Does the mere sight of the golden arches of McDonald’s

make you feel pangs of hunger and think about

hamburgers?
Does the smell of Lacoste make you think about and
reminisce your ex-boyfriend’s memory?
Are you afraid of the dark?
Would you cry at the sight of a bride walking down the
aisle?
Why do you fall in love with a person who has a
particular traits?
Learning is a relatively
permanent change in behavior
that occurs through experience.
As we learn, we alter the way we
perceive our environment, the
way we interpret the incoming
stimuli, and therefore the way
we interact, or behave.
Learning is not a
maturational phenomena.
Short-term changes of
behavior due to factors
other than learning—e.g.,
fatigue—is not learning.
We are primed for learning
from the beginning of life.
Infants exhibit a primitive type
of learning called habituation—
the decrease in response to
stimulus that occurs after
repeated presentations of the
same stimulus.
Through association of different
stimuli (classical conditioning)
Through the corresponding
consequences of behavior
(operant conditioning)
Through observing a model
(social cognitive learning)
Through “aha-experience”
(insightful learning)
Classical conditioning was
pioneered by Ivan Pavlov.
Findings in Pavlov’s
experiment support the idea
that we develop responses
to certain stimuli that are
not naturally occurring.
An unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
automatically elicits an innate,
involuntary, unlearned response or
physiological reflex or UCR).
A reflex or unconditioned response
(UCR) is the automatic stimulus-
response connections
A neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus
that does not produce a reflex,
unless repeatedly paired with UCS.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a
formerly neutral stimulus that has
acquired the ability to elicit a
response that was previously
elicited by the UCS.
When the UCS is paired with the
NS (CS), the result is learned or
conditioned response (CR).
Classical conditioning is a
learning process in which a
previously neutral stimulus
becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus
(unconditioned stimulus)
through repeated pairing and
acquires the capacity to elicit
a response that was originally
produced by the UCS.
Stimulus/Response Description
Unconditioned A stimulus that automatically elicits a
Stimulus (UCS) response, typically via a reflex, without
prior conditioning
Unconditioned The response originally given to the
Response (UCR) unconditioned stimulus, used as the
basis for establishing a conditioned
response to a previously neutral stimulus
Conditioned A previously neutral stimulus that comes
Stimulus (CS) to elicit a conditioned response through
association with an UCS.
Conditioned The learned or acquired response to a
Response (CR) stimulus that did not evoke the response
originally
 CONCEPTS DESCRIPTION
Acquisition The initial learning of the stimulus-response link: a
neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS and
becomes the conditioned stimulus that elicits the CR
Generalization Tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original
CS to elicit a response that is similar to the CR
Discrimination Occurs if tow stimuli are sufficiently distinct from
one another that one evokes a conditioned response
but the other does not.
Extinction A procedure in which a CS is repeatedly presented
without the UCS and, as a result, the CS tends to no
longer elicit the CR (e.g. therapeutic method to
reduce phobias or fears); the weakening of the CR in
the absence of the UCS
Spontaneous Tendency for the CR to re-appear after being
recovery extinguished without further conditioning
Stimulus Substitution Theory means
a neural bond or association forms
between the neutral stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus. After
repeated trials, the neutral stimulus
becomes the conditioned stimulus
and acts like a “substitute” for the
unconditioned stimulus. Thereafter,
the CS elicits a response that is
similar to that of the UCS.
Contiguity Theory says that
classical conditioning occurs
because two stimuli (neutral and
unconditioned stimuli) are paired
close together in time (are
contiguous). As a result of this
contiguous pairing, the neutral
stimulus becomes the conditioned
stimulus, which elicits the
conditioned response.
Cognitive Perspective says that an
organism learns predictable
relationships between two stimuli
such that the occurrence of one
stimulus (neutral stimulus) predicts
the occurrence of another
(unconditioned stimulus). Hence,
classical conditioning occurs
because the organisms learn what
to expect (cause-and-effect).
Taste-aversion learning
refers to associating a
particular sensory cue (smell,
taste, sound or sight) with
getting sick and thereafter
avoiding that particular
sensory cue in the future
(e.g., allergies).
 Conditioned emotional
response refers to feeling
some positive or negative
emotion, such as happiness,
fear or anxiety, when
experiencing a stimulus that
initiatilly accompanied a
pleasant or painful event.
 Can emotional responses be
conditioned? John Watson says so.
Subject: LITTLE ALBERT

Neutral Stimulus: RABBIT

Unconditioned Stimulus: NOISE BANG!!!

Unconditioned Response: STARTLE/CRY

 BANG!!!

Unconditioned
Conditioned Unconditioned Response:
Stimulus: RABBIT Stimulus: NOISE STARTLE/CRY

Classical Conditioned Conditioned

conditioning: Stimulus: Response:
RABBIT STARTLE/CRY
Other examples of
conditioned emotional
response due to classical
conditioning:
Phobias
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Panic attacks
Pleasant experiences
B.F. Skinner analyzed
animal’s ongoing
behavior during learning
by focusing on how
consequences (in the
form of rewards or
punishments) affect
behavior.
 Operant conditioning is
the use of consequences
to modify the
occurrence and form of
behavior.
 Operant conditioning is
learning in which a
voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened,
depending on its favorable
or unfavorable
consequences.
The term “operant" refers to how an
organism operates on the
environment, and the environment
in turn operates on the behavior.
Hence, operant conditioning comes
from how we respond to what is
presented to us in our
environment—also called
instrumental conditioning.
It can be thought of as learning due
to the natural consequences of our
actions.
Edward L. Thorndike
formulated the law of
effect (S-R theory)—
behaviors followed by
positive consequences are
strengthened, while
behaviors followed by
negative consequences are
weakened.
 Thorndike believed that the
law of effect operates
automatically—it was not
necessary for an organism
to understand the link
between a response and a
reward.
1. The rat has not been fed for
some hours so that it will be
active and more likely to eat
the food reward.
2. The goal is to condition the rat
to press the bar. By pressing the
bar, the rat operates on the
environment—hence, operate
response.
3. In conditioning the rat to press
the bar, we can use a
procedure called shaping.
Shaping is a process
of rewarding
approximations of
desired behavior.
Shaping: facing the
bar, touching the bar
and pressing the bar
In shaping the behavior, the reinforcer
should follow immediately after the
desired behavior.
By following immediately, the reinforcer
is associated with the desired behavior
and not with some other behavior that
just happens to occur.
If the reinforcer is delayed, the organism
may be reinforced for some undesired or
superstitious behavior.
 TERMS DESCRIPTION
Reinforcement A consequence that occurs after a
behavior and increases the chance
that a behavior will occur again; it
refers to any stimulus which
strengthens or increases the
probability of a specific response
or behavior
Punishment An aversive consequence that
occurs after a behavior and
decreases the chance that a
behavior will occur again
 TYPES OF DESCRIPTION
REINFORCEMENT
Positive The presentation of a
reinforcement favorable, rewarding or
pleasant stimulus that
increases the probability that
a behavior will occur again
(e.g. praise, rewards)
Negative Removal of an aversive
reinforcement (unpleasant) stimulus
increases the likelihood that
the preceding response will
occur again
 BEHAVIOR: CONSEQUENCE:
Student submit Teacher praises
homework on time the student

EFFECT ON BEHAVIOR:
Student turn in homework
on time again
 BEHAVIOR: CONSEQUENCE:
You take aspirin for Your headache
a headache goes away

EFFECT ON BEHAVIOR:
You take aspirin again the
next time you have a headache
 TYPES OF DESCRIPTION
REINFORCER
Primary reinforcer A stimulus that is innately
satisfying and works naturally,
regardless of a person’s prior
experience

Secondary reinforcer Any stimulus that has acquired

its reinforcing power through
experience; it is learned, such
as by being paired with primary
reinforcers or other secondary
reinforcers
 TYPES OF DESCRIPTION
PUNISHMENT
Positive Presenting an aversive
Punishment (unpleasant) stimulus after a
(punishment by response. The aversive
contingent stimulus decreases the
stimulation) chances that the response
will occur
Negative Removing a reinforcing
Punishment stimulus after a response.
(punishment by This removal decreases the
contingent chances that the response
withdrawal) will recur.
 BEHAVIOR: CONSEQUENCE:
You don’t clean up your Your mom yells at
room when your mom you for not cleaning
asks you to up your room

EFFECT ON BEHAVIOR:
You clean up your room to
avoid being nagged about it
 CONSEQUENCE:
BEHAVIOR: You are not allowed to
You come home ver y late go out with your friends
for two weeks

EFFECT ON BEHAVIOR:
You don’t come home lat e the
next time you are allowed to go
go out with your friends.
• Do we apply the positive
reinforcement every time a
child does something positive?
• Do we punish a child every time
he does something negative?
• These questions pertain to the
schedules of reinforcement.
• Continuous
reinforcement—
behavior that is reinforced
every time it occurs (e.g.
getting a raise after every
successful project or
getting spanked after
every negative behavior)
• Partial
reinforcement—
behavior that is
reinforced some but not
all of the time
• A fixed ratio schedule refers to
applying the reinforcement after a
specific number of behaviors.
• Example: spanking a child if you
have to ask him three times to
clean his room is an example.
• Critique: The behavior does not
tend to change until right before
the preset number.
• Applying the reinforcer after a
specific (fixed) amount of time
is referred to as a fixed
interval schedule.
• Example: getting a raise
every year and not in between
• Critique: People tend to
improve their performance
right before the time period
expires so as to "look good"
• When reinforcement is applied
on an irregular basis, they are
called variable schedules.
• Variable Ratio—this refers to
applying a reinforcer after a
varying number of responses
rather than after a fixed
number.
• Example: gambling
• Variable Interval—time between
reinforcements varies around
some average rather than being
fixed
• Example: A boss who checks
employee’s work periodically
tends to have employees who
work hard because they don’t
know when the next ‘check-up’
might come.
• The variable schedules are
more powerful and result in
more consistent behaviors.
• This may not be as true for
punishment since consistency
in the application is so
important, but for all other types
of reinforcement they tend to
result in stronger responses.
 CONCEPTS DESCRIPTION
Generalization Giving the same response to a
similar stimuli
Discrimination Responding to stimuli that signal a
behavior will or will not be
reinforced
Extinction Becoming less likely to perform a
previously reinforced behavior
when it is no longer followed by the
reinforcer
Spontaneous Refers to the temporary recovery in
recovery the rate of responding
We learn every day in our lives
based on the natural
consequences of previous
actions.
For positive actions, if
something done results in a
positive outcome, we are likely
to do that same activity again.
 CLASSICAL OPERANT
CONDITIONING CONDITIONING

Involves Involves voluntary

involuntary behaviors
responses
It involves mental processes,
such as attention and
memory, and may be learned
through observation or
imitation.
It may not involve any
external rewards or require a
person to perform any
observable behavior.
• A cognitive map is a
mental representation in the
brain of the layout of an
environment and its features
(Edward Tolman, 1930)
• Albert Bandura believes
that many of our compl ex
behaviors are the result of
exposure to competent
models who display
appropriate behavior in
solving problems and
coping.
• By observing other
people, we acquire
knowledge, skills, rules,
strategies, beliefs and
attitudes (Schunk, 2000)
• Social cognitive learning or
observational learning results
from watching, imitating and
modeling and does not require
the observer to perform any
observable behavior or receive
any observable reward.
• Example: the Bobo Doll
experiment of Bandura (1965)
1. Attention—the observer must pay
attention to what the model says or
does.
2. Memory/Retenti on—the observer
must code, store or remember the
information for later retrieval and use.
3. Imitation/Reproducti on—the
observer must reproduce the model ’s
behavior.
4. Motivation/Reinforcement —the
observer must have some reason or
incentive to imitate the model ’s
behavior.
• Insight is a mental process
marked by the sudden and
expected solution to a
problem—a phenomenon called
the “ah-ha!” experience.
• Insight learning is a form of
problem solving in which the
organism develops a sudden
insight or understanding of a
problem’s solution.