enrolling adult learners should seek to understand
 Adult Enrollment 18

the web of relationships that influence the decision-making process (Pusser et al., 2007) and

perhaps provide opportunities for adults to learn how to envision a program of study as a

negotiated program planning process (Cervero & Wilson, 2006) in which adult learners come

to understand and discuss the social, organizational, structural, and personal factors involved

in facilitating or hindering growth and opportunity through participation in a sustained

program of postsecondary higher education.

Although this study explored only one higher education program, in terms of

practice, it suggests enrollment strategies at the institutional and program level. At the

institutional level, postsecondary organizations that offer convenient bookstore and library

hours, have readily available technology support, establish an easy enrollment process, and

accommodate special needs can positively influence the enrollment decision-making process.

Postsecondary institutions need to make serving the adult a central part of their support

system and that faculty need to understand adult life patterns and the need for flexibility in

working with adult learners (Maehl, 2000, & Brown, 2002). Programs that offer a

recognizable credential in the field, have a strong reputation, can be completed in a

reasonable time, and enlist faculty to work with adults on readiness and synchronization

issues should increase their enrollments. The importance of these factors may change given

the type of program adults are considering and their stage in life.

To assist adult learners in reflecting on the decision to enroll, postsecondary

institutions might: (a) communicate the benefits of enrolling in terms of a return to the

community (or family, or business), (b) reinforce the message that further education will help

adults cope with technology, (c) help adult learners understand that relationships at work will

change and provide support when the changes occur, and (d) show that other learners like
 Adult Enrollment 19

them are in the program and that new supportive networks can be built through participation

in formal education.

Other factors influence the decision to enroll. This study affords a glimpse into

adults’ thought processes and issues related to a few of the myriad factors that come into

consciousness during the decision to enroll in a particular program in higher education.

Institutions may want to help adults work through these issues in the context of their timing

in the adult’s life. We suggest that unless these issues are resolved, it may be unlikely that an

adult student will enroll. Our adult lives are embedded in powerful and overlapping

networks. Considering participation in that context can help adult educators better understand

how networks influence enrollment decisions and are based on the interlocking relationships

that mold adult life.

 Adult Enrollment 20

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Figure Caption

Figure 1. Conceptual model of the complex, multifaceted process related to the decision to

enroll in higher education.

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Figure Caption

Figure 2. Empirical model of the factor related to the decision to enroll in a workforce

development credentialing program.

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Table 1. Logistic Regression

Results for Predicting Whether WDE Professionals Will Enroll in a Postsecondary WDE

Degree Program.

95.0% C.I.for
Exp(B)

Step Variable Entered B Wald Sig. Exp(B) Lower Upper

1 Length of Time Out of .897 2.158 .142 2.452 .741 8.112

School Before Enrolling

Match with an Academic .223 3.445 .063 1.250 .988 1.582

Reputation

Institutional Support .050 1.205 .460 1.034 .962 1.148

Possibilities for -.063 3.022 .082 .939 .874 1.008

Intellectual, Personal, and
Career Opportunities

Synchronizing Learning & .033 .546 .460 1.034 .946 1.130

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Earning

Reflective Learner .025 .045 .832 1.025 .815 1.290

Constant -.341 .029 .865 .711 — —