Contents
Welcome to the
oto
Tactical Air War! ... 1
stration Ph
Events and People in
ency Photo
the Tactical Air
cords Admini
War ................. 7
Research Ag
Key Players in the
Tactical Air War:
ives and Re
The CFS3 Hall of
Historical
Fame ............... 21
ch
Acknowledgements...... 30
al Ar
Air Force
on
Recommended Reading... 32
Nati
ES Glossary.............. 36
MEN AND MACHIN
REMEMBER: OUR LO T LI KE
LOOK A
ON THE GROUND * * *
THEI RS .
A B-26 MARAUDER FLIES OVE
R THE
NORMANDY INVASION FLEET.
Agency Photo
Air Force Historical Research
ency Photo
machine gun, every rifle,
threats. Some of your targets have more
every pistol. Denied him
and bigger guns than a whole formation
is the acclaim accorded
Research Ag
of bombers. If enemy fire doesn’t get
fighter pilots. The chances
you, the blast and debris from your own
of winning fame as a
low-level bombing and strafing can bring
Schlachtflieger are as slim
Historical
you down. In this kind of war there’s
as those of survival....
more danger and less glory for everyone.
--From Jay P. Spenser,
Welcome to the tactical air war,
Air Force
Focke-Wulf 190: Workhorse
pal!
of the Luftwaffe
- 1 -
Subject: TACTICAL AIR WAR
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Subject: TACTICAL AIR WAR
ncy Photo
lations that he requires
for the application of air
ater.
Third priority--To
participate in the com-
bined effort of the air
DOUGLAS A-20 MEDIUM BOMBER IN and ground forces, in the
LOW-LEVEL ATTACK ON CHERBOURG battle area, to gain objec-
PENINSULA. tives on the immediate
front of the ground forces.
--From War Department
Field Manual FM 100-20:
Command and Employment of
A THUND
ER
PLETE G BOLT CARRIES Air Power (21 July 1943)
RO TH
GUNS, B UND ATTACK AR E COM-
OMBS, A SENAL:
ND ROCK
ETS.
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Subject: TACTICAL AIR WAR
A few additional worries sure whose cause will profit from the Three Critical Factors
In addition to reduced altitude bombs you just dropped. for Fighter Bomber
and the hail of flak and small arms fire - And finally, getting caught in your Pilots
coming up at you as you approach targets own explosions. When you attack sur- ...strafing passes...
on the ground, you have a few additional face targets from low altitude you bring out three critical
worries as a fighter-bomber pilot: risk getting caught in explosions of factors in a fighter bomber
- Encountering airfield defenses. If you your own making. Trains and motor- pilot’s war.... One, any
and your buddies swoop down to beat ized transport full of fuel and ammo, misjudgment, target fixa-
up an enemy airfield, the guy who flies the volatile contents of fuel and tion, or too-late attempts
through first is the lucky one, because ordnance dumps, and even locomotives at aiming corrections will
he might catch the antiaircraft with a boiler full of high-pressure send the airplane into the
defenses off guard. By the time the steam--all of these targets can blow target, ground, or nearby
rest of you approach the target those up in a big way, filling a once empty trees or other obstruc-
gunners are wide awake and filling the piece of sky with pinwheeling chunks tions. Two, if the target
air with flak. of shrapnel. Even the roadway beneath is a load of ammuni-
- Pulling up in time. Diving a heavy, enemy vehicles can be hazardous, as tion or other explosives,
powerful aircraft from low alti- bomb blasts can heave hunks of pave- it can--and very likely
tude makes for a thrilling pullout, ment into the same airspace you’re will--explode right in the
if you’re lucky. If you’re not both occupying. pilot’s face, sending up
attentive and lucky, you may fixate a fireball, truck parts,
on the target until it’s too late slabs of highway, still-
to pull out. to-explode ammo, and other
debris right into the path
- Identifying appropriate targets--now!
of the airplane. Three, if
While you’re thinking about the
a pilot is seriously hit by
target, the flak, and the need to pull
flak in [a] low-altitude
out before you become part of the
attack, his chances of ever
landscape, you also need to make
reaching enough altitude
sure that the target you’re attack-
to allow a bailout are slim
ing belongs to the enemy. Skimming
indeed....
along at low altitude and high speed
over a crowded battlefield doesn’t give --From Bill Colgan, World
you a lot of time to make vital deci- War II Fighter Bomber Pilot
sions. Are those enemy troops? Are you
sure the squat form of a heavy tank
glimpsed through foliage is an appro-
priate target? You may never know for
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Subject: TACTICAL AIR WAR
Another little problem: Enemy fighters the nose up at what appears to be the Results You Can See
While you’re concentrating on the last moment and discover that your “There were times we
enemy below, don’t forget the most dan- plane simply won’t cooperate. With all could actually see our
gerous and persistent threat any combat its weight and power, it will continue troops move forward after
pilot faces: enemy fighters attacking to sink despite your best efforts and we had knocked out a German
from superior altitude. Getting bounced “mush” right into the ground. 88 or tank that was holding
from above while going after ground tar- up the column. We knew we
gets is an ever-present danger, so you “I don’t believe in all this dive- were making a difference.”
and your buddies have got to take turns bombing [stuff], it ain’t natural.” --Veteran fighter bomber
flying combat air patrol over the target
Many new fighter-bomber pilots pilot Quentin Aanenson
area to keep the opposition busy while
the rest of the team beats up targets longed for the classic fighterpilot role
on the ground. they’d read and dreamed about, in which
the ground was for the ground-pound-
Now this kind of teamwork is what ers and the sky above the clouds was
you joined up to do, right? Not quite. reserved for dashing aviators. This
You’ll be craning your neck and strain- made for a difficult adjustment:
ing your eyes to spot incoming bandits,
mixing it up with enemy fighters as you ...fighter pilots were slow to
match your skills against skilled adver- appreciate the value of close-sup-
saries, but remember, this is dogfight- port operations. One flyer aptly
ing with a difference. Even if you’re summarized the rank-and-file per-
flying a relatively light and nimble ception of the new task when he
fighter, your plane’s ordnance load makes said... “I don’t believe in all
it heavier and less responsive; you can this dive-bombing [stuff], it
Agency Photo
drop like a rock in a dive. Power and ain’t natural.”
gravity combine to eat up altitude in --Thomas A. Hughes, Over Lord:
a hurry, and the ground is never very General Pete Quesada and the
far away.
ical Research
Triumph of Tactical Air Power
If you’re flying one of the heavy- in World War II
weights in your air force’s inventory,
the ground can reach up and grab you.
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Subject: TACTICAL AIR WAR
The payoff: Unique satisfactions - There’s also plenty of encourage- The “Moral” Effect of
So given the catalog of dangers, why ment in knowing that your contribu- Attack from the Air
would you want to fly close air support tion isn’t just emotional--all armies Moral Effect--The moral
missions? Because this job provides some understand that close air support effect of heavy air attack
unique satisfactions: plays an important role in making against land forces can
- Even if you’re a loner--and many progress on the battlefield and in the hardly be exaggerated.
fighter pilots are--there’s a lot to theater of operations. Your missions Not only will air attack
be said for being part of a team; are a significant part of the bigger lower the morale of the
especially if it’s a winning team. picture. What you do or fail to do enemy, but the sight of
Protecting your guys on the ground and every day can contribute to the larger our own aircraft over the
helping them to advance by suppress- success or failure of your nation’s battlefield raises the
ing enemy troops and weapons adds real forces in this war. morale of our own troops
meaning to your part of the struggle. to a corresponding degree.
- There’s also a lot to be said for Seeing enemy aircraft shot
instant gratification--and few things down has an encouraging
are as gratifying to a combat pilot as effect.... On the other
seeing a tempting target blow up in a hand, the constant appear-
big way. ance of unmolested enemy
aircraft tends to demor-
- Seeing close-up the effect of your
alize troops and disorga-
guns, bombs, and rockets on the enemy
nize plans. Apprehension
does a lot for your confidence and your
of heavy air attack
feeling that the results are worth the
restricts military activ-
risks. Flying close air support also
ity by ...confining troops
Research Agency Photo
Air Force Historical
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
Agency Photo
nological advantages will determine the
outcome.
Before you take to the sky, it
ical Research
helps to understand what really happened
during WWII. This will not only give you
something to shoot at--but also some-
thing to shoot for.
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
o
Research Agency Phot
tive tactical air power could be, and
plans were put in motion to use this
weapon to the fullest. Air power would
pave the way for forces on the ground
by providing close air support.
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
The tactical air forces join the fray Phase 3: Airfields. At D-21, the “If I didn’t have
The U.S. Nineth Air Force and the Allies added German airfields within air superiority,
RAF’s Second Tactical Air Force soon 130 miles of the invasion area to I wouldn’t be here.”
joined these efforts and, as winter their target list. This phase continued On June 24, Eisenhower’s
turned to spring, the pre-invasion air until D-Day. son John, a recent West
campaign intensified. Two Tactical Air Between these attacks and the Point graduate, rode with
Commands of the U.S. Ninth Air Force demands on German fighter resources his father to view the
(IX TAC under General Ellwood “Pete” resulting from the Allies’ strate- invasion area.
Quesada and XIX TAC under General O.P. gic bombing campaign, by June 6 the “The roads we traversed
“Opie” Weyland) combined efforts with Luftwaffe simply wasn’t a factor in were dusty and crowded.
the British Second Tactical Air Force Normandy. This situation wouldn’t last Vehicles moved slowly,
to smash rail transport, bridges, and for long, as the German fighter force bumper to bumper. Fresh
airfields. wasn’t finished yet. Within weeks the out of West Point, with all
Phase 1: Railways. Sixty days Luftwaffe increased its strength in its courses in conventional
before D-Day (D-60), the Allies’ focus Normandy, flying from small, improvised procedures, I was offended
fell on rail centers, with fighter bomb- airstrips to avoid attack by Allied at this jamming up of traf-
ers (as well as medium and heavy bomb- fighter bombers. Soon, the tactical fic. It wasn’t according
ers) striking marshaling yards and major air war would reach its furious height to the book. Leaning over
rail junctions. The railway phase con- as the American, British, and German Dad’s shoulder, I remarked,
tinued right up to and after the Allied armies engaged in their winner-take-all “You’d never get away with
armies fought their way onto the shores struggle for control of Europe. this if you didn’t have air
of France on June 6. supremacy.” I received an
Phase 2: Bridges. At D-46, the impatient snort:
Allies began to isolate the German “If I didn’t have air
troops that occupied the invasion supremacy, I wouldn’t be
battlefield from reinforcements and sup- here.”
plies by destroying bridges on the
--Richard P. Hallion,
Seine below Paris and on the Loire below
Air Power Over the Normandy
Orléans. Both medium bombers and fighter
Beaches and Beyond
bombers participated in this phase, but
the nimble fighter bombers proved to be
the best tool to achieve the pinpoint
accuracy this task required. Like the
rail phase, this bridge-busting duty
continued on after the Allied invasion
had begun.
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
o
Research Agency Phot
bridges, and rail targets. These attacks
slowed the arrival of German reinforce-
ments, giving the invading armies addi-
tional time to consolidate their toehold
on the Continent.
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
The race toward the Rhine The Battle of the Bulge Jack Stafford Follows
As the remnants of the shattered Like many major actions of the Orders on His First
Seventh Army fled eastward, additional Second World War, the outcome of the Mission
German forces in Normandy swelled the Battle of the Bulge was decided by air “Ready for your first
retreat. However, like all major German power. When the Germans began their show, Staff?” asked Woe
retreats of the war, this was an orga- last major offensive of the war on Wilson. “Keep up with me.
nized and disciplined process. Despite December 16, the dense, heavy cloud I’ll be busy enough with-
hot pursuit by the Allied armies and cover over the battle zone made low- out looking after you--just
continuing harassment by the tacti- level fighter bomber patrols difficult watch my arse.”
cal air forces, 240,000 Germans got to impossible, temporarily negating We took off for the
across the Seine in the last dozen days Allied air superiority, but also limit- French coast. Woe watched
of August and streamed toward Belgium, ing the effectiveness of the German the heading--I watched
Luxembourg--and Germany. Patton’s army tactical aircraft assembled to assist Woe’s tail.
began its pursuit on August 21 by cross- the offensive.
When we returned the
ing the Seine, and in the next ten days For this fight all Allied tacti- intelligence officer asked
pushed almost 200 miles eastward to the cal air power--including the U.S. Nineth if we had encountered much
river Meuse. Other British and U.S. Air Force’s IX and XIX Tactical Air flak. “Yes, quite a bit,”
forces liberated Paris on August 25 and Commands and the British Second Tactical said Woe. “Dieppe was the
pushed on into Belgium and Luxembourg. Air Force--was concentrated under heaviest but they hosed us
Seeking an opportunity to counterat- the command of RAF Air Marshal Arthur a bit from all the other
tack, the Germans deployed troops near Coningham, who in turn assigned General ports.”
the mouth of the river Scheldt, deny- “Pete” Quesada of the U.S. IX TAC to con-
I stood there, my mouth
ing the Allies use of the vital port trol air power on the north side of the
open. “Flak! What bloody
of Antwerp. This move was part of a bulge, while the British 2TAF focused on
flak?” Good-natured laugh-
plan (called “Autumn Mist”) to drive the south side. There were three Allied
ter rocked the room.
an armored wedge through the Ardennes air priorities:
forest and across the Meuse to Antwerp, Woe said, “He was watch-
- To achieve and maintain air superior-
separating the British in the north ing my arse and doing it
ity over the battlefield.
from the Americans in the south. The well.” Just then a ground
- To cooperate with ground forces in staff man approached with
resulting struggle, which began with
the destruction of enemy weapons and a jagged piece of steel in
an assault that bulged and almost broke
transport. his hand. “This was just
the Allied lines, is better known as
the Battle of the Bulge. - To interdict enemy supplies by attack- removed from your air-
ing road, rail, and communication craft’s spinner, Staff.”
centers. —Veteran fighter pilot
and CFS3 historical advisor
Jack Stafford
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
Strict radio silence had kept the To restrict enemy supplies and slow
Germans’ plans from being intercepted, the German advance, Eisenhower’s strat-
and the surprise was complete when 24 egy required U.S. forces to take and
Wehrmacht divisions crashed through hold the crossroads at Saint Vith and
the Allied lines. Twenty-four hundred Bastogne, an already perilous task that
tactical aircraft had been assembled became practically impossible without
to support this thrust, and a 60-mile- tactical air support. The “bulge” soon
wide breech in the Allied line quickly grew to its maximum depth, extending
became the westward “bulge” that gave about 50 miles west of what had been the
this battle its name. For three days the American lines. U.S. forces soon evacu-
Allied air forces fought the Luftwaffe ated Saint Vith, but the 101st Airborne
above the cloud cover, keeping the Division hung on at Bastogne.
German fighters from carrying out their
close-support duties beneath the over-
cast and claiming 136 victories in
the process. The Luftwaffe pilots were
hampered not only by bad weather, but
also by inadequate training and lack
of experience in tactical air support,
since by this stage of the war their
ds Administration Photo
leadership understandably emphasized
air-to-air combat skills to counter
the tactical bombing campaign that was
reducing German cities to rubble.
The Battle of the Bulge took place
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
Patton’s “weather prayer” pays off timed airfield attacks to coincide with The Tactical Air War
Chafing at the uncooperative weather the return of fighters low on fuel and from Two Points
that made life miserable for infantry- ammunition. of View
man and airman alike, General George Now Allied medium bombers joined “We took a bit of a
Patton ordered the Third Army chap- in to cut off rail transport into the beating on the ground but
lain to devise a “weather prayer” to be area, while U.S. and British fighter boy did we dish it out in
published throughout the Third Army by bombers pursued enemy tank columns down the air.”
December 14, two days before the Battle increasingly narrow roads. Once they --General “Pete” Quesada,
of the Bulge began: hit the lead tank, the immobilized column IX TAC after the
“Almighty and most merciful could be destroyed in detail, a scene Battle of the Bulge
God, we humbly beseech thee, of played out over and over again. German
troop concentrations suffered the same * * *
thy great goodness, to restrain
these immoderate rains with which fate as the tank columns. Thunderbolts “The Third Reich received
we have had to contend. Grant us bombed enemy positions just a few hun- its death blow in the
fair weather for battle. Graciously dred yards from friendly forces. German Ardennes offensive.... The
road and rail traffic fell under the same American fighter bomber
hearken to us as soldiers who call
hammer blows. destroyed us.”
upon thee that, armed with thy
power, we may advance from victory By Christmas Eve, the German advance --General der Jagdflieger
to victory, and crush the oppres- ground to a halt. On Christmas day, the Adolf Galland
sion and wickedness of our enemies, Allies counterattacked, Patton relieved
and establish thy justice among men the 101st Airborne in Bastogne, and
and nations. Amen.” Montgomery’s forces attacked from the
north to cut off a German retreat.
This higher version of “air-ground
Allied tactical aircraft ruled the skies
teamwork” apparently did the trick,
over the battlefield, but they would soon
and on December 23 the murky weather
face the Luftwaffe in a decisive air
that had hung over the Ardennes broke,
battle.
unleashing Allied air and ground forces
and dooming the last major German offen-
sive of the war to failure.
With massive numbers of American
and British fighter bombers filling the
sky and blasting ground targets at will,
the Luftwaffe could no longer affect the
situation on the ground. Even returning
from a mission was dangerous for German
pilots, as their Allied counterparts
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
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Subject: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
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Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
Key Players in the Tactical Air War: The CFS3 Hall of Fame
The tactical air war didn’t grab a 1936-1939 as a proving ground for new
lot of headlines, and didn’t produce many weapons and techniques. This experience
aces. Like the foot soldiers who formed paved the way for the Blitzkrieg of 1939
the other side of the air-ground team, to 1940, when Germany stunned the world
tactical pilots had a rough job to do, by rapidly defeating Poland, France,
and faced many dangers without much Belgium, Holland, and Denmark with coor-
chance of winning individual fame. For dinated attacks by armor, air power,
that reason this “Hall of Fame” focuses and mobile infantry. Throughout the war
primarily on leaders of the tactical air Germany used this combination of forces
war, individuals who formulated doc- wherever possible. However, the Luftwaffe
trine on the use of tactical air power leadership failed to refine its use of
and then put that doctrine into practice air power, while the Allies embraced new
in the air over Europe. The pilots who technologies and techniques that made
translated doctrine into combat reality their tactical air forces into sharper,
are represented by our three histori- more focused and effective weapons.
cal advisors, men who stepped up to the This failure put German pilots at
dangerous job of teaming with the guys a double disadvantage. As Allied mate-
on the ground during the momentous events rial superiority grew to an overwhelming
of WWII, and then returned to their flood of military power directed against
lives as veterans who put those events Germany, the problem was compounded by
behind them. leaders preoccupied with maintaining
favor and casting blame instead of assum-
About Leadership and ing responsibility for the success of
Pilot Initiative their pilots.
A look at the leaders on both sides What made the Luftwaffe a formi-
who were instrumental in forming tactical dable weapon as the war went on was the
air doctrine in WWII reveals an inter- dedication, skill, and perseverance of
esting difference of approach, a differ- its pilots. The often murky nature of
ence with important implications for the combat in the air low over the battlefield
pilots who had to transform doctrine into always demanded a high degree of pilot
ordnance on the battlefield. initiative for all nationalities, but
Germany took an early lead in devel- for German pilots that initiative took
oping the collaboration of air and ground on greater importance, given decreasing
forces, and used the Spanish Civil War of direction from above.
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Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
y Images
“Billy” Mitchell was an air power dismay of naval officers who saw
pioneer, visionary, and evangelist. He the battleship as the ultimate
Hulton Archive/Gett
was also an irritant to American mili- expression of military power,
tary commanders who lacked his vision Mitchell led Army bombers in
and enthusiasm. As commander of American trials that sank a variety of
combat squadrons in World War I Mitchell vessels, including a subma-
was one of the first to show what the air- rine, a destroyer, a cruiser,
plane could do to advance the war on the and finally the captured German
ground, proving it to be a potent weapon battleship Ostfriesland. This
against enemy positions and surface tar- earned him enemies in high
gets on land or sea. places, as did his criticism of
Mitchell joined the U.S. Army government policies and defiance
in 1898 and showed an early interest of the military leadership.
in technology, first as a telegrapher In 1924, after a visit to
in the Signal Corps. When the Signal Japan, Mitchell wrote a report
Corps formed its Aeronautical Division, that warned of Japanese ambitions
Mitchell bought his own flight lessons. in the Pacific. He foresaw a war
By 1913 he informed a congressional com- with Japan that he said would
mittee that America was falling behind begin with an aerial attack on 1920S
in what he saw as a vital new technol- American naval and air facilities “BILLY” MITCHELL: IN THE
SHO WED THE SKE PTI CS WHA T
HE
ogy. In 1917 he was sent to observe air at Pearl Harbor, starting with DO.
AIR POWER COULD
operations in Europe, and, with America’s bombardment of the base on Ford
entry into the war, he was soon in charge Island at 7:30 a.m., to be fol-
of fighting units and promoted to Briga- lowed by an attack on Clark Field
dier General. in the Philippines.
In September 1918 Mitchell planned In 1925, after accusing Army lead-
and led a bombing attack on the German- ership of criminal negligence in the
held St.-Mihiel salient in which almost loss of the airship Shenandoah, he was
1,500 aircraft dropped their bombs on court-martialed for insubordination and
German positions in coordination with resigned from the service. Mitchell died
an infantry assault on the ground. in 1936, before he could see air power
After the war, Mitchell tirelessly triumphant in World War II. In 1941 Lee
advocated an independent Air Service and Atwood, vice president and chief engi-
sought every opportunity to demonstrate neer of North American Aviation, pro-
what air power could do. In 1921, to the posed naming the new B-25 medium bomber
- 22 -
Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
courtesy
tasks to accomplish:
Museum
Congressional Medal of Honor featur- one, to provide
ing a likeness of Mitchell in aviator’s
Photo provided
helmet and goggles.
for the infantry and
adjustment of fire
for the artillery of
“Billy” Mitchell’s special the ground troops;
Congressional Medal second, to hold off
of Honor, awarded the enemy air forces
posthumously in 1946. from interfering
with either our air
or ground troops;
and third, to bomb
the back areas so as
to stop the supplies
from the enemy and
hold up any movement
along the roads.”
--Alan F. Wilt,
Coming of Age: XIX TAC’s
Roles During the 1944
Dash Across France
- 23 -
Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
o
Research Agency Phot
A year after General Billy Mitchell ters in Normandy on D-Day+1,
was ejected from the U.S. Army Air Corps, and moved it constantly to keep
21-year-old Elwood “Pete” Quesada won his up with the rapidly advancing
wings as a flying cadet. In WWII he would front lines.
gain fame as head of the IX Tactical Air Under Quesada’s leader-
Command, a role in which he was both an ship, IX TAC provided close
- 24 -
Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
Photo
As head of the XIX Tactical Air for a pounding by the tactical air com-
Command from 1944 to 1945, O.P. “Opie” mands. The port of Brest fell in part
l Research Agency
Weyland provided the perfect partner in due to the relentless assault of XIX TAC
the air to George S. Patton’s hard-driv- on shipping and port facilities, and by
ing Third Army on the ground. Together the end of December, Weyland’s fighter
they made history during Patton’s dash bombers were attacking the enemy near
- 25 -
Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
ncy Photo
Trafford Leigh-Mallory fought on In November 1944 Leigh-Mallory
the ground in WWI until 1916, when he was assigned to head Allied air
- 26 -
Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
Photo
Arthur “Mary” Coningham was born In 1945 Coningham took
in Australia and educated in New Zealand. charge of the RAF Flying
- 27 -
Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
Bettmann/Corbis
Göring’s career as an airman got With the collapse of the Reich,
off to an impressive start in the First Göring surrendered to American forces.
World War, in which he amassed 22 aerial Ever ingratiating when it served his
victories and won his nation’s highest purpose, he sang the praises of the
decoration, the Pour le Mérite, popularly USAAF, while ignoring the dogged six-
called the “Blue Max.” He finished the year contribution of the RAF:
war in charge of the squadron formerly “The Allies must thank the
led by WWI’s ace of aces, Manfred von American Air Force for winning the
Richthofen, the “Red Baron.” war. If it were not for the American
In postwar Germany Göring became Air Force the invasion would not
second only to Hitler in the hierarchy have succeeded. Even if it had suc-
of the Third Reich, and in 1935 was put ceeded it could not have advanced
in charge of the resurgent Luftwaffe. without the American Air Force.
Early successes in Spain and during the Further, without the American Air
Blitzkrieg of 1939 to 1940 showed the Force Von Rundstedt would not have
world what air power could do, but his Hermann Göring.
been stopped in the Ardennes. And
leadership had reached its pinnacle.
who knows but that the war would
In the Luftwaffe, Göring had created still be going on.”
a magnificent fighting machine, but squan-
--Hermann Göring,
dered it by refusing to adapt to chang-
in Thomas A. Hughes, Over Lord:
ing circumstances. His management of the
Battle of Britain during 1940 and 1941 General Pete Quesada and the
was a debacle of miscalculation for which Triumph of Tactical Air Power
he blamed his own pilots. This pattern in World War II
continued as Germany’s military situa-
tion deteriorated and pilots came to view
the grandiose Reichsmarschall with con-
tempt. Given this leadership vacuum at
the top, the responsibility for using the
air weapon with any degree of effective-
ness fell to the field commanders who had
to lead from the cockpit, and pilots who
were willing to push themselves to the
limit to achieve some success against
the enemy.
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Subject: LEADERS IN THE TACTICAL AIR WAR
- 29 -
Subject: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements
As always, a lot of diligent Archivists Lynn Gamma, Ronald XP-55 Ascender more accurate than it
research has provided the realis- Myers, Dennis Case, Joe Caver, otherwise could have been.
tic underpinnings for this latest and Milton Steele provided invalu- * * *
version of Microsoft Combat Flight able assistance in guiding us to
Simulator. In addition to review- documents and photos that have Pima Air and Space Museum, Tucson,
ing some of the huge volume of made a significant contribution to Arizona, USA.
published materials documenting the depth, realism, and atmosphere The Pima Air and Space museum
the WWII air war (see Recommended of CFS3. maintains an enormous fleet of air-
Reading in this handbook for a craft and related documentation,
* * *
sampling), we visited archive including an international archive
and museum venues to conduct The Me 262 Project, Everett, of data on the B-26 Marauder.
research, ensuring that Combat Washington, USA. Archivist Stephanie Mitchell has
Flight Simulator remains “as real We had the rare opportunity to been extremely helpful in providing
as it gets.” We thank the following see, photograph, and record the first access to copies of Marauder wind
organizations and people for their of the Me 262 Project’s newly built tunnel and flight test data, the B-26
assistance. replicas of this historic aircraft. erection and maintenance manual,
Our thanks to Jim Byron, and Bob pilot reports, and other details
* * *
Hammer, and Chief Pilot Wolfgang that help make our Marauder “as real
Air Force Historical Research Czaia for providing access and as it gets” in CFS3.
Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, USA. information that helped us model our * * *
Located on Maxwell Air Force own simulated Me 262 for CFS3.
Base in Montgomery, Alabama, the Museum of Flight, Seattle,
* * * Washington, USA.
Air Force Historical Research
Agency (AFHRA) is the primary Kalamazoo Aviation History Museum, Craig Spencer, Jennifer
repository of Air Force historical Kalamazoo, Michigan, USA. Hawkins, and the Restoration Staff
materials. This archive contains This museum is currently of the Museum of Flight have pro-
some 70,000,000 pages of original restoring one of the Curtiss XP-55 vided access to their archive, and
Air Force documents dating back to Ascender prototypes. Registrar have put us in touch with a number
1918, including WWII-era unit his- Bill Painter and Executive Director of veteran pilots, including mem-
tories, combat reports, and period Robert Ellis provided some rare bers of “Pappy” Boyington’s “Black
photos. The AFHRA also authors and reference material on this exotic Sheep.” Information and input from
translates historical studies on aircraft, including copies of the these resources have been instru-
many aspects of military aviation, original flight and erection manual mental in our efforts to accurately
including the WWII air war. and maintenance manuals. Their help model WWII aircraft and their flight
has made our modeling of the Curtiss characteristics.
* * *
- 30 -
Subject: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our Historical Advisors And on April 12, 1945 he shot down German retreat up the Italian boot)
No WWII flight simulation can be a long-nosed Fw 190D. For these and in Belgium early in 1945. His
complete without input from those achievements he was awarded the primary missions were to intercept
who flew the real thing, and we have Distinguished Flying Cross. Retired German nocturnal air activity, and
been fortunate to recruit the fol- but still vigorous, Jack lives to stop road and rail movement of
lowing two veteran aviators as his- in Rotorua, New Zealand, where he enemy troops and equipment. After
torical advisors. enjoys boating, water skiing, and the war Al became a test pilot with
* * * an occasional flight (now as a pas- Boeing and rose to become Chief
senger) with local pilots. Pilot of Flight Crew Training.
Jack Stafford left his native
New Zealand in January 1943, and
J. Seal Photo
was assigned to the RAF’s 486 (New
- 31 -
Subject: RECOMMENDED READING
Recommended Reading
Case Studies in the Development into the life of a Thunderbolt Army/Air Operations (1) General
of Close Air Support, ed. Benjamin fighter-bomber pilot in the thick Principles and Organization (British
Franklin Cooling. Washington, D.C.: of the European campaign, from D-Day War Office, 26/GS Publications/
Office of Air Force History, United to the end of the war. What makes 1127, 1944).
States Air Force, 1990. Aanenson’s account so compelling This wartime publication sum-
This Air Force University pub- is its modest, yet resolute tone marizes the British view of air-
lication contains a series of stud- in narrating dramatic and danger- ground teamwork, and provides a
ies on the evolution and techniques ous events. His humanity and his clear understanding of tactical air
of close air support. Its chapters sense of duty combined to make this objectives, especially when read
on Sicily and Italy and the battle thoughtful man a veteran who still in conjunction with its American
for France during WWII provide a struggles with some of his war- counterpart, War Department Field
short but comprehensive view of the time experiences. For more informa- Manual FM 100-20: Command and
tactics and techniques that made tion on Aanenson, or to acquire a Employment of Air Power (21 July
close air support a vital ingredient copy of this documentary, see http: 1943), described below.
of the Allied victory. //pages.prodigy.com/fighterpilot/.
* * *
* * * * * *
Aanenson, Quentin, A Fighter Pilot’s Air-Ground Teamwork on the Western
Story. Produced in association with Front: The Role of the XIX Tactical
WETA-TV, Washington, D.C. Air Command During August 1944.
(An Interim Report Published by
This 1994 PBS documentary pro-
Headquarters, Army Air Forces,
vides a harrowing three-hour look
Washington, D.C., Office of the
Assistant Chief of Air Staff,
- 32 -
Subject: RECOMMENDED READING
Colgan, Bill, World War II Girbig, Werner, Six Months to Hughes, Thomas A., Over Lord:
Fighter-Bomber Pilot. Manhattan, Oblivion: The Defeat of the General Pete Quesada and the
KS: Sunflower Press, 1988. Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Triumph of Tactical Air Power
Colgan’s account of a Western Front, 1944/1945. Atglen, in World War II. New York: Crown
Thunderbolt fighter-bomber pilot’s PA: Schiffer Publishing, Ltd., 1991. Press, 1995.
duties in Italy and Southern France Girbig’s history of the Hughes’ biography of General
dramatically depicts the special Luftwaffe’s final months in WWII “Pete” Quesada provides a detailed
dangers of flying close air support. throws a dramatic light on pilots analysis of the contribution his
* * * who fought on against all odds, IX Tactical Air Command made to
culminating with an exhaustive Allied victory. Its account of the
Galland, Adolf, The First and the account of the disastrous Operation momentous events of 1944 and 1945
Last: The Rise and Fall of the Bodenplatte on New Year’s Day, 1945. and the role of tactical air power
German Fighter Forces, 1938-1945. in shaping those events provides a
New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1954. * * *
helpful perspective on the workings
Galland’s history of the German Hallion, Richard P., Strike from the of the Allied air-ground team.
fighter forces gives a glimpse into Sky: The History of Battlefield Air
Attack, 1911-1945. Washington, D.C.: * * *
the workings of the Luftwaffe fighter
force during its best and worst Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. Rust, Kenn C., The 9th Air Force in
times. It also chronicles, in highly Hallion’s study of battlefield World War II. Fallbrook, CA: Aero
readable fashion, the career of this air attack puts the tactical air war Publishers, 1967.
104-victory ace, who survived many a world of CFS3 into historical per- Rust provides a comprehensive
scrape and lived to tell the tale. spective. Starting with the earli- look at the workings of this key
* * * est examples of the tactical use of tactical air force and its partici-
aircraft, it traces the development pation in the battle for France.
of this technique from its begin- * * *
nings as a novelty and sideshow to
Air Force Historical Research Agency Photo
its WWII high point as an essential Shaw, Robert L., Fighter Combat
and war-winning component of the Tactics and Maneuvering. Annapolis:
air-ground team. Naval Institute Press, 1985.
Many consider Shaw’s textbook
* * *
on fighter tactics to be the bible
for those who seek combat success
in aircraft, either real or simu-
lated.
* * *
- 33 -
Subject: RECOMMENDED READING
Sortehaug, Paul, The Wild Winds: The Spick, Mike, The Ace Factor: Air War Department Field Manual
History of Number 486 RNZAF Fighter Combat and the Role of Situational FM 100-20: Command and Employment
Squadron with the RAF. Dunedin, NZ: Awareness. Annapolis: Naval of Air Power (U.S. War Department,
Otago University Press, 1998. Institute Press, 1988. 21 July 1943).
Through interviews and pho- In this study Mike Spick This document sums up what the
tographs Sortehaug brings to life focuses on a key factor for fighter U.S. Army Air Force had learned
the history of this aggressive team pilot success: maintaining a con- about air power and its application
of New Zealand Tempest pilots and stant awareness of an ever-chang- up to the middle of WWII. It pro-
their contribution to Allied success ing situation and reacting to the vides an invaluable understanding
in the air war over Europe. Jack threats and opportunities of the of USAAF objectives and the tech-
Stafford, one of our Combat Flight moment. niques used to attain them.
Simulator historical advisors, flew * * * * * *
Hawker Tempests in 486 Squadron, and
some of his most colorful experi- Spick, Mike, Allied Fighter Aces
ences are narrated here. of World War II: The Air Combat
Tactics and Techniques of World War
* * * II. London: Greenhill Books, and
- 34 -
Subject: RECOMMENDED READING
Wilt, Dr. Alan F., Coming of Age: The “Osprey Aircraft of the Weal, John, Bf 109 F/G/K Aces on
XIX TAC’s Roles During the 1944 Aces” series, which includes the the Western Front. (Osprey Aircraft
Dash Across France. http://www.air following volumes: of the Aces, vol. 29). London:
power.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/ Morgan, Hugh, and Weal, John, German Osprey Publishing, 1999.
aureview/1985/mar-apr/wilt.html Jet Aces of World War 2 (Osprey Weal, John, Focke-Wulf Fw 190
Dr. Wilt prepared this study Aircraft of the Aces, vol. 17). Aces of the Western Front (Osprey
for the Air War College, Maxwell London: Osprey Publishing, 1998. Aircraft of the Aces, vol. 9).
AFB, Alabama. Focusing on Patton’s Price, Alfred, Late Marque Spitfire London: Osprey Publishing, 1996.
dash across France, supported by Aces 1942-45 (Osprey Aircraft of This series, published by
Gen. O.P. Weyland’s XIX Tactical Air the Aces, vol. 5). London: Osprey London-based Osprey Publishing,
Command, it clarifies the missions Publishing, 1995. includes a volume on the aces
and doctrines that defined the his- who flew every major fighter air-
Scutts, Jerry, Mustang Aces of the
toric success of XIX in the crucial craft in each theater of WWII.
Ninth & Fifteenth Air Forces & the
months of August and September, The authors are leading experts
RAF (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces,
1944. who have published numerous titles,
vol. 7). London: Osprey Publishing,
* * * 1998. and each volume includes excel-
Smith, J.R. and Kay, A.L., German lent drawings, photos, and color
Scutts, Jerry, P-47 Thunderbolt Aces
Aircraft of the Second World War. plates of the unique aircraft
of the ETO/MTO. (Osprey Aircraft of
Baltimore: The Nautical and Aviation flown by individual aces. These are
the Aces, vol. 24). London: Osprey
Publishing Company of America, 1972. great reference books, except that
Publishing, 1998.
they lack an index, so expect your
Swanborough, F.G. and Bowers, P., Scutts, Jerry, P-47 Thunderbolt copies to become well-thumbed as
United States Military Aircraft Aces of the Ninth and Fifteenth you discover, and rediscover, key
Since 1909. Washington, D.C.: Air Forces. (Osprey Aircraft of information.
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. the Aces, vol. 30). London: Osprey
* * *
Thetford, Owen, Aircraft of Publishing, 1999.
the Royal Air Force Since 1918. Stanaway, John, P-38 Lightning Aces
- 35 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
Glossary
A airspeed: The rate at which an air- altimeter: A highly sensitive
AA, AAA: Antiaircraft fire, antiair- craft moves through the surrounding barometer which shows an aircraft’s
craft artillery. air. Pilots use several types of altitude above mean sea level by
abschuss: (German) A fighter victory; airspeed during flight. For example, measuring atmospheric pressure.
literally a “shoot down.” indicated airspeed (IAS) is the angle of attack: The angle between
speed shown on the airspeed indi- the wing and the oncoming airflow--
Abschwung: (Luftwaffe) An evasion
cator (usually in knots). Pilots the relative wind. The angle of
maneuver allowing a pilot under
use IAS to control an aircraft and attack is related to the direction
attack to reverse direction, trad-
manage its performance. Calibrated in which an aircraft is moving, not
ing altitude for speed. Consists of
airspeed (CAS) is IAS corrected for to the angle the wing makes with
a half-roll followed by a half loop.
instrument and installation error. the horizon. As angle of attack
(USAAF) Split-S. (RAF) Half-roll.
True airspeed (TAS) is IAS corrected increases, so does the amount of
Can also be used to attack an air-
for changes in atmospheric tempera- lift a wing produces.
craft flying in the opposite direc-
ture and pressure. Pilots use TAS
tion at a lower altitude. Ami: (German) Slang for American.
to solve navigation problems.
ace: Since WWI, a pilot who has shot angels: Altitude expressed in thou-
down at least five enemy aircraft. sands of feet.
aerodrome: (RAF) An airfield or air- Anzac: (British Commonwealth) A
- 36 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
- 37 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
combat box: (USAAF) A large, mutu- division: (USAAF) 16 aircraft (two finger four: (RAF) A four-aircraft
ally defensive heavy bomber forma- eight-plane sections). formation. (Luftwaffe) Schwarm.
tion, generally consisting of 18, Do 335: A Dornier “Pfeil” twin- (USAAF) Flight.
27, 36, or 54 aircraft; devised by engine fighter. firewall: The partition immedi-
Curtis LeMay. ately aft of the engine. Opening
dumbo: An air-sea rescue aircraft.
crate: (USAAF) Slang for plane. the throttle to maximum position is
“going to the firewall.”
E
D element: (USAAF) A two-plane for-
“fish”: (U.S.) Slang for a torpedo.
D-Day: (USAAF, before the Allied flak: Antiaircraft fire; acronym from
mation; equivalent of the German
invasion of Europe 6/6/44) The the German FlugAbwehrKanonen. Light
Rotte.
planned day on which a major flak batteries might consist of mul-
elevators: Movable control sur- tiple 20- to 40-mm cannon. Heavy
operation was to be launched (at
faces on an aircraft’s horizontal flak guns ranged from 75 to 150 mm,
“H-Hour”). After the success-
tail surface that control its pitch throwing shells that exploded above
ful invasion, D-Day came to mean
(nose-up or nose-down attitude). 20,000 feet, spraying out 15-30
the famous Sixth of June, when the
Allies landed in France. ETA: Estimated Time of Arrival. pounds of steel shrapnel.
dead reckoning: The navigation of ETD: Estimated Time of Departure. flaps: Movable control surfaces
an airplane solely by computations ETO: European Theater of Operations. on the inner trailing edge of an
based on airspeed, course, heading, aircraft’s wings that increase lift
wind direction and speed, ground when deployed, usually for takeoff
speed, and elapsed time. The term
F or landing.
derives from “deduced” reckoning. feathering: Aligning stopped propel- flare: To pull back on the stick
Also known as “ded reckoning.” ler blades with flight path to reduce just prior to landing. Flaring
drag and stop rotation. bleeds off airspeed and makes sure
deadstick: A powerless landing.
fighter group: (RAF) A fighter orga- your rear wheel touches first. In
“the deck”: Ground (or sea) level;
nization consisting of ~350 fighter carrier landings, flaring also helps
the surface over which you are
aircraft, about 20 squadrons. put your tail hook low enough to
flying.
(USAAF) 48 fighter aircraft. catch the cable.
deflection: The angle of a target
fighter sweep: (RAF) An offensive “flat-hatting”: (U.S.) Making very
aircraft relative to the aircraft
sortie without escort responsibili- low, spectacular, unauthorized
shooting at it.
ties. (USAAF) Rodeo. (Luftwaffe) flights; showing off.
dicke Autos: The Luftwaffe code word Freie Jagd (“free chase”). flight: (USAAF) A unit consisting of
for Allied heavy bombers; literally,
four aircraft (two two-plane ele-
“fat cars.”
ments); also called a division.
- 38 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
- 39 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
J K
Jabo: (German) A fighter bomber, from Katschmarek: (German) Slang for
Jagdbomber. wingman, the pilot of the trail-
jackpot: (USAAF) Air-to-ground ing aircraft in a two-plane Rotte
attacks on German airfields. who is required to stick with his
Jagdflieger: (German) A fighter pilot. leader (i.e., following his lead).
Literally, “a dim-witted recruit.” German halftrack with four-barreled 20 mm
Jagdgeschwader: (German) A fighter Flakvierling can ruin a pilot’s day.
unit consisting of ~120 aircraft.
- 40 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
- 41 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
pauke-pauke: (German) The fighter razorback: Describes early ver- rhubarb: (USAAF, RAF) A small-scale
code word for “Attack!” Literally, sions of the P-47 and P-51 fight- harassing fighter operation against
“rat-a-tat.” ers in which the aft fuselage deck ground targets.
Pfeil: (German) “Arrow”; the Dornier rises behind the pilot’s head and roadstead: Operations by fighters,
Do 335 twin-engine fighter. the canopy can provide only limited or bombers escorted by fighters, to
rearward vision. Eventually these attack by dive-bombing or low-level
pitch: An aircraft’s rotation about
were replaced by “bubble canopy” bombing attacks on ships at sea or
its lateral (wing tip to wing tip)
versions in which the aft fuselage in harbor.
axis, determining its nose-up or
deck was cut down to the level of
nose-down attitude; controlled by rockoon: RAF pilot slang for a
the pilot’s shoulders.
the elevators. rocket-firing Hawker Typhoon.
relative wind: The speed and direc-
pitot tube: A small metal probe, rodeo: (USAAF) Offensive sortie
tion of air striking an airfoil;
usually attached to an aircraft’s without escort responsibilities,
that is, the air flow caused by
wing, that measures ram air pres- used to draw up enemy fighters.
an aircraft or airfoil’s movement
sure. This data is used to calcu- (RAF) Fighter sweep. (German) Freie
through the air.
late aircraft speed. The pitot tube Jagd (“free chase”).
usually has a heater to prevent ice revetment: A horseshoe-shaped
roll: An aircraft’s rotation about
from blocking the device. (Named embankment used for protecting
its longitudinal (nose to tail)
after Henri Pitot (1695-1771), parked aircraft against bomb blasts.
axis, controlled by the ailerons.
a French scientist.) See also: bank.
POW: Prisoner of War. Rotte: (German) A minimum fighting
PSP: Pierced Steel Planking, also unit of two aircraft; leader and
- 42 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
- 43 -
Subject: GLOSSARY
- 44 -