The word Geography is a combination of two words “Geo” and Graphy”. Geo is a greek
word which means “The earth” and the word ‘Graphy” has been driven from Graphy
which means ‘Description’. So geography means “Description of the earth”.
The study of Geography as science of earth began from very early times. However its
study was confined only to environment due to its limited scope. In the ancient time the
Geographer neglected the activities of man on the earth. In fact that man brings thousands
of changes for development and prosperity in the world. Thus in modern times
Geographer included the activities of man on earth as an essential part for the study of
Geography. In those times therefore Geography could be defined as
“The science of Description of the physical features of the Earth”. However we can
define the geography as
“Geography as a whole is regarded that department of knowledge, which studies the
varied physical features of earth’s surface as the environment of mankind”.
Human Geography:
According to Prof. C.H. Rabinson “Human Geography is the study of the Nature and
distribution of relation-ships between geographical environment and human activities and
qualities.”
Man-Environment relationship:
Intro: The relationship between man and environment has attracted the attention of many
scholars. In reality, of course, the balance between men’s freedom and nature control
varies from time to time and place to place. Men’s reaction to the environment and his
action upon it can be considered as interaction model or system.
The three basic elements in this have to described man environment and the
relationship between man and environment about these relationship several hypotheses
have been formulated to explain it. They can be reduced to following three concepts.
Physical Determinism:
Nature is master and man obeys its order as slave.
Possibilism: Nature offers several possibilities and man adopts the one that suits him.
Possibilism:
Introduction: The school of possibilism believes that physical environment present
the number of possibilities and it is depends up to man to select the possibility that he
desires. Thus he does according to his culture. i.e in accordance with his technical
competence and economic, political, religious and social values. Man can cross the
river by swimming, or enginge-boat, and as well man can reached to its target place
by road mean by bus or by air means by airoplane it depending on his technical
competence.
Cultural Determinism:
Intro: Cultural determinism means that with help of technology man is becoming
independent of nature. In early time man lived like other animals. They used wild
fruits and raw meat as his food. He slept in the open and at that time they used stones
and branches of trees only as their weapons. With the passage of time man started to
make progress. Soon he left behind all other animals in their primeval state.
Now a day man used eat variety of things as their food and he lives in hats, houses,
and places. In his early life man used his muscles for all his worth and then he put the
animal to work. Today atomic energy, solar energy and tide are providing him power.
In his early days he moved about on his feet. Later he started to ride animals and
animals drawn carts. Today locomotives, automobiles, and aeroplanes are at his
service and man reaches the moon and plans to move to other planets.
Human knowledge is very limited. We plan to conquer the universe but we do
not know how many heavily bodies are there and till we do not physical properties of
stars and planet and our knowledge about earth is not perfect. We have been
damaging environment.
In Pakistan to make greater use of land and soils intricate and ingenious networks
of canals has been developed. But this has led the problem of waterlogging and
salinity which have been damaging the land and soils. In order to obtain higher crops
field chemical fertilizer insecticide has been used which have decrease natural
potential of soil and also poisoned the land.
The establishment of factories, a symbol of progress has polluted the environment
by smoke, gases , and industrial refuse. It is also became cause of acide rain.
Automobiles has been emitting poisons gas and smoke which impacts human health
badly.
Global warming by emission of carbon dioxide from fassil fuels is likely to melt the
most of snow. Thus became cause of rise of water in river and drawing large part of
coastal area.
Chlorofluorocarbons used for refrigeration, air-conditioning and areasol sprays
stared to damage the ozone layer locate at 10-50 km above level which absorbs ultra-
violet rays and protects earth. If these ultra-violet rays reached the earth directly they
would kill all bacteria and severly burn animal tissues and would become cause of
many diseases such as skin caner and existence of life on earth will be in danger.
Thus cultural determinism that present the view the man get became independent
of nature of with help of technology.
Conclusion:
We can conclude all the above mentioned discussion as neither physical
determinism nor cultural determinism is acceptable. Neither man is completely slave
of nature nor he is independent of nature. And natre provide number of possibilities
and man chooses the one which is his technical competence and is in conformity with
his economic, political, social and religious values. The concept of possibilism gives
a better explanation of man environment relationship.
Population:
Introduction: population Geography is branch of geography which involves not only
the magnitude of human population but also its different characteristics, growth and
mobility. Population geography as a separate discipline of study has been recognized
recently. It has common relation with other disciplines as demography,sociology,
economics etc
Vegetation:
At some extent we can say that the presence of vegetation is indicator of soil fertility,
which is responsible for the more human population because incase of fertile soil
there will be availability of food which attracts the human population. But in some
cases the presence of more vegetation became hurdle in settlement of human
population. Such as dense forests of Congo Basin Amazon basin are good example
which are so dense and so thick that can not be cleared easily to settle the human
population.
Fertility of Soils:
The fertility of soil is one of the factor which is almost related to the
climate, though not always. A well developed, mature soil either in tropics or the
temperate regions with a fair balance of temperature and evaporation is suitable for
agriculture, which is intern support peasant population on other hand excessive of
temperature in the equatorial regions, intense evaporation in deserts, and perpetual
breezing in the polar regions impoverish soil therefore these areas are consisting low
population means sparsely plateau.
Mineral Resources:
Mineral resources includes either in form of metallic ores (e.g tin, copper, zine,
lead, Aluminum, iron ) or in form of fossil fuels ( coal, petroleum, oil, gases) and
these mineral deposits are very unevenly scattered over Globe. The presence of these
Mineral Resources courage the establishment of industries which became the cause of
income which intern support a high population density.
Population Growth:
“Population growth is defined as the increase in the number of
human inhabitants of given place or region or country”.
Exponential growth is somewhat different from linear growth so that human population
increase its size by exponential growth methods. For example; If you invest your initial
100 rupees at rate of interest 10% and it was compounded continuously, and each
increment would be based on the original amount plus previously interest, After 10 year
you 100 would have increased to 259 rupees after 20 years. It would have increased to
637 rupees therefore human population has growing at exponential rates.
Doubling time: It may be defines as “ The time required for a population to double their
size” Every reate of the growth has doubling time.
e.g our invest of 100 rupees at 10% took about 7 years to double to 200 rupee and then
another 7 years to become 400 rupee and so on when the growth rate 10 % therefore
doubling time is around 7 years.
During middle of this century, when the world’s human population was increasing at
an average of 2% its doubling time was 35 years.
During the mid-1980s when decling rate reached 1.8% then doubling time rose to
39 years.
In 1995, the united states population was growing at 0.7%, a yielding doubling time
of nearly a century; 98years.
Explanation: CBRs is different almost differ from country to country, the highest birth
rates today are recorded in Africa and Southwest Asia. For many years, countries in East
Africa ( most notably Kenya ) have birth rates ranking among the highest in the world.
There are many countries of having almost CBRs less than 15 can found in
Europe. Other areas with low rates are North America, (US, and Canada), Australia, New
Zealand, Japan, China. It is clear that low birth rates are associated with modernization,
with Industrialization and urbanization a generalization that holds for all except china.
Total Fertility Rate ( TFR):
TFR can be define as “ The average number of children born to a woman during her life
time, as expressed for total population” E.g When Kenya was at the height of its
population explosion in the 1980s, number of children per childbearing-age women was
8. In China just 30 year ago the TFR was 6.0. Today it is 1.9 Not only China also India,
Egypt, Brazil and Mexico lower 7FR than one generation ago.
India’s TRF has declined from 5.8 to 3.4, Egypt’s from 7.2 to 3.9, Brazil’s from
6.3 to 2.9 and Mexico from 6.7 to 3.1. But other hand Nigeria’s TFR still exceeds and
Pakistani women still bear an average of nearly 6 children.
Crude Death Rate: “ The crude death rate ( CDR) reports the number of deaths per
thousand people” and Also mortality.
The death rates are highest in tropical Africa, where a number of
countries record more than 20 deaths per thousand in population. Lowest in North
America, and most of South America, Parts of Europe, Japan, China and Australia.
Infant Mortality: It can be defines as “The annual number of deaths of infants under age
1 year per thousand live birth”.
Introduction:
Thomas Robert Malthus was a British economist and demographer and two centuries ago
in 1798 Malthus expressed grave concern about over population and He published a long
essay entitled; “ An Essay on the principle of Population as It affects the future
improvement of society”.
In this essay he highlighted potential danger of over population as described as under
Main Points of Malthus theory: Following are some points of Malthus theory
1) According to Malthus point of views that “ The population of world would
increase in geometric proportion as (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64).
2) Malthus stated that “ the food resources available for the world population would
increase only in arithmetic proportion, mean linear as ( 1,2, 3, 4,5,6,7).
As regarding of above two mentioned points, In simple word, If the human population
would allow to increase in an uncontrolled way, then number of people would increase at
a faster rate than food supply.
3) In such circumstance population will eventually outstrip food resources. Mankind
will be faced with doom. However nature would not allow human extinction. It
will brings down the population by “ Positive Checks” Like gamine, disease, war,
earthquake, storm, flood, and some other natural disaster. Thus a balance between
population and food supply will be maintained.
4) Malthus advises us to adopt “Preventive checks” to keep down the population, to
save ourselves from diseases and disaster. These check mainly includes the
promote concept of late marriage , celibacy, abstention, Birth Control, and family
planning.
5) Neo-Malthusian:
Malthus was a clever man therefore he did not advocate the use of
contraceptive an He believed would be checked by moral restraint to him the use of
contraceptive was morally and socially not acceptable. The group who advocate birth
control called neo-Malthusian.
Criticism: Some critics the Malthus like Karl Marx, argued that Malthus failed to
recognized the potential human population to increase food supply, further Karl Marx
suggested that the poverty of Masses foreseen by Malthus had less to do wit their
number than with the capitalist system governing.
Malthus himself is accused by many to have failed and ignore human ability to
use technology and science to increase food supply to full file the needs of an
increasing population.
Impacts: Malthus’s theory had great influence on both Charles Darwin and Alfred
Wallace, who are co-founder of ‘modern evolutionary theory”. In his word” Darwin
acknowledged, that he was already aware of “ struggle for existence” among different
species of plants and animals in their stuggle to survive. Thus “ Theory of Natural
selection was born”.
Ecosystem:
Outline
1) Introduction
2) Definision
3) Explanation
4) Components of Ecosystem
• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
5) Conclusion
Introduction: The term ecology comes from the Greek words “Oikos” meaning “the
family Household” and logo “ the study of” and this term was originally coined by
German Zoologist Ernst Haeekel in 1866. He called it “ecologic” and defines it as “
the study of the relationship of animals to their environment”.
Definition: Ecosystem may be defines “ the group of organisms and their
environment with which the organisms interact” or ecosystem is ecological system I
which living things and non-livings live in relation with each other and with
environment through series of links.
Explanation: leback field: Geography should be viewed as ecosystem.
The major unit of ecology is the ecosystem and organisms interact with their
environment within confines of the ecosystem and “eco” is part of the word which is
related to environment and “system” part means a collection of related parts that function
as unit.
2): Lithospheric ecosystem: the ecosystem present on the land or soil is called
terrestrial or lithospheric ecosystem. Terrestrial ecosystem received a plenty of light
and soil provides abundant nutrients. Water, however, is limited and very anevenly
distributed both in place and time. The factor which influence life on land are given
below.
Adoptation for terrestrial ecosystem: Plants and animals shifting from water to
land developed various types of adoption for land habitat e.g
Supporting tissues
Both plants and animals have evolved supporting tissues like vascular bundles
(.ylem-phloem) in plants and skeleton in animals to support them on land against the
force of gravity.
Conservation of water: Plants and animals evolved various methods to conserve water
in their body e.g homeostasis. The mechanism of temperature regulation was
developed by plants and animals by developing bark and skin respectively.