Bone

ME251: Biomechanics
 Suggested Reading for Class
ƒ Nordin, M & Frankel, V.H. Basic biomechanics of the musculoskeletal
system – good book and covers most material well.
ƒ Wainwright, S. A., Mechanical Design in Organisms, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey (1982). A fantastic book and
a must read for anyone interested in biomaterials. Good sections
from experts for bone, elastic proteins etc.
ƒ Currey, JD, The mechanical adaptation of bones, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, NJ (1984). Another big expert in study of
bones and a must have book for those interested in hard tissue
mechanics.
ƒ Vincent, JFV, Structural Biomaterials, Princeton University Press,
Princeton, NJ (1990). Another excellent read written by an expert in
the field. Has a materials and fracture perspective of naturally
occurring biomaterials like bone, teeth, rubber proteins, etc.
ƒ Hayes, W. C., Mow, V. C., Basic Orthopaedic Mechanics, Raven
Press, New York, NY (1997). A must read for those interested in
bone and joint mechanics. Good all round text. Spine mechanics,
joint statics, gait dynamics, total joint replacement etc. Muscle not
covered. Written by many authors so style not consistent – but written
by many experts in the field.
 Orthopaedics and Biomechanics
• Areas: fractures and fracture fixation devices,
congenital deformities (scoliosis), osteopetrosis (brittle
bones in children), osteoporosis and arthritis in elderly
– requires joint replacement
• First – How can we estimate bone strength & stiffness?
• Second – Mechanobiology perspective. Can we do
something about it?
• Both relate to mechanical bone quality and load-
induced bone metabolism
 bone – living material
• Adaptive material designed for different functional
requirements
• Mechanical response of bones to loads – must
understand structure-property relationships
• Bone, passive soft tissues (tendons, ligaments,
cartilage, meniscus, joint capsules), muscles and
nerves
• 206 bones in adult human (270 in children)
o Long bones: Femur, tibia and humerus.
o Short bones: Metacarpals and vertebral bodies
o Flat bones: ilium, cranium and scapula
o Irregular bones: those that do not fit into the other three
categories and include wrist bones (carpals) and the
posterior vertebral elements
 Functions of Bone
• Support and Motion: Most important function. The relatively rigid bones
articulate at the synovial joint and enable the body to move quickly and
in an agile manner.

• Protection of internal organs: The skeleton absorbs large amounts of

energy and yet remains lightweight.

• Mineral Storage: Mineral bank for storage of calcium and phosphorous.

Approximately 99% of the calcium in the body is stored in the bone.
One of the ways that the body regulates the level of these minerals in
the bloodstream is by a continuous process of remodeling (resorption
and formation of bone tissue).

• Hematopoiesis: Spongy trabecular bone, found at the ends of long

bones, vertebrae and several other locations (e.g. skull, pelvis and
sternum) provides sites for the formation of red blood cells by a
process known as hematopoiesis which occurs in the red bone
marrow. Yellow bone marrow, found in the middle (or diaphysis) of
most long bones serves as a storage area for fat cells.
 bone as composite material
• Main constituents of bone: collagen (90% 15µm
length, 50-70 nm diameter)
• Small amount of other proteins, protein-
polysaccharides & glycoproteins (10%)
• Mineral – 50% bone volume & 75% weight.
Calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate main;
small amounts of sodium, magnesium & fluoride
• “Hydroxyapatite” Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2. Generally
accepted ‘hydroxyapatite’ is in dahllite (carbonate
apatite) or francolite (carbonate fluorapatite).
Mineral crystals exist like plates and are about
200 Å long, 2-3 nm thickness. Also amorphaous
calcium phosphate present
• Collagen (type I present) initiates formation of
crystals (not all collagens will do with equal
facility) with stable intermolecular cross-links
 Cells in bone
• Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells –
generally appear in clusters)
• Osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells by
production of proteolytic enzymes – are
motile)
• Osteocytes (bone maintaining cells ) &
Bone lining cells – reside permanently in
the bone & are interconnected by a system
of canaliculi. Osteocytes are osteoblasts
trapped in extracellular matrix.
• During bone formation – uncalcified
osteoid secreted by osteoblasts.
Hydroxyapatite crystals precipitate around
collagen fibers in osteoid.
 long bone structure
• Diaphysis (hollow shaft) with
metaphysis at end
• Growing animals, metaphysis covered
with epiphysis joined to metaphysis by
cartilagenous growth plate
• Periosteum covers bone all bones
except joint surfaces that have
cartilage. Inner osteogenic layer – cells
producing enlargement of bone
(osteoblasts). Outer layer fibrous &
permeated by blood vessels, nerves
• In long bones, the endosteum (thinner
membrane) lines the central medullary
canal filled with yellow fatty marrow.
Endosteum has osteoblasts and
osteoclasts – remodeling and resorption
of bone
 Bone tissue: Osteon structure
• Fundamental unit of bone –
osteon or haversian system;
about 200 mm in diameter
• At center of osteon – haversian
canal containing blood vessel
and nerve fibers
• Osteon contains concentric
series of layers (lamellae) of Vincent, JFV
mineralized matrix surrounding
central canal – like tree rings
• Along boundary of each layer –
small cavities called lacunae
exist that contain bone cell
• Osteon boundary – cement line
of GAG mainly. Deflect cracks
and source of toughness
http://www.cytochemistry.net/microanatomy/bone/
compact_bone_histology.htm
 Osteon
• Small channels (cannaliculi)
radiate from lacuna and
connect adlacent lamellae until
haversian canal.
• Cell processes extend from
osteocyte into canaliculi –
transport of nutrients
• Intertwining of collagen in
osteon – source of strength in
bone
• Space between osteons filled
with interstitial lamellae. Same
material but changed http://www.cytochemistry.net/microanatomy/bone/
orientation compact_bone_histology.htm
 Macroscopic organization
• Cortical bone – in diaphysis of
long bones & thin shell
surrounding metaphyses
• Trabecular bone in metaphyses
and epiphyses continuous with
inner surface of shell and
exhibits 3D interconnected
network of trabecular rods and
plates
• Interstices between trabelulae
filled with red marrow.
Trabecular bone arranged in Arola, D et al, Intl J Fatigue (2010)
concentric lamellae but does
not contain haversian canal.
Nutrients through marrow.
 hierarchical structure of bone
• Layout of fibrils in bone:
• woven (immature) - random orientation. Found in
embryo, newborn, fracture callus & metaphysial region.
Also in tumors, osteogenesis imperfecta
• lamellar bone (mature) - preferred fibril orientation. 1
month after birth & actively replaces woven bone
• All types of bone structure found in compact bone;
open more-structured bone in center and ends of
long bones
• Ratio of mineral to collagen phases important for
mechanical properties
 material properties of bone
1. Bone is a biphasic composite material with mineral as one phase
and collagen (ground substance) as the other.
2. Strength & stiffness are important properties

Strength of hydroxyapatite 0.1 GPa

Stiffness of hydroxyapatite 130 GPa
Ultimate strain of hydroxyapatite 10 -3
Stress in Collagen at strain of 0.001 1 MPa
Strength of collagen 50 MPa

Efluorapatite=165 GPa (steel=200 GPa, Al 6061 alloy 70 GPa).

Ecollagen=1.24GPa (collagen does not obey Hooke’s law)
Ebone=18GPa tension
 Mechanical properties
• Cortical bone stiffer than
cancellous bone,
withstands greater stress
but less strain (1.5-2%)
before failure
• Cancellous bone may
sustain upto 50% strain
before yielding
• Porous structure of
cancellous bone – large
capacity for energy
storage
 Anisotropic mechanical response
• Yielding in bone (tension) caused
by debonding of osteons along
cement lines. Yielding in
compression – cracking of
osteons
• Different properties in transverse
& longitudinal direction
• Values highest for longitudinal
direction & lowest for transverse
direction
• Behavior affected by mechancial
properties, geometric
characteristics, loading mode,
direction of loading, rate and
frequency of loading
 Strains during walking & jogging

• Bone is usually subjected to complex loading.

 Influence of muscle activity on
stress distribution in bones
• Contraction of muscles alters
the stress distribution in the
bone
• Can decrease/ eliminate tensile
stress on bone by producing
compressive stress
• Adult bone is good in
compression but not immature
bone. Muscle force can be used http://nusxcountry.wordpress.com/injuries/
to eliminate high tensile
stresses in bone during
complex loading such as 1)
loads on tibia when falling down
and 2) loads in hip joint during
locomotion
stress strain response of bone

• Bone is viscoelastic material

• Must be kept in fluid (HBSS: Hanks balanced
salt solution for about 2 days before test)
 Strain rate dependency
• Bone is viscoelastic Stiffer and
sustains higher load to failure
when loads applied at high strain
rates (physiological)
• In vivo strains – slow walking is
0.001 per second. Slow running –
0.03 per second
• Brittle fractures at very high strain
rates
• Loading rate clinically important –
also affects soft tissue damage
• Stored energy is released when
boen fails. Low energy fracture
(torsional ski fracture); high
energy – automobile accidents;
very high energy – gunshot
wounds
 Bone remodeling
• Alters its shape, size and structure
to meet mechanical requirements
• Wolff’s law: remodeling of bone is
influenced and modulated by
mechanical stresses (Wolff, 1892)
• Load – gravity or muscle activity
• Greater body weight – more bone
mass.
• Less body weight (space travel) –
decreased bone mass with fast
loss of calcium & bone loss. These
changes are not completely
reversible
• Disease or inactivity – reduces
bone mass. Bed rest – 1%
decrease per week.
 Age related changes in bone
• Progressive decrease in cancellous bone
& thinning of cortical bone
• Age related loss depends on gender, age,
post menopause, endocrine factors,
inactivity, disuse, calcium deficiency

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http://www.bushmanfitness.com/articles/articles/bone-fix/328
 Coefficients of Friction for various joints and common
bearing materials
(Mow, V. C. et al, Biomaterials, V13 N2, 67-97 (1992).

Joint/ Materials Coefficient of  Investigator

Friction
Ref:
Human knee 0.005‐0.02 J. Charnley (1960)
www.hughston.com
Human hip 0.01‐0.04 A. Unsworth
(1975)
Bovine Shoulder 0.002‐0.03 L. L. Malcolm 
(1976)
Gold on gold 2.8

Steel on Steel 0.6‐0.8
Ref:
Ice on Ice at 0ºC 0.01‐0.1 www.health.allrefer.com