ISSN 10642293, Eurasian Soil Science, 2010, Vol. 43, No. 13, pp. 1430–1438. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.

, 2010.

GEOGRAPHY
AND CARTOGRAPHY OF SOILS

Soils of Chilean Patagonia in Glacial

and Periglacial Environments1
M. Pfeiffera, b, C. Mascayanoc, and F. Aburtod, b
a
Departamento de Geología, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile
b
Departamento de Ingeniería y Suelos, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile
cPOCH Ambiental S.A, Renato Sanchez 3838, Las Condes, Santiago de Chile
d
Soils and Biogeochemistry Graduate Group, University of California Davis, USA
Email: mpfeiffer@ug.uchile.cl
Received April 16, 2010

Abstract—Previous studies have shown that the area between the present Northern and Southern Patagonian
Ice Fields (47°S to 48°S) was covered with ice during the Last Glacial Maximum (16000 BP). The ice retreat
generated a typical glacial geomorphology with moraines, kettles, kame terraces, fluvioglacial terraces and
fluvial terraces. Until now, there have been no detailed studies to determine the type of soils in the area. We
described and classified one hundred and fifty pedons located in the Baker River Basin (47°S) and the Pascua
River Basin (48°S), which we correlate with the respective geomorphology. The mean annual precipitation is
1000 mm for the Baker River study area and 2500 mm for the Pascua River Basin area, whereas the average
annual temperature is 9°C and 7°C, respectively. Based on previous studies that described the glacial fluctu
ations of the Northern and Southern Ice Fields and considering the presence of a volcanic ash layer due to
the major Holocene eruptions of the Hudson Volcano (6700 BP), tentative soil profile ages are proposed, and
the geomorphologic and soil descriptions are presented. Soils are classified as Entisols, Inceptisols, and His
tosols, reflecting weak pedogenetic development, and consistent with the landscape age and climatic condi
tions.
DOI: 10.1134/S106422931013003X

1
INTRODUCTION
The relation between soil and landscapes consti
tutes a topic of great relevance in soil science [13]. The
history of a soil is related to the history of the land
scape in which it is located [1, 14]. Several soil/land
scape studies have been carried out in glacial areas
around the globe [2, 7, 12, 16, 17). However, little
research on soillandscape relationships has been
done in Patagonia where glacial retreat has been rela
tively recent [8, 9, 15]. Moreover, all of that research
was carried out on the more arid western side of the
Andes Mountains, where the present climatic and
geomorphic conditions are very different from the
conditions in our study area east of the Andes.
The geomorphology of the area between the
Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields is dom
inated by the glacial effects on the landscape [11, 32].
Although the glacial and structural geology are reason
ably well understood little is known about the proper
ties and distribution of soils in the region.
We present the results of research on soils located at
the confluence of the three subbasins within the BRB
(Baker River Basin), namely E1 Salto, E1 Manzano,
1 The article is published in the original.
and Los Ñadis, as well as the upper part of the Pascua
River Basin (PRB) (Fig. 1). Our objectives were to
investigate the relationships between landscape and
soil properties and to assess the extent to which soil
properties reflect the past and present soilforming
environments.
Physical Setting
The section of the Andes located south of 41°S is
known as the Patagonian Mountain Range, which
started to form in the Late Cenozoic. At the same
time, the Chile Ridge, which separates the Nazca
Plate from the Antarctic Plate, was subducting [25].
The Andes Mountain Range in this area is composed
of the Patagonian Batholith and the preJurassic base
ment. Mioceneage intrusions have been described
along the eastern boundary of the Patagonian
Batholith, e.g. at Fritz Roy (elevation 3405 m) and
Mount San Lorenzo (3706 m). The subAndean Pre
cordillera is composed mainly of Jurassic volcanic
rocks [22, 27, 34].
During the last glacial maximum, the areas in
which the BRB and PRB are located were covered by
the Patagonian Ice Sheet, which may have extended
between 38°S and 56°S [4, 6, 11]. Currently, there are

1430
 SOILS OF CHILEAN PATAGONIA IN GLACIAL 1431

N
Lago
W E Beltrand
47°S S

Lago
Cachet Dos Cerro Tamango
Cerro Cola de Leon Lago
Cerro Teta de Leon Cochrane
North Cochrane
Patagonian Lago
Icefield Colonia Lago
Esmeralda
Lago Juncal

Cerro Desfiladero Lago

Chacabuco
Lago Laguna Larga
Lago Guillermo
Los Huemules

Cerro Barrancoso

Cerro Rodados
7
er
Riv
ker
Ba

A
TIN
48°S

EN
Legend

G
AR
Soil Study Area
Pasc

Road Network 7
ua R

Cerro
Main Road Cerro Tres Frailes
iver

Lago Horacio Lago

Los Bergues Lago Briceno
Secondary Road Gabriel Quiroz Region de Los Lagos

Boundaries South
Patagonian Lago 45°S
International Icefield O'higgins
Region de Ausen Gral.
Carlos Ibanez del Campo
Coast line
Rivers

Icefields Region de Magallanes

50°S y la Artartica Chilena
0 25 km 0 100 km
Lakes and Ponds
75°W 70°W

74°W 73°W 72°W

Fig. 1. Location of study area.

two large relict ice masses. The North Patagonian Ice
Field (NPI) is located between 46°30′ and 47°30′, cov
ering a total area of approximately 4200 km2, whereas
the South Patagonian Ice Field (SPI) lies between
48°20′ and 51°30′S, and covers an area of approxi
mately 13000 km2. These are considered to be world’s
largest terrestrial ice masses in current temperate cli
mates [11].
The present landscape in the study area has been
shaped by glacial activity during the Quaternary [10,
11, 32], influenced by geologictectonic features [33].
During the Quaternary, these ice masses may have
expanded and contracted at different periods due to
climatic conditions, coalescing at certain periods to
form the much larger Patagonian Ice Sheet [11]. The
last period of expansion may have occurred during the
Last Glacial Maximum or LGM [4, 6, 11]. According
to Rabassa et al. [24] the LGM occurred between
25000 and 16000 cal. yrBP, followed by subsequent
major advances during the interglacial period (15000–
1000014C yr BP).
The vegetation in the area consists of typical suban
tarctic species, dominated by species of the Nothofagus
genus including N. nitida (Phil.) Krasser, N. betuloides
(Mirb.) Oerst., N. pumilio (Poepp. et Endl.) Krasser,
and N. Antarctica (G.Forst.) Oerst. Other important
species described in the area are Pilgerodendron
uviferum (D.Don) Florin, Tepualia stipularis (Hook.

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 43 No. 13 2010

1432 PFEIFFER et al.
Et Arn.) Griseb., Amomyrtus luma (Molina) D. Leg
rand et Kausel, and Podocarpus nubigena Lindl. [26].
Baker River Basin (BRB)
The geology of the BRB corresponds mainly to an
extensive Paleozoic sedimentarymetamorphic com
plex locally known as the Eastern Andean Metamor
phic Complex. The Jurassic volcanic sedimentary for
mations have been described locally, but there is no
evidence of active volcanism in the area. In fact, the
study area forms part of the sector called the “Patago
nian volcanic gap”. The Hudson Volcano is the closest
active volcano, located 130 km to the north of the
study area, and is considered to be the southernmost
volcano of the Southern Volcanic Zone [28]. This vol
cano had two explosive eruptions during the Quater
nary (3600 BP and 6700 BP). According to Naranjo
and Stern [20] the ashes from those eruptions may
have reached the study area. More recent eruptions
(like the one that occurred in 1991) did not deposit ash
in the study area [19].
The origin of the BRB is in the General Car
rera/Buenos Aires Lake, the Patagonia Ice Field being
its major contributor. The total area of this basin is
26456 km2. According to Turner et al. [32], this river
originated in the late Pleistocene, whereas Wenzens
[33] maintains the idea that the river formed during
the first part of the Holocene, and now separates the
NPI and SPI. The ice retreat yielded a series of termi
nal moraines, which were dated in the Ness and Los
Ñadis River Valleys as well as in the Chacabuco and
Esmeralda Lakes, with approximate ages of 12 ka
based on cosmogenic nuclides of 10Be [32].
After the last glacial advance, these valleys may
have been occupied by large lakes. The occurrence of
a large lake was probable at the confluence of the Cha
cabuco and Baker Rivers [21, 32]. Striations and
roches moutonnée are common on a wide array of
lithologies in the valley [21]. The Baker River shows
extensive fluviolacustrine deposits at confluences, as
well as fluvial and glaciofluvial terraces [21] with
meander relicts and wide flood plains with finer
deposits [34].
Pascua River Basin (PRB)
There is a lack of information on the high elevation
portions of the PRB between the Quetru and O’Hig
gins Lakes, mainly because of the extremely difficult
access to the area (being only possible by helicopter).
The PRB is primarily composed of Paleozoic East
ern Andean Metamorphic Complex rocks. These
rocks show dikes with a variety of compositions from
basaltic to granitic [3]. The Lautaro Volcano, located
80 km to the south, is active in the area, although there
is little documentation of this activity [18, 23]. Ash
deposits were not found during this study, possibly due
to the high precipitation and steep topography that
may affect the preservation of this kind of deposits.
The origin of PRB is in the O’Higgins/San Martin
Lake, its major contributor being the SPI. The PRB
has a total area of approximately 14500 km2 [3] and
the Pascua River Valley was covered by a glacier during
the LGM. This glacier would have been part of the
major NPI flowing into the sea approximately 80 km
to the west [33]. The glacial retreat was not dated in the
area. However, it is estimated that this process may
have occurred during the Holocene [33]. This can also
be inferred because of the scarce vegetation and pres
ence of the unconsolidated deposits [3].
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this study were: 1) to inves
tigate soils of an area located within the Pascua River
Basin (PRB) and an additional area within the Baker
River Basin (BRB) in Patagonia, and 2) to determine
relationships between soils and the glacial geomor
phology of the area.
METHODOLOGY
The procedures used in this study were as follows:
—Photointerpretation of the landforms in the
study area using oblique aerial orthorectified photo
graphs at a scale of 1 : 20000;
—Mapping the landforms in ArcGIS 9.1, sup
ported by a DEM generated from contour lines every
40 m. Soil areas were identified from the landforms
and were checked in the field [29];
—Survey points were selected according to the
identified soil areas. Each area with a surface exceed
ing 50 ha had at least 1 soil profile. We described and
classified 150 soil profiles following the Soil Survey
Staff [30, 31] procedures. Each soil profile was
assigned to a specific soil area and, therefore, corre
lated with similar areas;
—Polygons containing soil information were gen
erated at a scale of 1 : 20000 using ArcGIS 9.1.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The majority of the soils are developed in the mate
rials derived from the Eastern Andean Metamorphic
Complex. A limited number of the BRB pedons
formed in Jurassic volcanicsedimentary formations
and volcanic ash deposits. The latter probably corre
spond to the 6700 BP eruption of the Hudson Volcano
described by Naranjo and Stern [20].
In glacial landscapes, soil development begins
simultaneously with glacial retreat, so that one can
argue that the development of the soils in our study
EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 43 No. 13 2010
 SOILS OF CHILEAN PATAGONIA IN GLACIAL
Fig. 2. An upstream view of the landscape of the Baker River Valley near the confluence of the Baker and Chacabuco Rivers. Dot
ted line: Glacial Ushaped valley morphology. White line: Fluvial Vshaped erosion. A: glacial shoulder. B: Stoss and lee topog
raphy C: Fluvial terrace.
area started after the last ice retreat at approximately
12 ka in the BRB [32]. Although there are no absolute
ages registered for the PRB, the ice retreat would have
occurred later than in the BRB [33].
BRB Area
We mapped twelve landforms in the BRB area and
grouped these landforms into three major categories:
glacial (moraines, stoss and lee topography, kame ter
races, and eskers), periglacial (fluvioglacial terraces,
kettles, loess and outwash plains), and postglacial
(alluvial, alluvial fans, colluvial, and fluvial terraces).
The glacial forms are the result of glacial retreat from
the study area in the BRB, which occurred around
12600 ka BP [32]. Simultaneously with this event, the
periglacial deposits were formed, followed by postgla
cial fluvial deposits considered to be the youngest. As
a result, we can assume that a succession of consecu
tive landscape processes occurred in the BRB (Fig. 2),
i.e. fluvial landscapes superimposed on the initial gla
cial and periglacial landscapes.
EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 43 No. 13 2010
1433
A
B
The succession of landscapemodifying agents may
explain the predominance of Entisols on the fluvial
terraces, which are the youngest soil units in this area
(Fig. 3). The described Inceptisols are primarily
located in areas where roches moutonnée dominate
(stoss and lee landforms) (Fig. 3). These are the first
exposed surfaces after the ice retreat, being the domi
nant landforms left behind after the advance of large
ice masses. Based on that, these can be associated with
the time during which the great Patagonian Ice Sheet
was present. Fluvioglacial terraces are the landforms
that have the highest number of soil taxonomic sub
groups in the area.
Histosols were only found in kettles (Fig. 4). The
relatively low annual precipitation along the Baker
River does not support much organic matter accumu
lation on other landforms, but the kettle depressions
no doubt accumulate the runoff water, leading to the
formation of Histosols. The two organic soils
described in the BRB have a depth of more than 4 m,
which may indicate the existence of an old wetland
that might have formed after ice melting in those areas.
1434 PFEIFFER et al.

N
W E
Rio Nef S
El Mazano

12.660 BP
Rio Baker

BAKER RIVER BASIN 7

El Maiten
Legend
Orders of Soil Rio Bertrand
Entisol 5
Histosol
Inceptisol
Road Network
Main Road
Secondary Road El Salto
47°15′S Hidrology
Glacier front after Cochrane
12.670 BP Turner et al. 20054
5 cm isopach for the Rio Baker
5 6700 BP Hudson3
volcano eruption 12.670 BP
nia
olo
Rio de la C
Los Alamos
Lago
Esmeralda
Lago
Juncal

Lago
Chacabuco

Laguna
Larga
Ri
oD
el
Sa
lto

47°30′S

7
0 1 : 200000 10 km

73°0′W 72°45′W

Fig. 3. Baker River Basin study area with soil orders distribution.

PRB Area postglacial (alluvial fan, colluvial, and fluvial terrace).

Entisols and Histosols are the two soil orders found in
In the PRB we found six major landforms, two of this basin, with Inceptisols absent in contrast to the
which are glacial (moraine and stosslee topography), BRB area (Fig. 5). The latter might be explained by
one is periglacial (fluvioglacial terrace), and three are the following factors: First, the presumed shorter

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 43 No. 13 2010

 SOILS OF CHILEAN PATAGONIA IN GLACIAL 1435

GEOMORPHOLOGY SOIL SUBGROUP

Alluvial Fluvaquentic Dystrudept
Typic Dystrudept
Alluvial fan Typic Dystrudept

Humic Lithic Dystrudept

Lithic Dystrudept
Colluvial Lithic Udorthent
Typic Dystrudept
Typic Fragiudept
Typic Udorthent
Esker Vitrandic Udorthent

Aquertic Udifluvent
Fluventic Dystrudept
Humic Psammentic Dystrudept
Oxyaquic Dystrudept
Fluvioglacial Oxyaquic Udifluvent
terrace Typic Dystrudept
Typic Endoaquent
Typic Fragiudept
Typic Udifluvent
Typic Udipsamment
Typic Udorthent

Fluvial Typic Dystrudept

terrace Typic Udorthent
Vitrandic Udorthent

Kame terrace Typic Dystrudept

Kettle Terric Sulfihemist

Typic Udifolist

Loess Typic Dystrudept

Lithic Dystrudept
Morrain Lithic Udorthent
Typic Dystrudept
Typic Fragiudept
Typic Dystrudept
Outwash plain Typic Udorthent

Humic Dystrudept
Lithic Dystrudept
Stoss and Lee Lithic Udorthent
topography Oxyaquic Dystrudept
Typic Dystrudept
Typic Udorthent

Fig. 4. Geomorphology and soil subgroups for the Baker River basin.

exposure time of the land surface as compared to the
BRB area (requiring confirmation by numerical dat
ing methods). Second, the absence of easily weathered
volcanic deposits (present in BRB), which may con
tribute to the development of the necessary color and
structure for a cambic horizon [5]. The last, but not
least is the predominance of lower temperatures in the
area that presumably slowed the rate of soil formation.
The Histosols in the area cover extensive stoss and
lee topography (Fig. 6). It is interesting that these soils
occupy sites with slopes greater than 95%. Hydric Cry
ofibrists are restricted to concave microtopography on

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 43 No. 13 2010

1436 PFEIFFER et al.

N
W E
S
7

Michell

Ri
o
Br
av
o
48°0′S

Lago
Leal
7
X906
El Sordo

Lago
Qietru
e le

Caleta Buzeta
Ste
e ro
Es t

Rio Pascua

48°15′S Bajo Pascua

PASCUA RIVER BASIN

Legend
Orders of Soil
Lago Bergues Entisol
Histosol
s La
ire go Road Network
el Qu Ch
bri ico Main Road
Ga
go
La Secondary Road
Lago Boundaries
Ventisquero Gabriel Quiros
o Pascua O'Higgins
Coast line
Icefields
Lago Hidrology
South O'Higgins
Patagonian
Icefield
0 1 : 250000 10 km

73°15′W 73°0′W 72°45′W

Fig. 5. Pascua River Basin and soil orders distribution.

the steep slopes where water must accumulate. In con
vex zones and steeper hillsides the main soils are Lithic
Cryofibrists, which are generally shallower than the
soils in the depressions. The presence of Histosols in
highslope areas may be due to low temperatures, and
high, uniformly distributed annual precipitation
(more than 2500 mm/year) in the PRB area. The PRB
area Histosols are located in the sites that have been
exposed for longer periods of time compared to loca
tions where Entisols are predominant. Because of this,
Histosols are associated with older landforms linked to
glacial retreat. The Entisols are primarily located on
younger, postglacial landforms corresponding to gla
ciofluvial and fluvial terraces, as well as colluvial and
alluvial fans. Entisols and Histosols were also
described on glaciofluvial terraces, which might be

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 43 No. 13 2010

 SOILS OF CHILEAN PATAGONIA IN GLACIAL 1437

GEOMORPHOLOGY SOIL SUBGROUP related to its greater age and a succession of geomor
phological processes. The relationship between soil
Alluvial fan Aquic Cryofluvent types and landforms in these areas requires further
study.
Colluvial Typic Udorthent

Hydric Cryohemist ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Fluvioglacial Typic Cryaquent
terrace Typic Cryorthent This study was supported by Hidroaysén S.A. The
Typic Cryosaprist authors are also grateful to Dr. Juan J. Ibañez,
Dr. Randal Southard and Dr. Jacobus Le Roux for
Fluvial Typic Cryaquent their constructive reviews.
terrace Aquic Udipsamment

Moraine
Fluvaquentic Sphagnofibrist
Stoss and Lee Hydric Cryofibrist
topography Lithic Cryofibrist
Fig. 6. Geomorphology and soil subgroups for the Pascua
River Basin.
considered as geomorphological elements of interme
diate age between the moraine forms and fluvial ter
races. This may partially explain why this area has the
greatest number of taxonomic soil subgroups, being
the only that contains Entisols and Histosols (Fig. 6).
CONCLUSIONS
This study contributes to the available information
on soils occurring in Patagonia, which has been
scarce.
Entisols, Inceptisols and Histosols are the only soil
orders found in the area. These are weakly developed
soils reflecting a combination of young landscapes and
a relatively cool climate associated with the present
day Patagonia Ice Fields.
In the BRB we can assume that a succession of
consecutive landscape modeling occurred, being the
fluvial modeling superposed to the initial glacial mod
eling. This may explain the predominance of Entisols
on the fluvial terraces being considered the youngest
soil unit in this area.
The Inceptisols described primarily in the areas
with stoss and lee topography domains, they can be
associated with the time at which the great Patagonian
Ice Sheet was present; due to these areas are the first
exposed surfaces after the ice retreat.
The predominant wetter and colder climatic con
ditions in PRB would have favored the accumulation
of organic matter in areas where the surface had been
exposed sufficiently long to form Histosols rather than
Inceptisols like in the BRB.
The greater variety of soil types present in the BRB
in comparison with the PRB, can be explained by a
larger number of different landforms. This is probably
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