2010/02/09 Li Siu Wah

[NOTES] Theory of single-phased Transformer

Transformer is a direct application of Mutual induction. High voltage is desirable

for long distance power transfer since power loss could be highly reduced.
Further, electronic gadgets could not operate at high voltage due to the chips’
nature and safety concern and the need of stepping down the voltage is entailed.

A transformer turns voltage in primary coil to emf in secondary. The ratio is

given by V1/V2 = N1/N2 approximately

Ideal transformer
Consider an ideal transformer (V1/V2 = N1/N2) , no power loss, with several
assumptions:
1. Infinite magnetic permeability:
If the permeability is finite, a current is required to keep magnetic flux in the
core running. When the secondary winding is open, power consumed in
secondary circuit = 0 whereas the primary one is not.
Another thought is the magnetic reluctance would be 0 as far as permeability
is infinite.
2. No flux leakage:
The reason for such is trivial.
3. No resistance in coils:
The reason for such is trivial. This is a load loss.
4. No eddy current or hysteresis loss (and things related):
Notice that these two contribute to no-load loss. No-load loss is defined as the
loss when secondary current is open. Such arises from the nature of the
linking core.
Notice that mechanical losses, stray losses could play a role too.
5. Suitable frequency:
By Faraday’s Law, flux produced is quite proportional to 1/freq. (See NB) For
low frequencies, flux produced is large and possibly surpass the saturation
field. (B = μH)
NB: Let emf be V. Set Φ=Φ0sin(2πf t) As V = -dΦ/dt = -2πf cos(2πft) Φ0
Therefore, Formula 01: RMS(V) =f Φ0 * 2 *3.14/ 1.414 = 4.44Φ0 f
Φ0 here corresponds to max. magnetic flux.
This formula is useful when linking Flux with EMF when constructing a
transformer model as to choose a suitable material and design its dimension.
More, the calculation involved above is too ideal, again. In reality the flux is
2010/02/09 Li Siu Wah

NOT perfectly sinusoidal due to the shape of B-H graph.

Real Model
Now we have a real transformer. To figure out the current-voltage-flux
relationship , we need to approach from an ideal model step by step.

1. Magnetizing current:
Permeability is of a finite value for typical instruments. Relative
permeability of steel is about 4000 only. Therefore, a current is essential
to keep the flux running and the magnitude of this component is given by:
Hl = NI . As we concern about the primary current first:
Formula 02: Bl/μ = NI
Where B is flux strength, l is length of the linking core, N is number of
turns and I is primary current.
In fact, a transformer has a flux which is not altered by primary or
secondary currents. I could thus be found by 02.
We call this Imag , as known as the Magnetizing current. Note that this
component is IN PHASE with the flux.

2. Coil loss:
It corresponds to “4. No eddy current or hysteresis loss (and things
related)”. In the coil, there is a multitude of possible loss as mentioned
above and say, the total resistance for such is Rc. It does work directly and
should be in phase with voltage but not the flux.
Phasor:

VOLTAGE

Rc
FLUX
Imag

Induced emf

Combining 1 and 2, they show that when the secondary coil is set open,
The primary current is not 0 but the vector addition of V/Rc and Imag
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NB: The phasor is valid for a sinusoidal wave/function only. However, the
B-H graph suggested that an iron-coiled device does not have a linear
relationship between B and H . (Remarks 1) As a result, the flux in it is not
of sinusoidal type and the phasor cannot reveal the sophisticated changes.
Technically termed, Saturation effects.

3. Flux leakage
In a practical transformer there must be self-inducing effects as well as
magnetic path in air which does not link to secondary winding. The loss
here is purely inductive. All kind of Flux leakage is dealt here. Denote Xp ,
Xs for the loss.

4. Coil resistance
The copper winding must of some resistance. Denote them Rp and Rs. Of
course, they are perfectly resistive.

The Transformer circuit equivalent could be derived then.

The terms Rs Xs should locate on the right side. For simplicity, they are brought to
the primary winding as we let the equivalent component be K in primary
winding,
Then by conservation of energy and power, K (i1 )2= Rs( i2)2 , i1 is the current
flowing in Ep
K = Rs (i2 / i1 )2 = Rs (Np/Ns)2 , as shown above.

Notice that when secondary current Is = 0 , Ip = I0 and this is termed no-load

current.
2010/02/09 Li Siu Wah

Solutions to current-voltage-flux
In transformer mathematics, we often use phasor.
Construct the phasor with common axis Flux.
For simpliest concern, neglect the series’ component but only I0 and Ip Is.
(Rp ,Rs ,Xp ,Xs = 0)
Start with I0. Add Ep as it lags Flux 90o

Vp

I0

Flux

Ep
Is

When secondary current rises from 0, the primary rises as to overcome the
decrease in flux by Lenz Law. Notice that Vp = Ep in magnitude, and the flux
should be identical to the no-load flux by d(dΦ/dt) = V), ie, which is irrelevant of
Is at all. In other words, Net MMF is kept constant.
Then MMFp + MMFs= MMFo where MMF is dealt as a vector here.
By it, we have Formula 03:Ip+(Np/Ns) Is = I0
If we are given Is and its phase angle, we could know Ip by Ip+(Np/Ns) Is = I0
In practice, draw –(Np/Ns) Is to right top side,

Ip

(Np/Ns) Is

I0
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And thus we could know Ip by vector addition.

More complicated, accurate deductions should consider the series component
too. In reality, flux loss is quite negligible unless air gaps or poor designs of the
transformer.

Drawbacks and improvements

Transformers are relatively huge devices in electronics. They process quite
mechanically and readily produce large amount of heat. Improvements are as
stated.
1. Laminated cores
It prohibits formations of eddy current, more precisely, confine their area as
to enclose less flux.
2. Toroidal cores
As to reduce reluctance and eliminate air gaps.
3. Windings
As to reduce flux leakage
4. Coolant
High temperature do attack transformer’s insulation.

Transformers are useful, and clumsy.

Remarks 1:
Most material has shape of B-H graph like:

Therefore, actual flux and hence magnetizing current should in form of: