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DC Machines
Introduction
D. C. machines are seldom used in ordinary applications because all electric supply
companies furnish alternating current However, for special applications such as in steel mills,
mines and electric trains, it is advantageous to convert alternating current into direct current in
order to use D.C. motors. The reason is that speed/torque characteristics of D.C. motors are much
more superior to that of a.c. motors. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for industrial
drives, D.C. motors are as popular as 3-phase induction motors. Like D.C. generators, D.C. motors
are also of three types viz., series-wound, shunt-wound and compoundwound. The use of a
particular motor depends upon the mechanical load it has to drive.
In DC Machines the field poles are present on the stator called as YOKE. Armature windings
and Commutator are on the Rotor. The Figure gives the cross-sectional view of a 4-pole DC
machine. Brushes press on to the Commutator view for collecting the power from a dc generator
or for feeding the DC Power to the armature of a DC Motor. DC Machines are of three types:
1. Series (A)
2. Shunt (B)
3. Compound (C)
DC Series machines has the field winding in series with armature circuit, DC Shunt Machine
has field winding across the armature circuit. Where as DC Compound machine has two Field
Windings. One across the armature and the other in series with the armature. DC Machines has
inter poles. Large DC machines have also compensating windings embedded in the pole faces of
the main poles.
• HOMO-POLAR Machines
• HETERO-POLAR Machines
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HOMO-POLAR Machines
These types of machines are used where low Voltage and High Currents are required and
the fields system is unusual as in the Faraday Disc Dynamo, which is an example of this type of
machine.
HETERO-POLAR Machines
These types of machines are most commonly used in Practice. The magnetic poles are mounted
as shown in figure to form alternate south and north poles when traversed along the
circumference of an armature. These machines are used for moderate voltage and high output
power.
Construction of a DC machine
Basically the construction of a DC machine includes mainly 7 parts. They are:
PURPOSE:
Pole Shoe:
The field magnet consists of mainly pole shoe and pole
core. The pole shoe serves mainly for two purposes.
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In spreading the magnetic flux in the air gap and being of larger cross-section, reduce
the reluctance of the magnetic path.
It supports the exciting coils (or field coils) shown in figure.
Pole Core:
The pole core itself maybe a solid piece made up of either cast iron or cast steel. But
the pole shoe is laminated.
Construction:
Method: 1
1. In this method the pole core is a simple solid, made out of cast
iron or cast steel.
2. Pole shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means
of “COUNTER SUNK SCREW” as shown in figure.
Method: 2:
1. In this method both the pole shoe and pole core are laminated
and are riveted permanently under hydraulic pressure.
2. The thickness of each laminated sheet varies from 1 mm to
0.25 mm.
All the poles should be fitted on to the Yoke by means of screws inside
the pole such that it should enter the Yoke and gets fixed. This is shown
in the figure.
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v. Commutator
1. The shape of a Commutator appears to be wedge-shaped and cylindrical structure.
2. The function of the Commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature
conductors or coils.
3. It rectifies i.e., it converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors
into unidirectional current in the external load circuit.
4. The wedge-shaped segments are insulated from each other with the help of thin layers
MICA.
5. Each Commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of a copper
lug or strip (riser).
6. To prevent them from flying out under the action of centrifugal forces, the segments
have V-shaped grooves, these grooves being insulated by conical micanite rings. This is
shown in the figure.
a. Pole –Pitch
b. Conductor
c. Pitch of a Winding (Y)
d. Back Pitch (YB)
e. Front Pitch (YF)
f. Resultant Pitch (YR)
g. Commutator – Pitch (YG)
It is the distance between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are
connected is defined as Commutator Pitch.
1. The function of Brushes is to collect the current from the Commutator, is usually
made of carbon or graphite and is in the shape of a rectangular block.
2. These brushes are housed in brush-holders usually of the box-type variety.
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Principle:
• Magnetic Field
• Conductor or Conductors which can move
as to cut the flux
Construction of Generators
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Working (Generator)
Assume the coil to be rotating in clock-wise direction as shown. As the coil assumes
successive position in the field, the flux linked wit it changes. Hence an emf is induces in it which
is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage
E = NdФ
dt
When the plane coil is at right angle to the lines of flux. Then the flux linked with the coil is
maximum, but rate of change of flux linkage is minimum. As a result, the coil sides do not cut the
flux, rather they move along them parallel. Hence there is no emf induced in the coil. As a result
coil continues rotating further, rate of change of flux linkage increases when it makes an angle of
90°. Here, the coil will be in horizontal, the flux linked with the coil is minimum but rate of change
of flux is maximum. Hence maximum emf is induced in the coil at 90°.
In the next quarter revolution (i.e. from 90° to 180°), flux linked with the coil gradually
increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence the induced emf decreases
gradually till the position, it is reduced to zero. In the first half revolution, emf is induced at the
initial position, maximum when it is at 90° and no emf at 180°. The direction of this induced emf
can be found by applying Fleming’s right-Hand Rule which gives its direction. Hence the current
flows.
In the next cycle (i.e. from 180° to 360°) the variations in the magnitude of emf are just
like to that of the first half revolution. Therefore for every half revolution, the current gets
reversed in its direction which is known as alternating current. It is later converted in to
unidirectional current (DC) by replacing the slip ring with the split rings. Split rings are made out
of a conducting cylinder cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet
of mica.
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Principle:
F = BIL Newtons
Construction of Motors
1. Series-Wound DC Motors
2. Shunt-Wound DC Motors
3. Compound-Wound Dc Motors
Working of a Dc Motor
Let us consider a part of multipolar DC motor as shown in figure. When the field
magnets are excited by passing current in their field windings and its armature conductors are
supplied with current from the supply mains, they experience a force tending to rotate the
armature. Armature conductors under N-Pole area assumed to carry current downwards (crosses)
and those under S-Pole, to carry current upwards (dots). By applying Fleming’s Left hand Rule, the
direction of the force on each conductor can be found. It is shown by small arrows placed above
each conductor. It can be seen that each conductor experiences a force ‘F’ which tends to rotate
the armature in anti-clockwise direction. These forces collectively produce a driving torque which
sets the armature rotating.
The same DC Machine can be used interchangeably as a generator as well as motor. When
operating as a generator, it is driven by a mechanical machine and it develops voltage which I turn
produces a current flow in an electric circuit. When operating as a motor, it is supplied by electric
current and it acquires torque which in turn produces mechanical rotation.
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Generator Action
Let us consider a part of a generator whose armature is being driven clockwise by its
prime mover as shown in figure. Fig.1 represents the field setup independently by the main poles
and the armature conductors like ‘A’ in the shown figure. The resultant field or magnetic lines of
flux may be linked to the rubber bands under tension. Hence, the bet lines of flux set up a
mechanical force on ‘A’ much, just like as the bent elastic rubber band of a catapult, Produces a
mechanical force on the piece of a stone. The direction of this force is opposite to that of armature
rotation. Hence, it is known as backward force or magnetic drag on the conductors.
Therefore, against this drag action on all the armature conductors that the prime
mover has to work. The work done in overcoming this opposition is converted into electrical
energy.
Generator
Generated EMF or EMF Equation of a Generator
We shall now derive an expression for the emf generated in a D.C. generator.
Let
Ø= flux/pole in Wb
Z = total number of armature conductors
P = number of poles
A = number of parallel paths = 2 … for wave winding
= P … for lap winding
N = speed of armature in r.p.m.
EG= emf of the generator = emf /parallel path
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= ØPNZ Volt
120
= ØNZ Volt
60
EG = 2∏ X ØPN X Z
2∏ 60 A
By solving, we get
But for a given DC machine Z,P and A are constants. Hence putting Ka = ZP in the general
EMF equation, we get A
EG = KaØN Volt
60
Motor
When the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotate and hence cut the flux.
In accordance with the laws of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in them whose direction,
as found by Fleming’s right-Hand Rule, is in opposition to the applied voltage. Because of its
opposing direction. It is referred to as counter emf or back emf ‘Eb’.
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The equivalent circuit of a motor is as shown below. The rotating armature generates the
back emf ‘Eb’ is like a battery of emf ‘Eb’ put across supply mains of ‘V’ volts. This ‘V’ has to drive
the current ‘Ia’ against the opposition of ‘Eb’. the power required to overcome this opposition is
EbIa
The back emf depends on other factors as the armature speed. If the speed of the armature
is high, Eb is large. Hence armature current Ia is small. If the speed is less, then ‘Eb’ is less. Hence
more current flows which develops motor torque. So Eb acts like a governor.
V = Eb + IaRa
This is known as voltage equation of a motor.
Hence out of the armature input, some is wasted in I²R loss and rest is converted into
mechanical power within the armature. The motor efficiency is given by the ratio of power
developed by the armature to its input i.e
Eb
V
Eb is higher as compared to V, there fore the motor efficiency is higher.
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= F x 2∏r Joule
Power developed = F x 2∏r x N Joules / Second or watt
= (Fr) x 2∏N watt
Therefore P=2∏N x T
60
P = 2∏ NT = NT
60 9.55
Let ‘Ta’ be the torque by the armature of a motor running at ‘N’ rps. If ‘T a’ is in N/m,
them power developed
We also know that electrical power converted into mechanical power in the armature
We have,
Ta x 2∏N = ØZN X P Ia
A
Ta = 1 x ØZ Ia P N-m
A
Shaft Torque
The whole of the armature Torque, as calculated above, is not available for doing useful
work, because a certain percentage of it is required for supplying iron and frictional losses in the
motor.
The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as Shaft Torque (TSh). It is so
called because it is available at the shaft. The motor output is give by
= 60 output
2∏ N
The difference (Ta - Tsh) is known as lost torque and is due to ion and friction losses of the
motor.
Note
Ta can also be expressed in kg-m at 1kg=9.81 Nw-m
T= 0.0612 x ØZ Ia P Kg-m
A
Since Z,P and A are constant for a particular machine
Therefore Ta ∞ ØIa
1. In case of series motor, field winding carries full current. Hence before saturation ‘Ø’ is
directly proportional to the armature current.
Ta ∞ Ia²
Ta ∞ Ia
It is the distance measured in terms of armature slots (armature conductors) between the
two sides of a coil. It is in fact, the periphery of the armature spanned by the two sides of the coil.
In general, it may be defined as the distance round the armature between the two
successive conductors which are directly connected together or it is the distance between the
bearings of the two consecutive turns.
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The distance measured in terms of the armature conductors, which a coil advances on the
back of the armature is called back pitch and is denoted by YB.
Or
The front pitch may be defines as the distance (in terms of the armature conductors)
between the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil which are
connected at the front i.e. commutator end of the armature.
It is defined between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it
is connected.
Armature Windings
Two basic types of windings mostly employed for drum type armature are as follows
• Wave-Winding
• Lap –Winding
Wave Winding
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The wave winding is one in which the coil end, diverge and go to the segments widely
separated. This is called series winding.
Lap winding
Lap winding is one in which the adjacent ends of the coils are connected
together in closed to each other on the commutator segments. In the lap
windings the armature conductors are divided into many parallel paths as the
no. of poles of the generator. If there are ‘P’ poles and ‘Z’ armature
conductors, then there will be ‘P’ parallel paths, each consisting of Z/P
conductors connected in series between the positive and negative set of
brushes.
From the figure, as the armature current enters the negative brush, it
has four parallel paths available for going to the positive brush. Each path has
Z/4 conductors and carries a current if Ia/4 amps.
Advantages
1. The wave windings giving (gives) more emf than the lap winding for the
same no. of poles and armature conductors.
2. In a wave winding equalizing connections are not necessary which are
in lap windings.
3. Lap winding gives more parallel paths, hence its importance lies when large currents are
required.
Armature Windings
Types of DC Windings
Dc armature windings can be divided into two groups mainly depending upon the way
in which the coil ends are connected to the commutator segments. They are
1. Lap Windings
2. Wave windings
In the lap windings, the two ends of any coil are taken to
the adjacent commutator segments and the coil ends are bent
inwards as shown below. Where as in the wave wingding, the coil
ends are bent in opposite directions and taken to the commutator
segments some distance apart as shown.
A Simplex lap winding can be progressive or retrogressive. In general, lap windings, the coil
ends are connected to the adjacent commutator segments. In progressive winding, the start and
finish of the coils ends are connected to the respective commutator segments in an ascending
order and in the retrogressive winding the ends are connected to the connected segments in the
descending order.
In a wave winding, the conductors in each parallel path are distributed symmetrically over
all the poles of the machine. They are used for high voltage and low current equipment.
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