01-Introduction Communication+computer Network+network Topology+media

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Fundamentals by MAZHAR IQBAL BUTT.

A Process or Legal declaration, by which individuals demonstrate
the level of knowledge and skill required in the profession,
occupation, role or the competent use or support of a product,
are identified by the relevant organizations.
OR
An official notice, either on the transcript or on a certification
form, provided by standard Communities or awarded by a
Vendor for the course completion verification to satisfy all the
requirements to be a professional.
OR
A valued credential awarded in several fields that proves
competency upon satisfactory demonstration of particular
knowledge and skills.
OR
A recognized written statement/permission of the correctness
and reliability of someone’s professional achievement.
Certification of persons indicates that the individual
has a specific knowledge, skills, or
abilities in the view of the certifying body. Certification of
products indicates their reputed suitability for a specified purpose.
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The computer field is vast and
encompasses a wide variety of
specialties,of which networking is only
one. While some specialties are growing
faster than others, and networking is
among the fastest growing specialties, all
fields are growing quickly.
Good to excellent wages and above

average job security are available in all
specialties.
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Technical certification fills the gap between
desire and experience. Passing and achieving
Microsoft's Certifications, demonstrate not only
your technical competency, but also your
willingness and ability to master highly
involved technical concepts.
This gives a prospective employer the
confidence necessary to continue your
development as an employee in their
organization. Employers in technical field are
primarily looking for people with experience
and the growth of the technical economy.
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Networking Technology deals with the
concepts, hardware, software and procedures
used to plan, implement and maintain
computer networks.
Many hardware manufacturers and software

companies support certifications programs
whereby prospective consultants and technical
support personnel demonstrate their
competence using and maintaining that
company's products.
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Microsoft offers one of the most
comprehensivecertification programs
available for assessing and maintaining
Networking skills.
Microsoft Corporation supports several
certification programs including:
•The MCP (Microsoft Certified Professional)
•The MCSA (Microsoft Certified System Administrator)
•The MCSE (Microsoft Certified System Engineer)
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Microsoft Certifications
Microsoft Certified Professional For those
who want to demonstrate in-depth
knowledge and expertise with at least one
particular Microsoft product, we offer the
Microsoft Certified Professional (MCP)
credential.
Microsoft Certified Systems Engineers are
qualified to effectively plan, implement,
maintain, and support information systems
with Microsoft Windows 2003 track.
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Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer
(MCSE)
Core Exams (6 Exams Required)

Four networking system exams
One client operating system exam
One design exam
Elective Exams (1 Exam Required)
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Core Exams:
Client Operating System (1 Exam Required)
Exam 70–270: Installing, Configuring, and Administering Microsoft Windows® XP Professional
Exam 70-210: Installing, Configuring, and Administering Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional

Core Exams: Networking System (4 Exams Required)
Exam 70–290: Managing and Maintaining a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Environment
Exam 70–291: Implementing, Managing, and Maintaining a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Network
Exam 70-293: Planning and Maintaining a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Network Infrastructure
Exam 70-294: Planning, Implementing, and Maintaining a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Active
Directory Infrastructure
Core Exams:
Design (1 Exam Required)
Exam 70-297: Designing a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Active Directory and Network
Infrastructure
Exam 70-298, 3: Designing Security for a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Network
Elective Exams:
Exam 70-227: Installing, Configuring, and Administering Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration (ISA)
Server 2000, Enterprise Edition
Exam 70-228: Installing, Configuring, and Administering Microsoft SQL Server™ 2000 Enterprise Edition
Exam 70-229: Designing and Implementing Databases with Microsoft SQL Server 2000 Enterprise Edition
Exam 70-282: Designing, Deploying & Managing a Network Solution for a Small- and Medium-Sized Business
Exam 70-284: Implementing and Managing Microsoft Exchange Server 2003
Exam 70-297: Designing a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Active Directory and Network Infrastructure
Exam 70-298: Designing Security for a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Network
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Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator
(MCSA)
Papers Required : 4
Core Exams: Client Operating System (1 Exam Required)
Exam 70-210: Installing, Configuring, and Administering Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional
Exam 70–270: Installing, Configuring, and Administering Microsoft Windows XP Professional
Core Exams:
Networking System (2 Exams Required)
Exam 70-290: Managing and Maintaining a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Environment
Exam 70–291: Implementing, Managing, and Maintaining a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Network
Infrastructure
Elective Exams:
Exam 70-227: Installing, Configuring, and Administering Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration
(ISA) Server 2000, Enterprise Edition
Exam 70-228: Installing, Configuring, and Administering Microsoft SQL Server™ 2000 Enterprise Edition
Exam 70-229: Designing and Implementing Databases with Microsoft SQL Server 2000 Enterprise Edition
Exam 70-282: Designing, Deploying, and Managing a Network Solution for a Small- and Medium-Sized
Business
Exam 70-298: Designing Security for a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Network
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Job Roles in Technology Life Cycle
MCSE credential MCSA credential
Plan, design, and implement Implement, manage, and

Microsoft Windows server maintain the typically complex
solutions and architectures in computing environment of
medium- to large-sized medium- to large-sized
companies. companies.
Have at least one year of Have 6–12 months of
experience implementing and experience administering client
administering network operating and network operating systems.
systems and desktop operating Related job titles: systems
systems. administrator, network
Related job titles: systems administrator, information
engineer, network engineer, systems administrator, network
systems analyst, network operations analyst, network
analyst, or technical consultant. technician, or technical support
specialist.
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How We Prepare You?
Concepts Questions Tests

& Answers
Workshops to
Practice Polish the
Concepts
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Success is the
Sum of Small Efforts
Repeated
Day-In
And
Day-Out
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THANK YOU
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COMMUNICATION
Communication means the exchange of
information or messages. When two persons
talk with each other they are exchanging
information thus it is called communication.
In 1948, a model of communication was
proposed by Claude Shannon. Shannon
worked for the Bell Telephone Company in
America, and was concerned with the
transmission of speech across a telephone line.
Warren Weaver, in association with Shannon,
wrote a preface to this model and it was
published as a book in 1949.
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Shannon’s Model of Communication
In oral communication between two people, the model

is applied as following
Message The idea, thought
Source The brain
Sender The transmitting device, the mouth
Channel The medium the message travels over, air
Receiver The receiving device, the ear
Destination The brain
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ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Sender (or source)
Medium (or channel or media)
Receiver (or destination)
Message
COMMUNICATION MODEL
MEDIUM
SENDER RECEIVER
SENDER sends a MESSAGE to a

RECEIVER over a MEDIUM
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Electronic communication concern
with the transmission (sending and
receiving) ofinformationbetween two
locations. It means sending information
between machines that are connected
together by physical wires or radio links.
Data communication is the process of
sending data electronically from one
location to another. It also makes
possible the updating and sharing of data
at different locations.
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FORMS OF DATA TRANSMISSION
There are two forms of data transmission.
Analog data transmission
(Based upon Analog Signals)
Digital data transmission

(Based upon Digital Signals)
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ANALOG SIGNALS
Analog data transmission
is the transmission of
data in a continuous
wave form. The public
dial-up service supports
analog signals. Analog
signals are encountered
by us every day of our
life. Speech is an analog
signal, and varies in
amplitude (volume),
frequency (pitch), and
phase.
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AMPLITUDE
This is the strength of the signal. It can be
expressed a number of as volts. The higher the
amplitude, the stronger (louder) the signal.
The decibel (named in honor of Alexander
Graham Bell) is a popular measure of signal
strength. It has been discovered that sounds
greater than 90db for a period exceeding 15
minutes causes permanent damage to
hearing. Our ability to hear high notes is
affected. Speech is a very complex signal, and
contains many thousands of different
combinations of signals all mixed together.
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Sound level Type of Sound
40db normal speech
90db lawn mowers
110db shotgun blast

120db jet engine taking off
120db+ rock concerts
The measurement of the

two extremes is called
the peak to peak
measurement.
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FREQUENCY
This is the rate of change the signal in every
second, expressed in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per
second. A cycle is one complete movement of
the wave, from its original start position and
back to the same point again. The number of
cycles (or waves) within a one second time
interval is called cycles-per-second, or Hertz.
Humans can hear from reasonably low
frequency tones about 100Hz to about 12KHz.
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PHASE
This is the rate at which the signal changes its
relationship to time. One complete cycle of a wave
begins at a certain point, and continues till the same
point is reached again. Phase shift occurs when the
cycle does not complete, and a new cycle begins before
the previous one has fully completed.
The human ear is insensitive to phase shift, but data
signals are severely affected by it. Phase shift is
caused by imperfections in cable media, such as joins
and imperfect terminations.
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DIGITAL SIGNALS
Digital data system is the
transmission of data using
distinct “on “ and “off”
electrical states. These two
states are represented by a
1 for “on “ and 0 for “off”.
Digital signals are the
language of modern day
computers. Digital signals
comprise only two states.
These are expressed as ON
or OFF, 1 or 0 respectively.
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DATA TRANSMISSION
TECHNIQUES
The process of converting digital
pulses to an analog signal is called
“MODULATION”.
The process of re-converting an
analog signal to digital pluses is
called “DEMODULATION”.
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Modulation and Demodulation is done by
a single device called MODEM.
Modem (modulator/demodulator)
changes digital data signals to an analog
frequency and allows transmission across
an analog link. At the other end, another
modem receives the signal and converts
it back to digital.
The connections provided by telephone
companies for the use of speech via dial
up telephones is analog based.
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DATA TRANSMISSION METHODS
In Asynchronous Transmission, one
character is transmitted at a time. Start bits
and stop bits control the transfer of data.
Asynchronous transmission is Serial and often
used to low speed transmission of data, each
character is packaged in an envelope, and sent
across a single wire, bit by bit, to a receiver.
In Synchronous Transmission, block of
characters are transmitted in timed sequences.
The receiving device accepts data until it
detects a special ending character. It is used
when data transfer requirement exceed several
thousand bits per second.
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TRANSMISSION MODES
In Simplex mode data can be
transmitted in one direction. A
device using the simplex mode
of transmission can either send
or receive data, but it cannot
do both.
In Half-Duplex mode data can
be transmitted or received by
both ends but not at a time.
In Full Duplex mode data can
be transmitted or received
simultaneously. It is faster.
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DATA TRANSMISSION RATE
The speed at which data travel over a
communication channel is called the
communication rate. It is also known as
the transmission speed.
The rate at which the data are
transferred is the baud rate. Baud rate
is the number of bits per second that the
signals being transmitted changes
(modulation/demodulation).
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COMMUNICATION CHANNEL BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth of a communication channel
determines the rate or speed that data can be
transmitted over a channel. The term
“bandwidth “ is often shortened to “band”. The
bandwidth of a cable is the difference between
the highest and lowest frequencies that are
carried over that cable.
For example the lowest frequency of telephone
line is (300 Hz) and highest frequency is (3300
Hz) then its bandwidth is 3300-300=3000 HZ.
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NARROW BAND
The narrow band channel is used where data
volumes are relatively low and which transmit
data at a rate between 40 to 100 bits per
second (bps). Telegraph lines are an example
of narrow band channels with slow transmission
rate.
VOICE BAND
The voice band channels are able to speed up
the transmission rate between 110 to 9600 bits
per second. Telephone lines are an example of
voice band channels.
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BROAD BAND
The Broadband channels are used where data
volumes are large and which transmit data at
rate upped several megabits per second.
Broadband systems use analog signaling and a
range of frequencies (300 MHZ to 450 MHZ).
With analog transmission, the signals are
continuous and non discrete. Signal flows is
unidirectional.
Microwaves, coaxial cables and communication
satellites are examples of broadband channels,
television cabling and telephone lines.
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BASE BAND
Base band systems use digital signaling over a
single frequency. Signals flow in the form of
discrete pulses of electricity or light.
The digital signal uses the complete bandwidth
of the cable. Each device on a base band
network transmits bi-directional, and some can
transmit and receive at the same time.
Examples are coaxial cable with 50-ohm and
Fiber optics.
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CHANNEL ORGANIZATION
In PARALLEL, each bit uses a
separate wire. If there is eight
bits sent at a time, this will
require 8 wires, one for each
data bit. To transfer data on a
parallel link, a separate line is
used as a clock signal. This
serves to inform the receiver
when data is available.
In SERIAL, each bit is sent
over a single wire, one after
the one.
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Computer Network consists of computers and
other devices connected together over some
kind of communication medium.
ADVANTAGES
Data sharing
Device or resource sharing
Security
It reduces computing costs by sharing data and
peripheral devices.
It centralizes the installation, manages and upgrades
application software.
It increases communication capabilities.
It increases security for different users and user
groups.
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NETWORK DATA PROCESSING
A multi-user operating system is
required for networking environment
to support multiple users.
According to processing, the
Computer Networks are divided in to
two categories.
Centralized system
Distributed system
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In CENTRALIZED SYSTEM there is a main
host machine (mini-frame or mainframe). All
Users can communicate with this machine via
terminals; all the processing for terminals is
done by the main computer.
Dump terminal: They have only input and
output device. They are unable to done
processing. There are no ram, disk, and
processor.
Smart terminals: Can process data up-to
some extent.
Intelligent terminals: All processing is done
by the terminal.
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In DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM users connect with
the network through workstations (which is a
standalone computer often called smart
terminal), each workstation does its own
processing, to reduce the workload of the
central computer called File server.
Distributed processing are particularly
attractive when all computers in the network
are likely to act both as users of computer
services and as providers of computer services.
They are usually more complex and expensive
than centralized computer networks.
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A NETWORK MODEL
COMPONENTS OF A NETWORK
• SERVER
• CLIENT
• MEDIA
• SHARED RESOURCES
• NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
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SERVER
A server is typically a dedicated computer that
processes client requests and returns the
information to the client.
Server also provides access to various
resources such as files, directories, printers
and fax modems.
CLIENT
A client is a standalone computer that gathers
data from a user and prepares it for the server.
The client accesses the shared resources
provided by a server.
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MEDIA
Physical media links network computers. A
network signal must travel through a physical
medium to allow communication between
computers.
SHARED RESOURCES
Shared resources include data and peripherals
that can be accessed by the network users.
NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (NOS)
Different Operating Systems and Environments
are used for networking for example, Novell
Netware, MS–Windows, UNIX etc.
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NETWORK TYPES
Network can be divided into two broad categories:
PEER TO PEER
CLIENT/SERVER BASED
PEER TO PEER
CLIENT-SERVER
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PEER TO PEER NETWORKING
In peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated
servers or hierarchy among the computers. All of the
computers are equal and known as peers.
Normally, each computer functions as both a client and
a server, and there is no one assigned to be an
administrator responsible for the entire network.
FACTORS
Size of organization
Level of security required
Types of business
Amount of network traffic
Needs of the network users
Network Budget
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In this Networking, Users manage their own computers
and resources. Clients systems are usually located on
their desktops. Communication medias are very simple
and effective.
Use Peer to Peer when

Users are less than 10
Security is not required
Future growth is minimal
Close locations
Don’t use Peer to Peer when
Many no. of users
Security is priority
Network is expanding
Remote locations
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CLIENT/SERVER BASED NETWORKING
A server is a special computer that does not
function as a client or workstation.
Servers are dedicated because they quickly
serve request from network clients and to
ensure the security of files and directories.
In this environment, all communications pass
through the server, which is very powerful
computer for sharing resources.
Server serves the client requests and provide
network security for directories and files.
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ADVANTAGES
• Data, users and shared resources are
centrally located, controlled and
managed.
• A single USERNAME & PASSWORD is
used for network access.
• High level of security is available and
applied by Network Administrator.
• Thousands of users can be supported.
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SPECIALIZED SERVERS
File servers provide access to shared
application data that is stored locally on a
server. The server downloads copies the files
to the user’s computer memory. User may
perform different operations on the files and
then store back to file server.
Print servers provide access to shared printer
resources. All print jobs created at individual
computers on the network are stored in a
single location on a print server. This location
is known as a print QUEUE.
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Application servers provide access to
shared application software and data
files. A file server downloads all data to a
client but an application server only
downloads the results of data query to
client.
Mail/Fax servers are used for
managing electronic messaging (E-Mail)
for network clients. Mail servers are also
called Communication servers.
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NETWORK RANGES
According to geographical limits the network is divided
into following categories:
LAN (Local Area Network) is privately owned
network. Widely used to connect personal computers
and workstations in company offices and factories in a
limited geographical area with
high speed data Transfer rate. This is generally less
expensive Technology.
WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large
geographical area, provides connection via telephone
lines, radio link or satellites. It has more error chances
due to the distance data travels Interconnect multiple
LANs. It is more complex and Sophisticated and
Expensive Technology than LANs.
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The physical layout of a Network is
called TOPOLOGY. There are following
types of Network Topologies:
BUS or LINEAR TOPOLOGY

RING or TOKEN TOPOLOGY
STAR TOPOLOGY
MESH TOPOLOGY
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
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BUS or LINEAR TOPOLOGY
Bus consists of a single linear cable called a
trunk. Data is sent to all computers on the
trunk. Each computer examines every packet
on the wire to determine either this packet is
for it or not, and accepts only messages
addressed to them.
Performance degrades as more computers are
added to the bus. Signal bounce is eliminated
by a terminator at each end of the bus. It is
good for a temporary, small (fewer than 10
people) network
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ADVANTAGES
1. Easy to connect a
computer or peripheral.
2. Requires less cable length.
3. Inexpensive hardware.
4. Adding additional nodes is
easy.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Entire network shuts down if any
break in the main cable.
2. Terminators are required at both
ends.
3. Difficult to identify the problem if
the entire network shuts down.
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TOKEN or RING TOPOLOGY
In a ring topology, Computers are connected
on a single circle of cable. Each computer
repeats and keeps the signal strong. No
terminator is required.
Each node must determine whether or not any
received data is for its use and if not, it passes
the data on to its neighbor.
A Token (Auto-execute piece of Software)
always runs over the ring, it checks whether
any node has request or service.
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ADVANTAGES
1. All connected computers have
equal access and has the same
opportunity to transmit.
2. Adding additional nodes is easy.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It is difficult to configure.
2. Media failure can stop all
communication.
3. Problem detection and
TOKEN solving is difficult.
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STAR TOPOLOGY
A star topology is designed with each
node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a
central network hub or concentrator.
Data on a star network passes through
the hub or concentrator before continuing
to its destination. The hub or
concentrator manages and controls all
functions of the network.
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ADVANTAGES
1. Easy to install and wire.
2. No problem to the network
then connecting or removing
devices.
3. Easy to detect faults and to
remove parts.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Requires more cable length
than a linear topology.
2. If the hub or concentrator
fails, nodes attached are
disabled.
3. More expensive than linear
bus topologies because of
the cost of the concentrators.
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Hub & Switch
A Hub/Switch is a
central device used on
star network topology
that repeats or
amplifies signals,
allowing the network
to be expanded with
additional stations.
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HYBRID TOPOLOGY
STAR BUS TOPOLOGY
Several star topologies linked with a linear bus. No
single computer can take the whole network down. If a
single hub fails, only the computers and hubs
connected to that hub are affected.
STAR RING TOPOLOGY
Also known as Star Wired Ring because the hub itself
is wired as a ring. This means it's a physical star, but a
logical ring. Just like in the ring topology, computers
are given equal access to the network media through
the passing of the token. A single computer failure
cannot stop the entire network, but if the hub fails, the
ring that the hub controls also fails.
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MESH TOPOLOGY
The mesh topology connects each
computer on the network to the others.
Meshes use a larger amount of network
cabling than other network topologies,
which makes it more expensive.
Every computer has multiple possible
connection paths to the other computers
on the network, so a single cable break
will not stop network communications
between any two computers.
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The transmission media is the physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver in a
data transmission system.
Transmission media is commonly classified as
BOUNDED or GUIDED And UNBOUNDED or
UNGUIDED.
In Bounded or Guided media such as Cable
systems. The signal travels inside a physical
conductor.
In Unbounded or Unguided media such as
Cable less systems. The signal is usually
transmitted through air.
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CABLE MEDIA
Cable is the medium through which information
usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which
are commonly used in networking.
In some cases, a network utilizes only one type
of cable, but can use a variety of cable types
also. The type of cable chosen for a network is
related to the network's topology, protocol, and
size. Understanding the characteristics of
different types of cable and how they relate to
other aspects of a network is necessary for the
development of a successful network.
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TYPES OF CABLES
Coaxial Cable
Twisted Pair Cable
Fiber Optic Cable
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CO-AXIAL CABLE OVERVIEW
Coaxial cabling has a single copper
conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center
conductor and a braided metal shield.
The metal shield helps to block any
outside interference from fluorescent
lights, motors, and other computers.
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Although coaxial cabling is difficult to
install, it is highly resistant to signal
interference. It can support greater cable
lengths between network devices than
twisted pair cable.
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The two types of coaxial cabling are thick
coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as
thicknet. 10Base5. The 5 refers to the
maximum segment length being 500 meters.
Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective
plastic cover that helps keep moisture away
from the center conductor.
This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network.
One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does
not bend easily and is difficult to install.
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It is 50-ohm cable (RG-8 & RG-11) 0.5 inch in
diameter and also known as Thick Ethernet. It
can carry signals up to 500 meters (1640 feet).
CABLE TYPE DESCRIPTION
RG-58/U Thinnet with solid core.
RG-58 A/U Thinnet with standard wire core.
RG-59 For broadband transmission like TV.
RG-6 With larger diameter for higher frequencies.
RG-62 93-ohm
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Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet.
10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2
refers to the approximate maximum segment
length being 200 meters.
In fact the maximum segment length is 185
meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in school
networks, especially linear bus networks.
Thinnet is 50-ohm cable (RG-58) is 0.25 inch in
diameter and also known as thin Ethernet. It
supports 10 Mbps data transmission rates. The
maximum cable segment length is 185 meters
(607 feet).
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Thinnet network Thicknet network
connection for a connection
coaxial BNC connector
BNC
Thinnet Thicknet
Easy to Install Difficult to Install
Less expensive More expensive
For short distance For long distance
Co-Axial Cable is less expensive also can transmit

Audio, Video and Digital data. It is reasonably secure
and familiar technology and can cover long distances
than other.
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BNC Barrel Connector
BNC cable Connector
END Connector
BNC T Connector
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TWISTED PAIR CABLE
OVERVIEW
It consists of two insulated copper
wires that are twisted together. It
can be classified in two
categories.
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
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UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
UTP’s 10BaseT specification is
widely used in LAN. It has a
maximum cable length of 100 RJ-45
CONNECTOR
meters (328 feet) and consists of
2 or 4 twisted wire pairs.
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
STP is same as UTP but it is
covered with a shield for
resistance. It is more reliable and
faster also for longer distances.
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UTP IMPLEMENTATION
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FIBER OPTIC CABLE OVERVIEW
It consists of a thin glass or plastic fiber
surrounded by protective cover that transmits
light pulses from a Light Emitting Diode (LED).
It provides fast transmission speeds over long
distances and ensures secure/reliable data
transmission but expensive and difficult to
install.
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Optical Fiber Modes
A mode is a ray of light that enters
the fiber at a particular angle.
There are two modes:
Single-Mode fiber generally uses
lasers as the light-generating
device. Single-mode fiber
allows only one mode of light
to propagate through the fiber.
Multi-Mode fiber uses LED as the
light-generating device. Multimode
fiber allows multiple modes of light
to propagate through the fiber.
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CABLE LESS MEDIA
There are four types of cable less medium
• INFRARED
• RADIO
• MICROWAVE
• SATELLITE
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INFRARED
Infrared LEDs (Light Emitting
Diodes) are used for transmission.
Infrared signals are commonly in
the lowest range of light
frequencies.
Infrared is inexpensive but higher
power and high quality devices
may be very expensive. It is used
for short distances.
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RADIO
Radio frequencies (RFs) are electromagnetic
waves in the range of 10 KHz to 1 GHz.
This range includes Medium Wave (MW) radio,
Short Wave (SW) radio, Very High Frequency
(VHF) television and Frequency Modulation
(FM) radio, and Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
television and Amplitude Modulation (AM)
radio.
RF does not require ground stations,
Transceivers are inexpensive and may be
stationery or mobile. These are accessible
throughout the world.
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MICROWAVE
Microwave signals are commonly in the low
GHz frequency range (typically between 4 - 6
and 21 - 23 Ghz). Parabolic antennas (dishes)
are fixed rigidly and focus a narrow beam to
achieve line-of-sight transmission that is
difficult to install. These are used in long
telecommunications services for transmission.
It is used to link separate buildings within
limited areas where cable installation is difficult
or more expensive. Short distance microwave
systems are relatively inexpensive, for greater
distances can be quite expensive.
86
COMMUNICATION SATELLITE
It is used to link two or more ground-
based microwave transmitters and
receivers, known as earth stations or
ground stations. Earth stations can b e
fixed or mobile. Satellite microwave
signals are usually in the low GHz
frequency range. Satellite microwave
systems require expensive modern
space technology.
For long distances, satellite microwave
costs may be significantly less expensive
than cable media. Installation of an
earth station is simple but satellite
installation is extremely difficult and
requires expensive space technology.
87
Network Operating System
The network operating system software resides on
computers, along with any software applications and
data files that need to be shared.
The File Server controls the communication of
information between the nodes on a network. This
requires a computer that can store a lot of information
and share it very quickly.
All of the computers connected to the file server on a
network are called workstations. A typical workstation
is a computer that is configured with a network
interface card, networking software, and the
appropriate cables.
88
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)
The Network Interface Card (NIC) provides the physical
connection between the network and the computer
workstation. Most NICs are internal, with the card
fitting into an expansion slot inside the computer.
Ethernet cards are usually purchased separately from a
computer. Ethernet cards contain connections for
either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both). If it is
designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be BNC.
If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45
connection.
89
A NIC, also called a Network Adapter, is
used to connect a computer to the cabling
used in a local area network (LAN).
Function of NETWORK INTERFACE
CARD (NIC)
The primary function of a NIC is to allow the
computer to communicate on the network.
It does this by transmitting/receiving and
controlling traffic with other computers or
devices on the network. When transmitting,
the NIC place data on the wire in the form
of an electrical signal. The process is
reversed on the receiving end. The NIC
translates the electrical signal it receives off
the wire into bits that can be read by the
computer
90
ROLE OF NIC
Prepares data from the computer for network
cable. Sends the data to another computer.
Controls the flow of data between computer and
cable.
NIC contains the hardware and firmware
programming that implements the logical link
control and media access control function.
Data must be change from digital to electrical or
optical signals for cable. Data moves through
computer along paths called Busses. The busses
can be 8-bit, 16 bit, or 32-bit.
91
ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) is 8/16-bit bus,
62 pin connectors with 8 Mbps
EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture) is 32-
bit bus, 90 pin connectors
PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is 32-bit bus
extends to 64-bit bus with 130 Mbps
MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) Patented by IBM
with 10 Mbps
92
REPEATER
Attenuation refers to the degradation of signal
strength (amplitude) that occurs in
transmissions over long distances. Shortening
the transmission distance or using repeaters
can help solve this problem.
93

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Fundamentals by MAZHAR IQBAL BUTT.

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